Social Development Theory (Lev

Vygotsky)
Overview

The major theme of

Vygotsky’s theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental
role in the development of cognition. Vygotsky (1978) states: “Every function in
the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later,
on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside
the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to
logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions
originate as actual relationships between individuals.” (p57).

A second aspect of Vygotsky’s theory is the idea that the potential for cognitive
development depends upon the “zone of proximal development” (ZPD): a level of
development attained when children engage in social behavior. Full development
of the ZPD depends upon full social interaction. The range of skill that can be
developed with adult guidance or peer collaboration exceeds what can be
attained alone.

Vygotsky’s theory was an attempt to explain consciousness as the end product of

socialization. For example, in the learning of language, our first utterances with
peers or adults are for the purpose of communication but once mastered they
become internalized and allow “inner speech”.

Vygotsky’s theory is complementary to Bandura’s work on social learning and a

key component of situated learning theory as well. Because Vygotsky’s focus
was on cognitive development, it is interesting to compare his views with those
a constructivist (Bruner) and a genetic epistemologist(Piaget).
Application
This is a general theory of cognitive development. Most of the original work was
done in the context of language learning in children (Vygotsky, 1962), although
later applications of the framework have been broader (see Wertsch, 1985).

Example
Vygotsky (1978, p56) provides the example of pointing a finger. Initially, this
behavior begins as a meaningless grasping motion; however, as people react to
the gesture, it becomes a movement that has meaning. In particular, the pointing
gesture represents an interpersonal connection between individuals.

Principles
1. Cognitive development is limited to a certain range at any given age.
2. Full cognitive development requires social interaction.

Lev Vygotsky – Sociocultural Theory of

Cognitive Development
Last Updated July 11, 2020 By Serhat Kurt

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian teacher who is considered a pioneer in learning in

social contexts. As a psychologist, he was also the first to examine how our social interactions
influence our cognitive growth. He was convinced that learning occurred through interactions
with others in our communities: peers, adults, teachers, and other mentors. Vygotsky sought to
understand how people learn in a social environment and created a unique theory on social
learning. He determined that teachers have the ability to control many factors in an educational
setting, including tasks, behaviors, and responses. As a result, he encouraged more interactive
activities to promote cognitive growth, such as productive discussions, constructive feedback,
and collaboration with others. Vygotsky also stated that culture was a primary determinant of
knowledge acquisition. He argued that children learn from the beliefs and attitudes modeled by
their culture.

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

See also: Andragogy Theory – Malcolm Knowles

Vygotsky had a groundbreaking theory that language was the basis of learning. His
points included the argument that language supports other activities such as reading
and writing. In addition, he claimed that logic, reasoning, and reflective thinking were all
possible as a result of language. This led to the development of instructional
strategies to support growth in literacy as well as a reassessment of the classroom
setup. Teachers were to encourage leadership in the classroom, collaborative learning,
and thoughtful discussions. With the exception of independent tasks, which were also
included, the goal was to create purposeful, meaningful exchanges between students.
The role of the teacher was to facilitate learning by directing the dialogue and confirming
contributions in an effort to further motivate the students.

See also: Social Learning Theory: Albert Bandura

The primary role of the teacher in the educational context is to act as a facilitator for
learning. Guided exchanges, comprehensive discussions, and the creation of an
engaging community are valuable strategies for cognitive development. Many educators
have incorporated Vygotsky’s ideas of social connection and small group learning in the
classroom in an effort to see more growth.

See also: Inclusive Teaching Strategies

Fundamentally, Vygotsky recognized that social settings and learning were closely
entwined. Therefore one must identify and implement strategies that are effective in a
social context. It is also important to note that the culture of each individual is created by
their unique strengths, language, and prior experience. One of the ways that students
gain knowledge is when they collaborate with their peers or mentors on activities that
involve problem-solving skills and real-life tasks.

Cognitive Development and the Social World

Vygotsky maintained that the social world is not only the interactions between peers and
their teacher but also consisted of outside influences within the community. Prior
knowledge, such as learned behaviors at home, impact learning in the classroom
environment. As such, Vygotsky outlined three main concepts related to cognitive
development: (i) culture is significant in learning, (ii) language is the root of culture,
and (iii) individuals learn and develop within their role in the community. Culture can be
defined as the morals, values, and beliefs of its community members, which are held in
place with systems and establishments. Acceptable attitudes and conduct are
communicated by the use of language. Culture is shaped over time as the result of
specific events, whose messages are then conveyed to its members. Vygotsky
explained that culture consistently affects cognitive development by affecting human
behavior. He wanted others to realize that there is a complex relationship between
culture and human development. It is a cycle; at the same time that the culture is
influencing an individual, that individual is in turn creating culture.

See also: Massive open online courses (MOOCs), Definitions

Vygotsky used the stages of childhood development to further explain the relationship
between culture and learning. As a baby, you display elementary functions designed for
your survival: crying, a sense of your mother’s scent, and familiar voices. These
displays gradually fade out as a result of external stimuli: imitating, consequences, and
conditioning by others. It is replaced with problem-solving skills such as reflection,
bargaining, and reasoning. This higher-level thinking is influenced by cultural factors.
The values and beliefs of a community, including models of acceptable behavior, create
pressure for others to adopt the preferred attitudes and protocol of that society.
Etiquette is communicated orally and by example.

Language is the basis of Vygotsky’s ideas on social interaction. The development of

speech occurs in three stages: external, egocentric, and inner speech. External or
social speech occurs from birth until the age of three. Babies use language to
communicate their feelings, express their emotions, and share simple words. They use
language to state their needs and also respond to their parent’s speech. You can begin
to see the social influence on behavior as early as this stage based on the reactions to
their demands. Even though babies use language to control their needs, the people
around them express approval or disapproval based on their behavior. This leads to
cognitive development within the individual. The next stage, egocentric speech, occurs
between the ages of three and seven. As they begin to rationalize internally their actions
or behavior, children begin to talk to themselves. This inner speech helps them control
their reasoning and organize their thoughts. They continue to interpret meaning from the
reactions of others, further integrating the cultural beliefs into their own cognitive
development. Without language, Vygotsky believed that we would be limited to a more
primitive function. Language is ultimately the tool by which we communicate the desired
behaviors and therefore enable the development of a society and its culture.

See also: ADDIE Model: Instructional Design

Similar to inner speech is the idea of internalization. Internalization should not be

confused with introjection, which involves minimal participation from the individual
themselves. It is the conditioning put forth by others, for example, the consequences or
reactions toward a behavior. Internalization is where the cognitive development of an
individual is influenced by society as they adopt the morals and ethics of a community
for themselves. They begin to view their culture’s beliefs as their own. Internalization
should not be confused with socialization, where individuals develop attitudes due to a
need to belong to a community and not the actual obligation to do so. In Vygotsky’s
theory, internalization was important to social development. We can observe key skills
develop on the social level then again within an individual as they internalize cultural
influences. External influences are adopted as intrapersonal characteristics throughout
the internalization process.

See also: Kirkpatrick Model: Four Levels of Learning Evaluation

It is important to note that the education system influences the thoughts and belief
systems of the children within. One’s teachers and peers directly affect cognitive
development by the language they use and the interpretations they offer of cultural
events. While Piaget believed that a child builds a unique view of the world, Vygotsky
suggested that others within a child’s social circle influence their perspectives, values,
and attitudes. Individuals are actively engaging within their learning environments,
continuously analyzing the reactions of others and modifying their responses as they
adopt or reject accepted standards as their own. Both learning and culture are
depended on the other: individuals are constantly determining what is acceptable in
society, and the environment is continuously confirming what would be considered
appropriate behavior. Vygotsky states that it is the combination of cultural influences
and genetics that create one’s personality.

Secondly, Vygotsky specified that the conclusions should be made based on the
behavior of a student in a social setting. He did not place emphasis on intelligence itself.
Instead, Vygotsky proposed the idea of the zone of proximal development, which
distinguishes between what a child is able to accomplish independently and what they
achieve under close guidance from a teacher. He maintained that learning occurred in
the presence of tasks specific to the child’s current ability under the supervision of a
more competent person. In order to capitalize on this growth, Vygotsky encouraged
testing based on the social context. He disagreed with the notion of independent
intelligence assessments, preferring to focus on the potential of each student within the
learning environment. The zone of proximal development is affected by the unique
attributes of each individual, including personality, self-regulation, and previous
knowledge. As the zone of proximal development cannot be clearly defined, it is
challenging to explain the link between social interaction and learning. It does, however,
support the argument for a more student-centered education system as well as the
many factors that can influence potential outcomes.

Criticisms of Vygotsky
1. Observation and testing
Vygotsky’s theories have been heavily criticized for his lack of experimental tests. He
relied widely on observation of his subjects to prove his findings as he believed that
social interaction was a key factor to learning. His vague definition of social interaction,
in which failed to state the best methods to engage with others, allowed the criticisms to
continue even after his death.

2. Active participation in the acquisition of knowledge

While some philosophers assume that learning occurs naturally and fluidly, Vygotsky
believed that leaners actively engage in the acquisition of knowledge. The criticism of
Vygotsky’s theory is that it does not account for the slower rate of cognitive growth in
some children. Both genetics and passive experience are thought to play some role as
well.

3. Societal Influences
Criticisms about the vagueness of his theories are not limited to just the acquisition of
knowledge. Others were also critical about Vygotsky’s theory of language, which stated
that learning comes from cultural influences. Vygotsky minimized the role of genetics
and instead highlighted socialization as key to language learning. Although it is possible
that Vygotsky just never elaborated on his theory in his lifetime, some observations are
detrimental to his work. Even with consistent social support, some children are never
able to develop cognitively until a certain age. Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist,
conducted a systemic study of cognitive development that offers some answers where
Vygotsky could not. Piaget observed that children’s learning occurred in stages, and
they needed to reach the next stage, or milestone before they could understand some
concepts.
4. Lack of Cultural Relevance
Even assessing Vygotsky’s theory as a whole proved to be problematic. Vygotsky’s
theory revolves around the idea that social interaction is central to learning. This means
the assumption must be made that all societies are the same, which is incorrect.
Vygotsky emphasized the concept of instructional scaffolding, which allows the learned
to build connections based on social interactions. In reality, only some learning activities
place an emphasis on language, while other skills are acquired instead with hands-on
practice and observation.

5. Guided Learning: Zone of Proximal Development

One of the most important aspects of Vygotsky’s theory is also criticized: the Zone of
Proximal Development. It is viewed as an attempt to make Piaget’s theories trendy by
rewording his ideas and presenting them in an alternate way. The concept of the zone
of proximal development is not well understood and is criticized as an “umbrella term”
under which many models of cognitive development could fall.

Overall, Piaget’s work has been more heavily scrutinized than Vygotsky’s. This is due to
the ambiguous nature of Vygotsky’s theories, which make them difficult to test and
measure. In addition to these challenges, Vygotsky’s work needs to be translated from
Russian, which is time-consuming in itself.

EXPLAIN THE RATIONALE OF VYGOSKYS THEORY

Lev Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

By Saul McLeod, updated 2020

The work of Lev Vygotsky (1934) has become the foundation of much research and
theory in cognitive development over the past several decades, particularly of what has
become known as sociocultural theory.
Sociocultural theory views human development as a socially mediated process in
which children acquire their cultural values, beliefs, and problem-solving strategies
through collaborative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society.
Vygotsky's theories stress the fundamental role of social interaction in the development
of cognition (Vygotsky, 1978), as he believed strongly that community plays a central
role in the process of "making meaning."
Unlike Piaget's notion that childrens' development must necessarily precede their
learning, Vygotsky argued, "learning is a necessary and universal aspect of the process
of developing culturally organized, specifically human psychological function" (1978, p.
90).  In other words, social learning tends to precede (i.e., come before) development.
Vygotsky has developed a sociocultural approach to cognitive development. He
developed his theories at around the same time as Jean Piaget was starting to develop
his ideas (1920's and 30's), but he died at the age of 38, and so his theories are
incomplete - although some of his writings are still being translated from Russian.
No single principle (such as Piaget's equilibration) can account for development.
Individual development cannot be understood without reference to the social and
cultural context within which it is embedded. Higher mental processes in the individual
have their origin in social processes.

Vygotsky's theory differs from that of Piaget

in a number of important ways:

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Lev Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory video

1: Vygotsky places more emphasis on culture affecting cognitive

development.
This contradicts Piaget's view of universal stages and content of development (Vygotsky
does not refer to stages in the way that Piaget does).
Hence Vygotsky assumes cognitive development varies across cultures, whereas
Piaget states cognitive development is mostly universal across cultures.

2: Vygotsky places considerably more emphasis on social

factors contributing to cognitive development.
(i) Vygotsky states the importance of cultural and social context for learning. Cognitive
development stems from social interactions from guided learning within the zone of
proximal development as children and their partner's co-construct knowledge. In
contrast, Piaget maintains that cognitive development stems largely from independent
explorations in which children construct knowledge of their own.
(ii) For Vygotsky, the environment in which children grow up will influence how they
think and what they think about.

3: Vygotsky places more (and different) emphasis on the role of

language in cognitive development.
According to Piaget, language depends on thought for its development (i.e., thought
comes before language). For Vygotsky, thought and language are initially separate
systems from the beginning of life, merging at around three years of age, producing
verbal thought (inner speech).
For Vygotsky, cognitive development results from an internalization of language.

4: According to Vygotsky adults are an important source of

cognitive development.
Adults transmit their culture's tools of intellectual adaptation that children internalize. In
contrast, Piaget emphasizes the importance of peers, as peer interaction promotes
social perspective taking.

Effects of Culture: - Tools of intellectual

adaptation
Vygotsky claimed that infants are born with the basic abilities for intellectual
development called 'elementary mental functions' (Piaget focuses on motor reflexes and
sensory abilities).
Elementary mental functions include –
o Attention
o Sensation
o Perception
o Memory
Eventually, through interaction within the sociocultural environment, these are
developed into more sophisticated and effective mental processes which Vygotsky
refers to as 'higher mental functions.'
Each culture provides its children tools of intellectual adaptation that allow them to use
the basic mental functions more effectively/adaptively.
Tools of intellectual adaptation is Vygotsky’s term for methods of thinking and
problem-solving strategies that children internalize through social interactions with
the more knowledgeable members of society.
For example, memory in young children this is limited by biological factors. However,
culture determines the type of memory strategy we develop.  For example, in western
culture, children learn note-taking to aid memory, but in pre-literate societies, other
strategies must be developed, such as tying knots in a string to remember, or carrying
pebbles, or repetition of the names of ancestors until large numbers can be repeated.
Vygotsky, therefore, sees cognitive functions, even those carried out alone, as affected
by the beliefs, values, and tools of intellectual adaptation of the culture in which a
person develops and therefore socio-culturally determined. The tools of intellectual
adaptation, therefore, vary from culture to culture - as in the memory example.

Social Influences on Cognitive Development

Like Piaget, Vygotsky believes that young children are curious and actively involved in
their own learning and the discovery and development of new understandings/schema. 
However, Vygotsky placed more emphasis on social contributions to the process of
development, whereas Piaget emphasized self-initiated discovery.
According to Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child occurs through
social interaction with a skillful tutor. The tutor may model behaviors and/or provide
verbal instructions for the child. Vygotsky refers to this as cooperative or collaborative
dialogue. The child seeks to understand the actions or instructions provided by the tutor
(often the parent or teacher) then internalizes the information, using it to guide or
regulate their own performance.

Shaffer (1996) gives the example of a young girl who is given her first jigsaw. Alone,
she performs poorly in attempting to solve the puzzle. The father then sits with her and
describes or demonstrates some basic strategies, such as finding all the corner/edge
pieces and provides a couple of pieces for the child to put together herself and offers
encouragement when she does so.
As the child becomes more competent, the father allows the child to work more
independently. According to Vygotsky, this type of social interaction involving
cooperative or collaborative dialogue promotes cognitive development.
In order to gain an understanding of Vygotsky's theories on cognitive development, one
must understand two of the main principles of Vygotsky's work: the More
Knowledgeable Other (MKO) and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).

More Knowledgeable Other

The more knowledgeable other (MKO) is somewhat self-explanatory; it refers to
someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with
respect to a particular task, process, or concept.
Although the implication is that the MKO is a teacher or an older adult, this is not
necessarily the case. Many times, a child's peers or an adult's children may be the
individuals with more knowledge or experience.
For example, who is more likely to know more about the newest teenage music groups,
how to win at the most recent PlayStation game, or how to correctly perform the newest
dance craze - a child or their parents?
In fact, the MKO need not be a person at all. Some companies, to support employees in
their learning process, are now using electronic performance support systems. 
Electronic tutors have also been used in educational settings to facilitate and guide
students through the learning process. The key to MKOs is that they must have (or be
programmed with) more knowledge about the topic being learned than the learner does.

Zone of Proximal Development

The concept of the More Knowledgeable Other is integrally related to the second
important principle of Vygotsky's work, the Zone of Proximal Development.
This is an important concept that relates to the difference between what a child can
achieve independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and encouragement
from a skilled partner.

For example, the child could not solve the jigsaw puzzle (in the example above) by itself
and would have taken a long time to do so (if at all), but was able to solve it following
interaction with the father, and has developed competence at this skill that will be
applied to future jigsaws.
Vygotsky (1978) sees the Zone of Proximal Development as the area where the most
sensitive instruction or guidance should be given - allowing the child to develop skills
they will then use on their own - developing higher mental functions.
Vygotsky also views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing skills and
strategies.  He suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises where less
competent children develop with help from more skillful peers - within the zone of
proximal development.

Evidence for Vygotsky and the ZPD

Freund (1990) conducted a study in which children had to decide which items of
furniture should be placed in particular areas of a dolls house.
Some children were allowed to play with their mother in a similar situation before they
attempted it alone (zone of proximal development) while others were allowed to work on
this by themselves (Piaget's discovery learning). 
Freund found that those who had previously worked with their mother (ZPD) showed the
greatest improvement compared with their first attempt at the task.  The conclusion
being that guided learning within the ZPD led to greater understanding/performance
than working alone (discovery learning).

Vygotsky and Language

Vygotsky believed that language develops from social interactions, for communication
purposes. Vygotsky viewed language as man’s greatest tool, a means for
communicating with the outside world.
According to Vygotsky (1962) language plays two critical roles in cognitive
development:
1: It is the main means by which adults transmit information to children.
2: Language itself becomes a very powerful tool of intellectual adaptation.
Vygotsky (1987) differentiates between three forms of language: social speech which is
external communication used to talk to others (typical from the age of two); private
speech (typical from the age of three) which is directed to the self and serves an
intellectual function; and finally private speech goes underground, diminishing in
audibility as it takes on a self-regulating function and is transformed into silent inner
speech (typical from the age of seven).
For Vygotsky, thought and language are initially separate systems from the beginning of
life, merging at around three years of age. At this point speech and thought become
interdependent: thought becomes verbal, speech becomes representational. When this
happens, children's monologues internalized to become inner speech. The
internalization of language is important as it drives cognitive development.
'Inner speech is not the interiour aspect of external speech - it is a function in itself. It
still remains speech, i.e., thought connected with words. But while in external
speech thought is embodied in words, in inner speech words dies as they bring forth
thought. Inner speech is to a large extent thinking in pure meanings.'
(Vygotsky, 1962: p. 149)
Vygotsky (1987) was the first psychologist to document the importance of private
speech. He considered private speech as the transition point between social and inner
speech, the moment in development where language and thought unite to constitute
verbal thinking.
Thus private speech, in Vygotsky's view, was the earliest manifestation of inner speech.
Indeed, private speech is more similar (in its form and function) to inner speech than
social speech.
Private speech is 'typically defined, in contrast to social speech, as speech
addressed to the self (not to others) for the purpose of self-regulation (rather than
communication).' (Diaz, 1992, p.62)
Unlike inner speech which is covert (i.e., hidden), private speech is overt. In contrast to
Piaget’s (1959) notion of private speech representing a developmental dead-end,
Vygotsky (1934, 1987) viewed private speech as:
'A revolution in development which is triggered when preverbal thought and
preintellectual language come together to create fundamentally new forms of mental
functioning.'
(Fernyhough & Fradley, 2005: p. 1).
In addition to disagreeing on the functional significance of private speech, Vygotsky and
Piaget also offered opposing views on the developmental course of private speech and
the environmental circumstances in which it occurs most often (Berk & Garvin, 1984).

Through private speech, children begin to collaborate with themselves in the same way
a more knowledgeable other (e.g., adults) collaborate with them in the achievement of a
given function.
Vygotsky sees "private speech" as a means for children to plan activities and strategies
and therefore aid their development. Private speech is the use of language for self-
regulation of behavior. Language is, therefore, an accelerator to thinking/understanding
(Jerome Bruner also views language in this way). Vygotsky believed that children who
engaged in large amounts of private speech are more socially competent than children
who do not use it extensively.
Vygotsky (1987) notes that private speech does not merely accompany a child’s activity
but acts as a tool used by the developing child to facilitate cognitive processes, such as
overcoming task obstacles, enhancing imagination, thinking, and conscious awareness.
Children use private speech most often during intermediate difficulty tasks because they
are attempting to self-regulate by verbally planning and organizing their thoughts
(Winsler et al., 2007).
The frequency and content of private speech are then correlated with behavior or
performance. For example, private speech appears to be functionally related to
cognitive performance: It appears at times of difficulty with a task.
For example, tasks related to executive function (Fernyhough & Fradley, 2005),
problem-solving tasks (Behrend et al., 1992), schoolwork in both language (Berk &
Landau, 1993), and mathematics (Ostad & Sorensen, 2007).
Berk (1986) provided empirical support for the notion of private speech. She found that
most private speech exhibited by children serves to describe or guide the child's
actions.
Berk also discovered than child engaged in private speech more often when working
alone on challenging tasks and also when their teacher was not immediately available
to help them. Furthermore, Berk also found that private speech develops similarly in all
children regardless of cultural background.
Vygotsky (1987) proposed that private speech is a product of an individual’s social
environment. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that there exist high positive
correlations between rates of social interaction and private speech in children.
Children raised in cognitively and linguistically stimulating environments (situations
more frequently observed in higher socioeconomic status families) start using and
internalizing private speech faster than children from less privileged backgrounds.
Indeed, children raised in environments characterized by low verbal and social
exchanges exhibit delays in private speech development.
Childrens’ use of private speech diminishes as they grow older and follows a curvilinear
trend. This is due to changes in ontogenetic development whereby children are able to
internalize language (through inner speech) in order to self-regulate their behavior
(Vygotsky, 1987).
For example, research has shown that childrens’ private speech usually peaks at 3–4
years of age, decreases at 6–7 years of age, and gradually fades out to be mostly
internalized by age 10 (Diaz, 1992).
Vygotsky proposed that private speech diminishes and disappears with age not
because it becomes socialized, as Piaget suggested, but rather because it goes
underground to constitute inner speech or verbal thought” (Frauenglass & Diaz, 1985).
Classroom Applications
Vygotsky's approach to child development is a form of social constructivism, based on
the idea that cognitive functions are the products of social interactions.
Vygotsky emphasized the collaborative nature of learning by the construction of
knowledge through social negotiation.
He rejected the assumption made by Piaget that it was possible to separate learning
from its social context.
Vygotsky believed everything is learned on two levels. First, through interaction with
others, and then integrated into the individual’s mental structure.
Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social
level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and
then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention,
to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions
originate as actual relationships between individuals. (Vygotsky, 1978, p.57)
Teaching styles based on constructivism mark a conscious effort to move from
‘traditional, objectivist models didactic, memory-oriented transmission models’ (Cannella
& Reiff, 1994) to a more student-centred approach.
A contemporary educational application of Vygotsky's theory is "reciprocal teaching,"
used to improve students' ability to learn from text. In this method, teachers and
students collaborate in learning and practicing four key skills: summarizing, questioning,
clarifying, and predicting. The teacher's role in the process is reduced over time.
Also, Vygotsky theory of cognitive development on learners is relevant to instructional
concepts such as "scaffolding" and "apprenticeship," in which a teacher or more
advanced peer helps to structure or arrange a task so that a novice can work on it
successfully.
Vygotsky's theories also feed into the current interest in collaborative learning,
suggesting that group members should have different levels of ability so more advanced
peers can help less advanced members operate within their ZPD.

Critical Evaluation
Vygotsky's work has not received the same level of intense scrutiny that Piaget's has,
partly due to the time-consuming process of translating Vygotsky's work from Russian.
Also, Vygotsky's sociocultural perspective does not provide as many specific
hypotheses to test as did Piaget's theory, making refutation difficult, if not impossible.
Perhaps the main criticism of Vygotsky's work concerns the assumption that it is
relevant to all cultures. Rogoff (1990) dismisses the idea that Vygotsky's ideas are
culturally universal and instead states the concept of scaffolding - which is heavily
dependent on verbal instruction - may not be equally useful in all cultures for all types of
learning. Indeed, in some instances, observation and practice may be more effective
ways of learning certain skills.

1. What benefits does the theory explained in terms of studying the development of
children and adolescent in different context

Applications of Vygotsky's Theory to Education

The most important application of Vygotsky's theory to education is in his concept of
a zone of proximal development. This concept is important because teachers can use it
as a guide to a child's development. It allows a teacher t know what a student is able
to achieve through the use of a mediator and thus enables the teacher to help the child
attain that level by themselves.

A second important aspect of Vygotsky's theory is the role of play in his theory.
According to this perspective teachers need to provide children specially young
children, many opportunities to play. Through play, and imagination a child's
conceptual abilities are stretched. Vygotsky argued that play leads to development.
"While imitating their elders in culturally patterned activities, children generate
opportunities for intellectual development. Initially, their games are recollections and
reenactments of real situations; but through the dynamics of their imagination and
recognition of implicit rules governing the activities they have reproduced in their
games children achieve an elementary mastery of abstract thought." (Cole, 1978).

Since language holds a central role in Vygotsky's theory, and is essential to the

development of thinking, the school needs to provide many opportunities that allow
children to reach the third stage of speech, which is inner speech, since it is this stage
which is responsible for all higher levels of functioning.
Two (or more) heads are better than one
Grace Kelly firmly believes that Franklin’s maxim, “Tell me and I forget, teach me and I may
remember, involve me and I will learn” holds true when investigating the benefits of collaborative
learning.
Working together
As a teacher and a teacher mentor, my trainee students often ask me how they can better manage
and facilitate group work and collaborative learning. “When I observe group work, you make it look
so easy” they would often say.
I can fully admit that group work like most teaching skills needs crafting and planning and practice
makes perfect; but, if the old age adage is to be believed, then ‘two heads most certainly are better
than one’ and perseverance will bear fruits.

Collaborative learning teams are said to attain higher-level thinking and preserve information for
longer. But why is this so? Groups tend to learn through discussion, clarification of ideas and
evaluation of others’ ideas. Information that is discussed is retained in long-term memory. It is widely
accepted that we learn approximately 10% of what we read, 20% of what we hear, 30% of what we
see, 50% of what we see and hear, 70% of what we discuss, 80% of what we experience and 95%
of what we teach others. Collaborative learning is vital for enhanced learning in the classroom and
pupils who demonstrate lower levels of achievement improve when working in diverse groups.
Image by JanB13 ! ツ from Pixabay
Vygotsky
Lev Vygotsky (1896 – 1934) was the father of social learning. He was an education rebel in many
ways; controversially he argued for educators to assess a student’s ability to solve problems, rather
than their knowledge acquisition. The idea of collaborative learning has a lot to do with Vygotsy’s
idea of the ‘zone of proximal development’, which considers what a student can do if aided/guided
by peers or adults. By considering this model for learning, we might consider if collaboration
increases student’s awareness of other concepts.
Learning is social in nature. Those who develop good social skills go on to become very successful
in life as they have the ability to deal with people and have a sharper EQ. Using different mediums,
whether it be books, discussions, technology or projects, we study and develop new ideas.
Collaboration is a learned process. If managed correctly, it is a powerful tool that can allow
educators to tap into new ideas and information; it allows for challenge and differentiation, enhanced
confidence and self-esteem as well as strengthening social skills. In short, collaboration is a critical
skill for life.
Personal interaction reaps rewards

In recent years the amount of social interaction between people

has increased with the explosion of social networks like Facebook and Twitter. Many academic
learning platforms have incorporated this type of software to enable collaborative learning. However,
I believe it is even more important that we teach communication and group work at a face to face
classroom level so students do not lose touch of the importance of personal interaction – a vital
aspect of developing the ‘whole child’. 
Image by sharpemtbr from Pixabay
Distributed and collaborative learning with its emphasis on mindfulness, awareness of others, non-
judgemental interactions, acknowledgement of each person’s unique contributions and recognition of
the importance of deep participation, can’t help but foster critical thinking skills and greater
empathetic engagement. Collaborative learning transforms the classroom into a laboratory for
empathic expression and which in turn enriches the educational process and our students on many
different levels. The best teachers foster and encourage an environment of learning from each other.
Building foundations
Before setting out with group work as a classroom ‘norm’, the idea of group work must first be
learned. When introducing critical skills, I take time to establish what are critical skills and as a class
we establish criteria for what successful group work looks like. Students will often suggest: good
listening, everyone having an equal role, everyone pulling their weight, everyone having a specific
job to carry out and contribute. We even go as far as discussing ‘What does good listening look
like?’ Critical skills will be enhanced and developed year on year if taught early in the child’s school
life and collaborative work is an activity that can almost be self-managed by the students, as we
discreetly prepare them for the wider world and world of work.
The jigsaw effect
Some key aspects of collaborative learning that I have found effective are:

 Establishing group goals – in other

words create a success criteria with your class.
 Being mindful of the size of groups; anything over four is verging on too big and harder to
manage.
  Establishing group roles. For example I will give my students cards with a picture of their
role: group leader, time keeper, resource manager and the person to keep the area tidy at
the end and aim to ensure equal participation with the task. Thus emphasising the
Jigsaw effect– the workplace is often like a jigsaw, each person with a different role but
each role being vital to the overall success.
photo by People Creations on Pikwizard
 Building trust and promoting open communication.
 Recording progress. Asking each group what they ‘know’ at the beginning of the
lesson/topic and coming back to it again at the end. Asking them ‘What do you know
now’? You will be amazed at the progress made in groups if managed properly.
 Focusing on enhancing problem solving and critical thinking skills. Allowing them to solve
problems for themselves. Try using ‘Three before me’e. Brain, Partner, Book – Teacher.
 Group diversity- keeping the groups as diverse as possible, you will find each student will
benefit from the dynamics.
 Equal girl/boy ratios tend to work more successfully.
 Teacher serving as a facilitator. I am a big advocate of setting up the task and allowing
the students to work it out for themselves.
 Using technology, although this is not always necessary.
 Encouraging and enhancing the importance of ‘Listening skills’ – you will see a great
difference in both their interaction with each other as well as with you if they crack this
one.
 Diversity of the groups provides a pool of talent, can draw on different learning styles,
gender perspectives, experience, cultures and backgrounds.
Collaborative learning is a positive, inclusive and powerful learning strategy that engages students
throughout their school life and has had a significant positive impact on my classes personal
outcomes. I encourage you to give it a go and embed it in your teaching.