Republic of the Philippines

Schools Division of Bulacan

San Miguel National High School
Scuala St., San Juan, San Miguel, Bulacan

LEARNING
ACTIVITY SHEET
IN
General Biology 2
No. 5
Mechanisms of Evolution

Name :____________________ Date: ___________________

Grade Level: _______________ Section: _________________
Quarter:___________________

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I . OBJECTIVES
A. Content Standards:
The learner demonstrates understanding of Relevance, Mechanisms,
Evidence/Bases, and Theories of Evolution

B. Performance Standards:
The learner is able to make a diagram (e.g., pictogram, poster) showing the
evolution of domesticated crop.

C. MELCs:
 Explain the mechanisms that produce change in populations from
generation to generation (e.g., artificial selection, natural selection, genetic
drift, mutation, recombination)
( STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-9 )

D. Specific Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the learners should be able to:

1. Understand and describe the features of early Earth; and
2. Understand the theories on the how life could have emerged

II. CONTENT: Mechanisms of Evolution

III. PROCEDURES:
Pre-Test:
Direction: : Read each question carefully and choose the letter of the best
answer.

1. What is the difference between micro- and macroevolution?

a. Microevolution describes the evolution of small organisms, such as insects,
while macroevolution describes the evolution of large organisms, like people and
elephants
b. Microevolution describes the evolution of microscopic entities, such as
molecules and proteins, while macroevolution describes the evolution of whole
organisms.
c. Microevolution describes the evolution of organisms in populations, while
macroevolution describes the evolution of species over long periods of time.
d. Microevolution describes the evolution of organisms over their lifetimes, while
macroevolution describes the evolution of organisms over multiple generations.

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2. Population genetics deals with
a. how selective forces change the allele frequencies in a population over time
b. the genetic basis of population-wide traits
c. whether traits have genetic basis
d. degree of interbreeding in a population

3. One of the original Amish colonies rose from a ship of colonists that came from
Europe. The ship’s captain, who had polydactyly, a rare dominant trait, was one of
the original colonists. Today, we see a much higher frequency of polydactyly in the
Amish population. This is an example of:
a. natural selection c. founder effect
b. genetic drift d. b and c

4. Which of the following evolutionary forces can introduce new genetic variation into
a population?
a. natural selection and genetic drift
b. mutation and gene flow
c. natural selection and nonrandom mating
d. mutation and gene flow

5. This mechanism of evolution is affected by chance

a. Gene pool
b. Genetic Drift
c. genetic structure
d. Founder effect

Review:
We learned that the planet Earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago, and the
early condition of its atmosphere is unfavorable for life to emerge. Years later, we found
that life somehow emerged. Theories about the emergence of life on Earth were the
emergence of organic molecules from inorganic molecules, abiotic synthesis of
macromolecules, protocells, and self-replicating RNA.
The study of fossils has helped the geologist to establish a geologic record of Earth’s
history. The early prokaryotes were the Earth’s sole inhabitants for billions of years.
They also introduced Earth’s atmosphere with oxygen through the cyanobacteria.
Scientists believed that after oxygen was release into the atmosphere, there came a
rapid increase of oxygen’s presence in the atmosphere, which is believe to be attributed
by eukaryotic cells that contain chloroplasts

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 L E S S O N:
Mechanisms That Produce Change in Populations from Generation to
Generation

All living organism on Earth is related to one another. The theory of evolution
states that all living organisms have a common ancestor, but because of millions of
years of evolution, each of the organisms became what they are today. Natural selection
acts to encourage traits and behaviors that increase the likelihood of an organism’s
chance for survival and reproduction, while eradicating those traits and behaviors that
are disadvantageous to the organism. In natural selection, it can only select, or choose,
traits that are favorable, it cannot create new ones. The force that we can attribute
novel traits and behaviors is mutation. Mutation and other sources of variation among
individuals, as well as the evolutionary forces that act upon them, modify populations
and species. This combination of processes has led life as we know it today. It is
misconception about evolution that it acts upon individual organisms, however, they
act on the traits that will greatly affect the survivability and reproduction of individual
organisms, the impact of this force in an organism’s population is observable over time. For
example, the medium ground finch (Geospiza fortis), a seed-eating bird that lives in the
Galapagos Islands. In 1977, the population of this bird was devastated by a long period of
drought: of 1200 birds, only 180 lived.

There’s an observation by the researchers in the drought that there was a small
supply of small, soft seeds. The finches fed on large, hard seeds that were more
abundant, so the birds with larger, deeper beaks were in dominance during that time,
because they were able to crack and eat these larger seeds, and they survived at a
higher rate than finches with smaller beaks. Since this trait, beak depth, is an
inheritable trait, the average beak depth in the next generation of G. fortis was far
greater compared to the pre-drought population. Natural selection acted upon this
incident. Individual finches, did not evolve, each bird’s particular beak size did not
increase, --the proportion of large beaks in the population increased from generation
to generation. Population evolved, but not its individual members. The small-scale
evolution evident in this event is microevolution, the overtime change in populations.

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Macroevolutions on the other hand, is the processes that gave rise to new species and
higher taxonomic groups with widely divergent characters

POPULATION GENETICS

We know that a gene for a particular character has several different alleles that
code for the different traits that is linked with the character; e.g., in the ABO blood
group system in humans, three alleles determine the particular blood-type protein on
the surface of red blood cells. Each individual in a population of diploid organisms can
only carry two alleles for a particular gene, but more than two may be present in the
individuals that comprise the population. Mendel followed alleles as they were inherited
from parent to offspring. Biologists of the 20th century in the area of population
genetics began to study how can the selective forces of nature change a population
through the changes in their alleles and genotypic frequencies.

Allele frequency is the rate at which a specific allele appears within a population.
We are aware that evolution is a change in the characteristics of a population of
organisms, but behind that phenotypic change is genetic change. Using the ABO blood
type system, the frequency of one of the alleles, Iᴬ, is the number of copies of that allele
divided by all the copies of the ABO gene in the population. For a study in 2009
performed in the Philippine National Red Cross, researchers found that a frequency of
Iᴬ to be 25%, Iᴮ at 25.69%, Iᴬᴮ at 5.8%, and Iᴼ at 43.51% of the alleles respectively, and
all of the frequencies added up to 100 %. A change in this frequency over time would
establish evolution in the population.

The allele frequency within a specific population can change depending on

environmental factors; so, some alleles become more common than others during the
process of natural selection. Natural selection has the ability to alter the genetic
makeup of a population. An example is if a given allele confers a phenotype that allows
an individual to better survive or have more offspring. Because many of those offspring
will also carry the beneficial allele, and often the corresponding phenotype, they will
have more offspring of their own that also carry the allele, thus, perpetuating the cycle.
Over time, the allele will spread throughout the population. Some alleles will quickly
become fixed in this way, meaning that every individual of the population will carry the
allele, while detrimental mutations may be swiftly eliminated if derived from a
dominant allele from the gene pool, it is the sum of all the alleles in a population.

Allele frequencies could also change randomly with no advantage to the

population compared to other existing allele frequencies, this phenomenon is called
genetic drift. Genetic drift along with natural selection usually occur simultaneously
in populations and they are not isolated events. It is hard to determine which process
rules because it is often nearly impossible to determine the cause of change in allele
frequencies at each occurrence. Founder effect is the term called for the event that
initiates a change in allele frequency in a population that is not typical of the original
population. Natural selection, genetic drift, and founder effects can lead to noteworthy
changes in a population's genome.
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THE HARDY WEINBERG PRINCIPLE OF EQUILIBRIUM

The Hardy-Weinberg principle of equilibrium states that the allele and genotypic
frequency of a population will remain constant from generation to generation, unless
there’s a presence of disturbing factors. This was theorized by English mathematician
Godfrey Hardy and physician Wilhelm Weinberg; they independently derived this
principle in 1908. This principle assumes conditions with no mutations, migration,
emigration, or selective pressure for or against genotype, plus an infinite population.
Although there’s no such population that could satisfy those conditions, the principle
offers a useful guide against which to compare real population changes.

With this theory as guide, population geneticists represent different alleles as

different variables in their mathematical models. The variable p, often represents the
frequency of a particular allele, for example, Y is the trait of yellow for the Mendel’s
peas, while the variable q represents the frequency of y alleles that confer the color
green. If these are the only two possible alleles for a given locus in the population, p +
q = 1. In other words, all the p alleles and all the q alleles comprise all of the alleles for
that locus in the population.

The frequencies of the resulting genotypes are known as the genetic structure
of the population, this can help biologists to make an assumption of the phenotypic
distribution. If only the phenotypes are observed, one can only know the homozygous
recessive allele’s genotype. The calculations provide an estimate of the other genotypes.
Since there are two alleles per gene, if we know the allele frequencies (p and q),
predicting the genotypes’ frequencies is a simple mathematical calculation to
determine the probability of obtaining these genotypes if we draw two alleles at random
from the gene pool. In the previous scenario, a pea plant could be pp (YY), and thus
produce yellow peas; pq (Yy) which is also yellow; or qq (yy), and will produce green
peas. In other words, the frequency of pp individuals is simply p2; the frequency of pq
individuals is 2pq; and the frequency of qq individuals is q2. Again, if p and q are the
only two possible alleles for a given trait in the population, these genotypes frequencies
will sum to one: p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1.

In accordance to the Hardy-Weinberg Principle, if a population is at equilibrium,

there are no evolutionary forces acting upon it—generation after generation would have
the same gene pool and genetic structure, and these equations would all hold true all
of the time. Though this is the condition for the Hardy-Weinberg principle, the principle
still recognize that there is no population that does not have evolution. Populations in
nature are constantly changing in genetic makeup due to drift, mutation, possibly
migration, and selection. To actually determine the exact distribution of phenotypes in
a population, the way is to go out and count them. Because of the Hardy Weinberg
principle, there is a mathematical baseline of a non-evolving population to which
scientist can compare evolving populations and thereby infer baseline of a non-evolving
population to which they can compare evolving populations and thereby infer what
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evolutionary forces might be at play. If the frequencies of alleles or genotypes deviate
from the value expected from the Hardy-Weinberg equation, then the population is
evolving.

A population's individuals often display different phenotypes, or express different

alleles of a particular gene, which we refer as polymorphism, a population called
polymorphic has two or more variations of a particular characteristic. Population
variation, the distribution of phenotypes among individuals, is influenced by a number
of factors, such as population’s genetic structure and the environment. The importance
of understanding the phenotypic variation sources in a population is determining how
a population will evolve in response to different evolutionary pressures.

GENETIC VARIANCE

Natural selection and some of the other evolutionary forces can only act on
heritable traits, an organism’s genetic code. Because alleles are passed from parent to
offspring, those that confer beneficial traits or behaviors may be selected, while harmful
alleles may not. Acquired traits, are not heritable, however, are not heritable.
Heritability is the fraction of phenotype variation that we can attribute to genetic
differences, or genetic variance, among individuals in a population, with it being greater
in number in a population, there will be more chance for evolution.
Gene tic variance is the diversity of alleles in a population. It is importance to
maintain this genetic variance in a population. Inbreeding, the mating of closely related
individuals, can give undesirable effect of bringing together deadly recessive mutations
that can cause abnormalities and susceptibility to disease. This is why in most
countries, inbreeding is illegal. When there is greater genetic variance, the likelihood
of obtaining a rare, recessive allele that might exist in a population is lower. When a
family of carriers begins to interbreed with each other, this will dramatically increase
the likelihood of two carriers mating and eventually producing diseased offspring, a
phenomenon that scientists call inbreeding depression. This is because recessive
alleles might only manifest itself when there’s two copies of that recessive allele.

THE MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION:

GENETIC DRIFT

This theory came from the observation that some individuals in a population are
more likely to survive longer and have more offspring than others, thus, they will pass
on more of their genes to the next generation. For example, a male gorilla who’s bigger
and stronger will become a pack leader, the alpha. The alpha will get to mate more
than their underlings, who are smaller and weaker, so the alpha will father more
offspring. This will make the future generation of these gorillas to be more powerful
and bigger. This is because of the selection pressure, driving selective force, were the
only one acting on the population.
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 The gene pool is affected by genetic drift is simply due to chance. A male
organism could father more offspring simply because they are at the right place, at the
right time (in the presence of a receptive female).
Small populations are more affected by this force; large populations are however
not that affected as there is a buffer against the effect of chance. This force, unlike
natural selection does not choose which trait will benefit the organisms more.

Natural disasters that kill at random a large population, can magnify genetic
drift, known as the bottleneck effect. This result to suddenly wiping out of a huge
portion of the genome, an organism’s complete set of genetic instructions. The
population’s entire genetic structure is dependent of its survivors, which is very
different from the pre-disaster population.

Founder effect is when some portion of the population leaves to start a new
population in a new location or if a physical barrier divides a population. The founder
effect occurs when the genetic structure changes to match that of the new population’s
founding fathers and mothers.

GENE FLOW

Gene flow is another important factor in evolution. Gene flow is the flow of alleles
in and out of a population due to the migration of individuals or gametes. For example,
many plants send their pollen far and wide, through the wind or other organisms
(pollinators), to pollinate other populations of the same species from a distance. This
variable flow of individuals in and out of the group not only changes the population's
gene structure, but it can also introduce new genetic variation to populations in
different geological locations and habitats.

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MUTATION

Mutations are the changes that occur to an organism’s DNA and are very
important driver of diversity in populations. This enables organisms to change over
time. The appearance of new mutations is the most common way to introduce novel
genotypic and phenotypic variance. They could be either favorable or unfavorable,
though harmful ones are quickly eliminated by natural selection. Those beneficial ones
get to be spread through the population. Whether or not it is beneficial or detrimental
is determined by how it support an organism to survive to sexual maturity and
reproduce. Some mutations do not do anything and can linger, unaffected by natural
selection, in the genome. Some can have a dramatic effect on a gene and the resulting
phenotype.

NONRANDOM MATING

In this mechanism, an individual may either prefer to mate with others of the
same genotype or of different genotypes. One reason this occurs is because of mate
choice. For example, female peahens may prefer peacocks with bigger, brighter tails.
Natural selection picks traits that lead to more mating selections for an individual. One
common form of mate choice, called assortative mating, is an individual’s preference
to mate with partners who are phenotypically similar to themselves.

ARTIFICIAL SELECTION

This mechanism is due to human intervention. Humans cause selection because

they select which phenotypes of organisms will be beneficial. This practice has been
used for so much in the human history, it was a factor that gave people to produce
crops and animals that are more efficient or have desirable traits, such as plants that
produce larger fruits and vegetables, or cows that produce more milk. It also helps to
eradicate some undesirable diseases.

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RECOMBINATION

Genetic diversity can also arise from recombination of the DNA from two different
cells (via transformation, transduction, or conjugation). By transferring advantageous
alleles, such as ones for antibiotic resistance, genetic recombination can promote
adaptive evolution in prokaryotic populations.

NATURAL SELECTION

This is the most famous mechanism of evolution, and the most widely accepted
one. Natural selection is the reproduction of individuals with favorable genetic traits
that survive environmental change because of those traits, leading to evolutionary
change. This happens when an allele makes an organism have beneficial or detrimental
traits, and those traits that will be beneficial for an organism’s survival and perpetuity
will be chosen over the ones that are non-beneficial or harmful. Allele that reduces an
organism’s chance for survival and reproduction gets eradicated over time.

Activity 1

Choose the best possible answer.

1. When closely related individual mate with each other, or inbreed, the offspring are
often not as fit as the offspring of two unrelated individuals. Why?
a. Close relatives are genetically incompatible.
b. The DNA of close relatives reacts negatively in the offspring.
c. Inbreeding can bring together rare, deleterious mutations that lead to
harmful phenotypes.
d. Inbreeding causes normally silent alleles to be expressed.
2. The frequencies of the resulting genotypes are known as the ____________of the
population
a. genetic structure
b. gene pool
c. gene flow
d. genetic drift
3. The changes in a population’s genetic structure.
a. macroevolution
b. microevolution
c. bottleneck effect
d. allele frequency
4. When male lions reach sexual maturity, they leave their group in search of a new
pride. This can alter the allele frequencies of the population through which of the
following mechanisms?
a. natural selection
b. genetic drift
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 c. gene flow
d. random mating
5. _________________ is the effect of chance in a population
a. genetic drift
b. genetic structure
c. gene pool
d. nonrandom mating

Activity 2
Matching type: Choose the best answer from the box

_______________1. rate at which a specific allele appears within a population

_______________2. The collection of all the alleles that the individuals in the population
carry
_______________3. study of how selective forces change the allele frequencies in a
population over time
_______________4. The effect of chance on a population’s gene pool
_______________5. increase in abnormalities and diseases due to inbreeding
_______________6. magnification of genetic drift as a result of natural events or
catastrophes

Activity 3
True or False. Write whether the statement is true or false.
____1. Microevolution is visible when the bigger beaks of finches are expressed more
over time because it can help their species survive better.
____2. It is common for populations to satisfy the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium.
____3. Natural selection can alter the traits of organisms in a population and create
new ones according to what will improve individuals’ survival and reproduction.
____4. Artificial selection is a new technology of the 21st century that produce change
in populations
____5. When an athlete acquires muscle strength, muscle density and agility, he can
pass it on his offspring.

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Activity 4

1. Would genetic drift better be expressed and be quickly expressed on an island

compared to a mainland? Why?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Valuing:
Explain the phrase, “Survival of the fittest.”
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________

Post - Test
Choose which mechanism of evolution is displayed in these following scenarios.
A. Genetic Drift
B. Gene pool
C. Mutation
D. Nonrandom Mating
E. Artificial Selection
F. Recombination
G. Natural Selection

1. When a male rabbit happens to be in the presence of three female rabbits that are
in-heat, the male rabbit will father more children.

2. Philippine archipelago were inhabited by a group of people who travelled through

the land bridges 30,000 years ago during the glacial period.

3. Human intervention of a plant’s traits

4. Organisms with favorable traits for survival and reproduction tend to pass on
these alleles to their offspring.

5. A male lion who left the pride where his mother is to form a new pride.

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References:
Reece, Jane B., Urry, Lisa A., Michael L. Cain, Steven A., Minorsky, Peter V.
Wasserman, and Jackson Robert B. 2011. Biology, Ninth Edition. San Francisco:
Pearson.

Clark, Mary Ann, Choi, Jung, Douglas, Matthew 2018. Biology2e. Houston: openstax

Mechanisms of evolution. Retrieved February 11, 2021 from:

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/natural-selection/hardy-
weinberg-equilibrium/a/hardy-weinberg-mechanisms-of-evolution

Answer Key

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