Department of Physics Course Code: PHIR12

National Institute of technology Course title: Physics-II

Kurukshetra (practical)

EXPERIMENT:-1

Objective : To find the value of Planck’s constant by photo electric cell.

Introduction:

th
One of the most important experiments from the early 20 century was the photoelectric
effect experiment. In this experiment, shining light upon a metal surface may cause electrons
to be emitted from the metal. In 1905, Albert Einstein working in a Swiss patent office
published a paper in which he explained the photoelectric effect. He argued that light was not
a wave – it is particulate – and it travels in little energy bundles (or packets) called photons.
The energy of one of these photons is hν, where h is the fundamental constant of nature as
proposed by Max Planck to explain blackbody radiation, and ν is the frequency of the photon.
This novel interpretation of light turned out to be very significant and secured a Nobel Prize
for Albert Einstein. Robert Millikan, co- founder of the California Institute of Technology and
fellow Nobel Prize Winner, performed the careful experimental verification of Einstein’s
predictions.

Theory:

An electron in a metal can be modelled as a particle in an average potential well due to t he

net attraction and repulsion of protons and electrons. The minimum depth that an electron is
located in the potential well is called the work function of the metal, Φ (see Fig. 1). In other
words, it is a measure of the amount of work that must be done on the electrons (located in
the well) to make it free from the metal. Since different metal atoms have different number of
protons, it is reasonable to assume that the work function (Φ) depends on the metal. This is
also supported by the fact that different metals have different values for electrical properties
that should depend on the electron binding including conductivity. The electron in the
potential well of a metal is shown below in Fig. 1. It is analogous to a marble trapped in a
water-well. The shallower the well (i.e. the lower the work function “Φ”), less is the energy
required to cause the emission of the electron. If we shine a light with sufficient energy then
an electron is emitted.

E= 0

E = -e Φ

Figure 1: Electron in a potential well at a depth “Φ ”

When a photon with frequency “ν” strikes the surface of a metal, it imparts all of its
energy to a conduction electron near the surface of the metal. If the energy of the photon (hν)
is greater than the work function (Φ), the electron may be ejected from the metal. If the
energy is less than the work function, the electron will simply acquire some kinetic energy
that will dissipate almost immediately in subsequent collisions with other particles in the
metal. By conservation of energy, the maximum kinetic energy with which the electron could

be emitted from the metal surface Tmax, is related to the energy of the absorbed photon hν,
and the work function Φ, by the relation,
2
T = 1 mv = hν − e Φ … (1)
max 2 max

Now consider the case of electrons being emitted by a

photocathode in a vacuum tube, as illustrated Fig.2. In
this case, all emitted electrons are slowed down as they
approach the anode, and some of their kinetic energy is
converted into potential energy. There are three
possibilities that could happen.

i) First, if the potential is small then the potential

energy at the anode is less than the kinetic energy of
the electrons and there is a current through the tube.
ii) The second is if the potential is large enough the
potential energy at the anode is larger than the kinetic
energy and the electrons are driven back to the
cathode. In this case, there is no current.
iii) The third case is if the voltage just stops the electrons
(with maximum kinetic energy Tmax) from reaching Figure 2: A schematic of a vacuum
Phototube and a typical I-V characteristics
 the anode. The voltage required to do this is called the “stopping potential" (V0). A typical I-V
characteristics for a given frequency of light is also depicted in Fig. 2.
Thus Eq. 1 can be rewritten as,

eV0 = hν − e Φ … (2)

V = hν − Φ … (3)
0 e

It is worth noting here that, since the anode and cathode surfaces are different, an additional
contact potential “A” comes into the picture which simply gets added to the work function
“Φ”. Eq. (3) can be written in terms of wavelength as

V = ( hc )( 1) −  Φ + A … (4)
0 e λ
1 -34
Standard value of h is known to be 6.626×10 J-s.

Experimental Set up:

The present experimental set-up (see Fig. 3) comprises of a tungsten-halogen light source
with five different colour filters, a Cesium- type vacuum phototube, a built- in power supply
and a current multiplier. The base of the phototube is built into a dark room and in front of it
a receptor (pipe) is installed to mount filters.

Cs-type vacuum phototube Receptor Tungsten-Ha logen lamp

Figure 3: Experimental set up

Procedure:

1. Plug in and switch on the apparatus using the red button at the bottom right corner of
the set up.

2. Before the lamp is switched on, put the toggle switch in current mode and check that
the dark current is zero.

3. Turn on the lamp source (it may take 5-10 mins. to warm up). Set the light intensity
near to maximum. Note that the intensity should be such that the value of current
should not exceed the display range. In case it happens, you need to reduce the
intensity. You should not change intensity while taking data.
4. Insert one of the five specified filters into the drawtube of the receptor.

5. Set the voltage direction switch to “+ve” polarity. Adjust the voltage knob at
minimum and current multiplier at X 0.1. Vary the voltage and record the current till
the value of current becomes relatively constant. Use the display mode switch to
record the values of voltage and the corresponding current each time

6. Now, set the voltage direction switch to “-ve” polarity. Adjust the voltage knob at
minimum and current multiplier at X 0.001. Vary the voltage and record the current
till the value of current becomes 0. Use the display mode switch to record the values
of voltage and the corresponding current each time.
7. The above steps 5 and 6 provides data to plot the I-V characteristics of the phototube
for the wavelength (or frequency) selected by the filter.
8. Repeat the steps 5-7 for all the filters provided.

9. Fill up the observation tables and draw necessary plots. Determine the values of
planck’s constant and work function of the metal used in the phototube.

Observations:

Specification of Filters :

Colour Blue Green Yellow Orange Red

Wavelength (nm) 460 500 540 570 635
Table 1: For I-V characteristics

Voltage (+ ve polarity)
Current (μA)
 Voltage (- ve polarity)
Current (μA)

Table 2: Data for stopping potential ~ wavelength

Stopping potential (V)

Wavelength (nm)

Graph:

1. Plot I~ V characteristics for different wavelengths.

2. Plot Stopping potential ~ (1/wavelength) and calculate slope and intercept using Eq.
4. A sample graph is shown in Fig.4.

-0.3
LINEAR FIT TO BSERVED DATA
-34
H = 6.06 X 10 JS
-0.4
Stopping potential (V)

-0.5

-0.6

-0.7

-0.8

-0.9

-1.0

-1.1
1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2

-3 -1
1/λ x10 nm 

Fig. 4: Sample graph

Calculation and estimation of error: Determine h and φ with uncertainity.

Precautions:

1. Rotate all the knobs very slowly.

2. Handle the filters with utmost care and avoid touching their surfaces.
 Department of Physics Course Code: PHIR12
National Institute of technology Course title: Physics-II
Kurukshetra (practical)

EXPERIMENT: -2

AIM: - To calibrate an electromagnet using Guoy’s Balance.

APPARATUS: - Electromagnet, Guoy’s balance, glass tube filled with Manganese Sulphate,
weight box, Fractional weights etc.

DISCUSSION:- When a paramagnetic material is placed in a non – uniform magnetic field, it

experiences a force due to the field gradient given by
1
F= grad ∫ kh2 dv
2

Where k is volume susceptibility of the material.

If the paramagnetic specimen is in the form of a thin road of uniform area of cross section
A and suspended from one arm of a balance as show, Fig 1

Fig.1
Then the downward pull (along the Y direction) is given by:
1 𝐻 𝑑
F= 2 𝑘 A∫𝐻 𝑑𝑦
( 𝐻 2 ) dy
𝑜

1
= kA (H2 - Ho 2 )
2

Where Ho is the field at the upper end of the specimen and H at the lower end. If the upper end
happens to be well outside the poles. Of the electromagnet Ho can be assumed to be nearly equal
to zero.

One may then write:

1
F= kA H2
2

The direction of the force is along the field gradient. This force can be measured by noting the
apparent increase in the weight of the paramagnetic material. For the increase in weight to be m
kg
1
2
kAH2 = mg, where g = 9.8 m/sec2

Knowing the values of k, A and M, the value of H can be calculated.

PROCEDURE: - MnSo4 is one of the more suitable paramagnetic materials for this
experiment. Very finely ground powder of Mnso4 is packed in a glass tube of uniform cross-
section. The glass tube is suspended as discussed above from the left arm of a sensitive balance
and counterpoised by putting weights in the right hand pan. Keeping the current through the
electro-magnet coils zero. The current is then increased in regular steps of 0.4 amp for each of its
values, the apparent weight is taken. In this way the magnetic field for a known current can be
calculated. A graph is then plotted the current and the magnetic field which is the required
calibration curve. It is however, preferable to draw the graph between the current (x-axis) and the
flux density B= µo H (y-axis).

OBSERVATIONS:-

K for the paramagnetic specimen (Mnso4) =

Distance between pole pieces =

Internal diameter of glass – tube, d =

Area of cross section A= d2 /4 =

Sr.No Current ( i) Weight (W) Increase in weight H=2mg/KA B=µo H
amp (gm) M= (w-wo)×10-3 kg (amp/meter) (wb/m2
1.

2.
3.

4.

5.

6.

Weight of the sample tube at zero current Wo =

NOTES:-

1. K for MnSo4 = 4.2×10-9 Henry /meter.

2. Internal diameter of the glass tube is 0.73 cm.
 Department of Physics Course Code: PHIR12
National Institute of technology Course title: Physics-II
Kurukshetra (practical)

EXPERTIMENT:-3

AIM: To measure Hall’s co-efficient of Germanium and calculation of charge carrier

concentration.

APPARATUS: Hall Probe (Ge Crystal), Hall Probe (InAs), Hall Effect Set-up (Digital),
Electromagnet, Constant Current Power Supply,

THEORY: A static magnetic field has no effect on charges unless they are in motion. When the
charges flow, a magnetic field directed perpendicular to the direction of flow produces a
mutually perpendicular force on the charges. When this happens, electrons and holes will be
separated by opposite forces. They will in turn produce an electric field (Eh ) which depends on
the cross product of the magnetic intensity, H, and the current density, J. The situation is
demonstrated in Fig. 1(on next page)

𝐸ℎ = 𝑅𝐽𝑥 × 𝐻 (1)
Where R is called the Hall coefficient.
Now, let us consider a bar of semiconductor, having dimension, x, y and z. Let J is directed
along X and H along Z then Eh will be along Y, as in Fig. 2.
Then
𝑉ℎ ⁄
𝑦 𝑉ℎ .𝑍
𝑅= 𝐽𝐻
= 𝐼𝐻
m3 /coulomb (2)

𝑉ℎ ⁄
𝑦 𝑉ℎ .𝑍
𝑅= 𝐽𝐻
= 𝐼𝐻
× 108 cm3 /coulomb (3)
Where Vh is the Hall voltage appearing between the two surfaces perpendicular to y and
I = J yz

PROCEDURE

1. Connect the widthwise contacts of the Hall Probe to the terminals marked 'Voltage' and
lengthwise contacts to terminals marked 'Current'.

2. Switch 'ON' the Hall Effect set-up and adjustment current (say few mA).

3. Switch over the display to voltage side. There may be some voltage reading even outside the
magnetic field. This is due to imperfect alignment of the four contacts of the Hall Probe and is
generally known as the 'Zero field Potential'. In case its value is comparable to the Hall Voltage
it should be adjusted to a minimum possible (for Hall Probe (Ge) only). In all cases, this error
should be subtracted from the Hall Voltage reading.
4. Now place the probe in the magnetic field as shown in fig. 3 and switch on the electromagnet
power supply and adjust the current to any desired value. Rotate the Hall probe till it become
perpendicular to magnetic field. Hall voltage will be maximum in this adjustment.

5. Measure Hall voltage for both the directions of the current and magnetic field (i.e. four
observations for a particular value of current and magnetic field).
6. Measure the Hall voltage as a function of current keeping the magnetic field constant. Plot a
graph.
7. Measure the Hall voltage as a function of magnetic field keeping a suitable value of current as
constant. Plot graph.
8. Measure the magnetic field by the Gauss meter.

OBSERVATIONS:

Constant current (A) Hall Current(mA) Hall Voltage (mV)

1A

0.8 A

0.6 A
Fig: 3
CALCULATIONS
(a) From the graph Hall voltage vs magnetic field calculate Hall coefficient.
(b) Determine the type of majority charge carriers, i.e. whether the crystal is n type or p type.
(c) Calculate charge carrier density from the relation
R=1/nq
Hence n=1/Rq
 Department of Physics Course Code: PHIR12
National Institute of technology Course title: Physics-II
Kurukshetra (practical)

EXPERIMENT:-4

Aim: To measure the velocity of ultrasonic waves in organic liquids.

Apparatus:

Sodium lamp, collimator, optical cell, telescope with measuring eye-piece, Ultrasonic transducer,
sample liquids, high frequency oscillator, etc.

Theory:

Ultrasonics:

Ultrasonic sound refers to sound pressure

with a frequency greater than the human
audible range (20Hz to 20 KHz). When an
ultrasonic wave propagates through a
medium, the molecules in that medium
vibrate over very short distance in a
direction parallel to the longitudinal wave.
During this vibration, momentum is
transferred among molecules. This causes
the wave to pass through the medium.

Generation of ultrasound:

Ultrasonic can be produced by different methods. The most common methods include:

Mechanical method: In this, ultrasonic frequencies up to 100 KHz are produced. But this
method is rarely used due to its limited frequency range.

Piezoelectric generator: This is the most common

method used for the production of ultrasound. When
mechanical pressure is applied to opposite faces of
certain crystals which are cut suitably, electric fields
are produced. Similarly, when subjected to an electric
field, these crystals contract or expand, depending on
the direction of the field. Thus a properly oriented
rapid alternating electric field causes a piezoelectric
crystal to vibrate mechanically. This vibration, largest when the crystal is at resonance, is used to
produce a longitudinal wave, i.e., a sound wave.

Magnetostriction generator: In this method, the magnetostriction method is used for the
production of ultrasonic. Frequencies ranging from 8000 Hz to 20,000Hz can be produced by
this method.

Determination of Ultrasonic Velocity in Liquid

Principle:
When ultrasonic waves travel through a transparent liquid, due to alternate compression and
rarefaction, longitudinal stationery waves are produced. If monochromatic light is passed
through the liquid perpendicular to these waves, the liquid behaves as diffraction grating. Such a
grating is known as Acoustic Grating. Here the lines of compression and rarefaction act as
transparent light waves. It is used to find wavelength and velocity (v) of ultrasonic waves in the
liquid.

Construction;
It is consists of a glass tank, filled with the liquid. A piezo-electric (Quartz) is fixed at the bottom
of the glass tank and is connected with piezo-electric oscillatory circuit as shown in the figure
1.7.

An incandescent lamp is used as a monochromatic source (S) and a telescope arrangement is

used to view the diffraction pattern. A collimator consisting of two lenses L1 and L2 is used to
focus the light effectively in the glass tank.
Procedure:
(i) When the piezo-electric crystal is kept at rest:
Initially the piezo-electric crystal is kept at rest and the monochromatic at light is switched ON.
When the light is focused in the glass tank filled with the liquid, a single image, a vertical peak is
observed in telescope. i.e., there is no diffraction.
(ii) When the piezo-electric crystal is set into vibrations:
Now the crystal is put into vibrations using piezo-electric oscillatory circuit. At Resonance,
Ultrasonic waves are produced and are passed through the liquid. These Ultrasonic waves are
reflected by the walls of the glass tank and form a stationery wave pattern with nodes and
antinodes in the liquid. At nodes the density of the liquid becomes more and at antinodes the
density o the liquid becomes less. Thus, the liquid behaves as a directing element called
acoustical grating element.
Now when the monochromatic light is passed the light gets directed and a diffraction pattern
consisting of central maxima and principle maxima on either side is viewed through the
telescope as shown in figure 1.7.2 as well as in 1.7.3.
Calculation of Ultrasonic Velocity
The velocity of Ultrasonic waves can be determined using the condition.

𝑛
Velocity of ultrasonic waves = 𝑓 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (5)
Observations:

Room temperature= (0 C)
Distance of separation of the 1st order lines x1 =
Distance of separation of the 2nd order lines x2 =
Focal length of telescope objective, F=
Resonant frequency=
For the 1st order spectrum
𝑥
sin1 = 1 =
2𝐹
From equation (5)
v1 = ...... ms-1 .
nd
Similarly for 2 order

v2 = ...... ms-1 .

Result:
v1 +v2
The velocity of the ultrasonic wave through the given liquid medium = 2
=.........................ms-1 .

Precautions:
1. Rotate the knob on the RF oscillator extremely slowly to vary the frequency.
2. This experiment requires precision in taking readings, especially the minutes in the
spectrometer scale.
3. The crystal should be mounted parallel to the side walls, otherwise a good standing wave
pattern will not be obtained & hence diffraction grating will not be formed. As a result the higher
orders may not be of equal intensity on either side of maxima.
Note:

1. The focal length of the telescope objective is 100cm.

2. 100 divisions on the eye-piece scale are equal to 1cm.
3. The resonance frequency f of the crystal is 2.9 MHz.
 Course Code: PHIR12L
Department of Physics
National Institute of technology Course title: Physics-II
Kurukshetra (practical)

EXPERIMENT: 5

Objective: To study the decay of charge on a capacitor and to find its capacitance.

Apparatus: Power supply, Condenser, Resistor, Voltmeter, Stop Watch, Mega ohm resistance
box, a taping key and a one way key

Introduction:

A condenser is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy electrostatically

in an electric field. The forms of practical condensers vary widely but all contain at least two
electrical conductors or plates separated by a dielectric or insulator. The conductors can be thin
film, foil etc. The insulator acts to increase the condenser’s charge capacity. An insulator can be
glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, paper etc.

When a condenser is connected to a circuit with a DC supply two processes occur which are
called as charging and discharging.

Charging: When a condenser is connected to the DC supply and current starts to flow through
the circuit both plates of the condenser gets the equal and opposite charges and an increasing
potential difference which is created while the condenser is charging. Once the voltage at the
terminals of the condenser is equal to the power supply the condenser is fully charged and the
current stops flowing through the circuit, the charging phase is over.

Discharging: When the condenser is disconnected from the power supply the condensers starts
to discharge through the resistor and the voltage between the plates drops gradually to zero.

Resistor: A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical

resistance as a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the same time, act to
lower voltage levels within circuits.

If the terminals of a condenser of capacity C, charged to a potential difference V0 , are connected

to resistance R, the charge and voltage on the condenser decay exponentially with time t in
accordance with the relation:
 𝑡
𝑉 = 𝑉° 𝑒𝑥𝑝(− )
𝑅𝐶
V can be plotted as a function of t if the time constant RC is sufficiently long ( i.e. few minutes)
and V is measured by a high impedence voltmeter. An IC voltmeter is one of the high impedence
(> 10MΩ) voltmeters.
At t= T= RC,
𝑉0
𝑉=
𝑒
So C=T/R

 Procedure:

 Construct the circuit as shown below in Figure 1

Figure 1

 When the switch K is open, press and releases the key. The charge flows from the
battery into the condenser until the condenser is fully charged.
 Adjust R to 0.1. Close key K and start the stop clock simultaneously. The condenser
discharges through the resistor.
 Record reading values of voltages V and corresponding time t at a interval of 30
seconds each, until the potential fall to 1/10 th value of initial reading.
 Repeat the same process for R= 0.2 and 0.3 MΩ.

Observation and calculations:

Discharging of a condenser

R=R 1 =0.1 MΩ R=R 1 =0.1 MΩ R=R 1 =0.1 MΩ

S.NO Voltage ‘V’ Time ‘t’ Voltage ‘V’ Time Voltage Time
(v) (s) (v) ‘t’ (s) ‘V’ (v) ‘t’ (s)

--

--

--

--

--
From the graph

T1 =….. seconds, T2 =….. seconds, T3 =….. seconds,

So,

C1 =T1 /R 1 =……..C, C2 =T2 /R 2 =……..C C3 =T3 /R3 =……..C

Mean value of C= (C1 + C2 + C3 )/3=----------

PRECAUTIONS

1. The cell, condenser and voltmeter should be connected with proper polarity.
2. The zero of voltmeter may be checked by short circuiting the input.
3. Any unnecessary moisture should be avoided.
 Course Code: PHIR12L
Department of Physics
National Institute of technology Course title: Physics-II
Kurukshetra (practical)

EXPERIMENT:-6

AIM: To determine the resistivity of semiconductors by Four probe Method.

APPARATUS:
The experimental set up consists of probe arrangement, sample , oven 0-200°C, constant current
generator , oven power supply and digital panel meter(measuring voltage and current). Four
probe apparatus is one of the standard and most widely used apparatus for the measurement of
resistivity of semiconductors. This method is employed when the sample is in the form of a thin
wafer, such as a thin semiconductor material deposited on a substrate. The sample is millimeter
in size and having a thickness w. It consists of four probe arranged linearly in a straight line at
equal distance S from each other. A constant current is passed through the two probes and the
potential drop V across the middle two probes is measured. An oven is provided with a heater to
heat the sample so that behavior of the sample is studied with increase in temperature.

Fig:1
 Fig:2

The figure shows the arrangements of four probes that measure voltage (V) and supply current
(A) to the surface of the crystal.

THEORY

At a constant temperature, the resistance, R of a conductor is proportional to its length L and

inversely proportional to its area of cross section A.

(1)
Where ρ is the resistivity of the conductor and its unit is ohmmeter.
A semiconductor has electrical conductivity intermediate in magnitude between that of a
conductor and insulator. Semiconductor differs from metals in their characteristic property of
decreasing electrical resistivity with increasing temperature.
According to band theory, the energy levels of semiconductors can be grouped into two bands,
valence band and the conduction band. In the presence of an external electric field it is electrons
in the valence band that can move freely, thereby responsible for the electrical conductivity of
semiconductors. In case of intrinsic semiconductors, the Fermi level lies in between the
conduction band minimum and valence band maximum. Since conduction band lies above the
Fermi level at 0K, when no thermal excitations are available, the conduction band remains
unoccupied. So conduction is not possible at 0K, and resistance is infinite. As temperature
increases, the occupancy of conduction band goes up, thereby resulting in decrease of electrical
resistivity of semiconductor.
Resistivity of semiconductor by four probe method.
1. The resistivity of material is uniform in the area of measurement.
2. If there is a minority carrier injection into the semiconductor by the current- carrying
electrodes most of the carriers recombine near electrodes so that their effect on conductivity is
negligible.
3. The surface on which the probes rest is flat with no surface leakage.
4. The four probes used for resistivity measurement contact surface at points that lie in a straight
line.
5. The diameter of the contact between metallic probes and the semiconductor should be small
compared to the distance between the probes.
6. The boundary between the current carrying electrodes and the bulk material is hemispherical
and small in diameter.
7. The surface of semiconductor material may be either conducting and non-conducting. A
conducting boundary is one on which material of much lower resistivity than semiconductor has
been plated. A non-conducting boundary is produced when the surface of the semiconductor is in
contact with insulator.
Fig: 2 show the resistivity probes on a die of material. If the side boundaries are adequately far
from the probes, the die may be considered to be identical to a slice. For this case of a slice of
thickness w and the resistivity is computed as

(2)
The function, f(w/S) is a divisor for computing resistivity which depends on the value of w and S
We assume that the size of the metal tip is infinitesimal and sample thickness is greater than the
distance between the probes,

(3)

Where V – the potential difference between inner probes in volts.

I – Current through the outer pair of probes in ampere.
S – Spacing between the probes in meter.

Temperature dependence of resistivity of semiconductor

Total electrical conductivity of a semiconductor is the sum of the conductivities of the valence
band and conduction band carriers. Resistivity is the reciprocal of conductivity and its
temperature dependence is given by

(4)
Where Eg – band gap of the material
T – Temperature in kelvin
K – Boltzmann constant, K – 8.6x10-5 eV/K
 The resistivity of a semiconductor rises exponentially on decreasing the temperature.

Applications

1. Remote sensing areas

2. Resistance thermometers
3. Induction hardening process
4. Accurate geometry factor estimation
5. Characterization of fuel cells bipolar plates

Procedure for Simulation

Combo Box and Sliders

 Select Material - This is used to select semiconductor material for doing the simulator.

 Range of Current - One can choose the range of current for the current source.

 Current’ Slider - It ranges from 1mA to 200mA. (Note:The divisions in the slider is fixed as
100). If 20mA current is selected in the combo box, the slider value will range from 0mA to
20mA, with an interval of 0.2mA and if the value is 200mA in the combo box, slider value
changes from 0mA to 200mA with an interval of 2mA.

 Range of oven - This combo box is used to fix the temeprature to a particular range.

 Oven- Oven is used to vary the temeprature upto 200 0 C.

Set Button – It is used to fix the temperature in the oven.
Run Button – After setting the temperature, using run button we can start heating the
oven.
Wait Button – It is used to stop heating the oven at a particular temperature.
Measure Button- It is used to display the present temperature of the oven.

 Select Range Combo Box – Options are X1 and X10.

 Temperature slider - it ranges from 270 C to 2000 C. active only by clicking the Set button and
become inactive after clicking Run button. If X1 is in combo box, the slider value ranges from
27 0 C to 990 C and If the value is X10 in combo box, slider value changes from 2.7 0 C to 200 C.

 Voltmeter Combo Box - Options are 1 mV, 10 mV, 100 mV, 1 V, 10 V. One can select it for
getting output in a particular range.

Procedure

1. Select the semiconductor material from the combo box.

2. Select the source current from the slider. Restrict the slider based on the range of current.
3. Select the Range of oven from the combo box.

4. Set the temperature from the slider.

5. Click on the Run Button to start heating the oven in a particular interval, from the default 25 0 C
to the temperature that we set already Click on the Wait button to stop heating.

6. Click on the Set button to display the temperature that we set in the oven.

7. Click on the Measure button to display the present temperature in the oven.

8. Select the range of voltmeter from the combo box.

9. Measure the Voltage using Voltmeter.

10.Calculate the Resistivity of semiconductor in eV for the given temperature using equation (2)
and (3).

11. A Graph is plotted with Temperature along x-axis and resistivity of semiconductor along y-
axis.

Procedure for Real Lab

In real lab, four probes are placed on the sample as shown in Fig:1. Connections are made as
shown in the simulator. A constant current is passed through the outer probes by connecting it to
the constant current source of the set up. The current is set to 8mA. The voltage developed across
the middle two probes is measured using a digital milli-voltmeter. The trial is repeated by
placing the four probe arrangement inside the oven. The oven is connected to the heater supply
of the set up. For different temperatures, upto 150 0 C, the voltage developed is noted and
tabulated.
The distance between the probes(S) and the thickness of the crystal (W) are measured. The
values of (W/S) are calculated and the value of the function f(W/S) ia taken from the standard
table. Using equation (2) and (3), calculate ρ for various temperatures.

Observations and Calculations

Resistivity can be calculated by using the equation given below.

Here we take,
Distance between the probes, S as0.2cm and
Thickness of the sample,w as 0.05cm.
From standard table f(w/S) = 5.89

= ...................... Ohm cm

= ..................... Ohm cm

Result

The resistivity of the given semiconductor by Four probe Method = ...................................Ohm

cm
 Department of Physics Course Code: PHIR12
National Institute of technology Course title: Physics-II
Kurukshetra (practical)

Experiment: 7

Object: To determine the band gap of germanium from the variation of its resistivity with
temperature.
Apparatus: Four probe apparatus (spring loaded four probes, germanium crystal in the form
of a chip, oven for variation of temperature (to about 150 o C ), thermometer, constant current
power supply, oven power supply, high impedance voltmeter, milli-ammeter to measure,
respectively, voltage and current through 4-point probes).
Theory:
Resistivity of semiconductor
The resistivity of germanium is measured with the help of four probes (Fig.I). The
outer probes are used for passing a constant current through the germanium sample. The
electric current carried through the two outer probes, sets up an electric field in the sample.
In Fig.II, the electric field lines are drawn solid and the equipotential lines are drawn
broken. The two inner probes measure the potential difference between point B and C using
a high impedance voltmeter.
For bulk samples where the sample thickness, w >> s , the probe spacing, the
resistivity is calculated using the relation:
𝜌0=(𝑉)2𝜋𝑠 (1)
𝐼

, where
V = floating potential difference between the inner probes, unit: volt
I =current through the outer pair of probes, unit: ampere
s = spacing between point probes, unit: meter
ρ0 = resistivity, unit: ohm meter
Fig.III shows the resistivity probes on a die of material. If the side boundaries are
adequately far from the probes the die may be considered to be identical to a slice. For this
case of a slice of thickness w and with a non conducting bottom surface the resistivity is
computed by means of the divisor G7 (w /s) as
𝜌0 𝑉 2𝜋𝑠
𝜌= 𝑤 =( ) 𝑤
𝐺7 ( ) 𝐼 𝐺7 ( )
𝑠 𝑠

The values and graph for G7 (w /s) are given in the lab manual. For (w /s)≤0.5 ,
The temperature dependence of resistivity of a semiconductor

The total electrical conductivity of a semiconductor sample is the sum of the

conductivities of the valence and conduction band carriers, which are holes and electrons,
respectively.
σ = e (ne μe + nh μh ) (3)
where
ne , μe are the electron's concentration and mobility, and
nh μh are the hole's concentration and mobility
In the intrinsic region the number of electrons is equal to the number of holes,
ne =nh =ni , so the conductivity becomes
σ = ni e (μe + μh ). (4)
The detailed calculations reveal that the electron density (number/volume) depends on
temperature as follows:
3 𝐸𝑔
𝑛𝑖 = 𝑁𝑇 ⁄2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (− 2𝑘𝑇 ) (5)

where N is some constant. The temperature dependence of the mobility in the intrinsic semi-
conduction region is of the form:
μ ∝ T−3/ 2 . (6)
Therefore

(μe + μh )T 3/ 2 ≈constant
Use of this fact gives

𝐸𝑔
𝜎𝑖 = 𝑐 × 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (− ) (7)
2𝑘𝑇

The resistivity is reciprocal of conductivity. Therefore, for intrinsic semiconductor, it is (from

Eq. (7))
𝑔 𝐸
𝜌 = 𝐴 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (2𝑘𝑇 ) (8)
Where A is some constant. The resistivity of a semiconductor rises exponentially on decreasing
the temperature. Taking logarithm, we get
1 𝐸𝑔
log 10 𝜌 = 𝐶 + (9)
2.303 2𝑘𝑇
where C=log10 A is another constant. For convenience Eq.(9) is rewritten as

1 𝐸𝑔 103
log 10 𝜌 = 𝐶 + × (9)
2.303 × 103 2𝑘 𝑇
103
, Thus a graph between log of resistivity log10 ρ and reciprocal of the temperature , 𝑇
should

be a straight line (Fig.IV).

Band gap energy

The slope of the straight line graph between log of resistivity, log10 ρ , and reciprocal
103
of the temperature, , is (see Fig.IV)
𝑇
(𝐴𝐶) 1 𝐸𝑔
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = =
𝐵𝐶 2.303 × 103 2𝑘

Therefore,
Eg = 2.3026×103 ×2 k×(slope )
We use k =8.617×10−5 eV K −1 to get E g in eV unit.

Figures:

Method:
(1) The setting of 4-point probes on the semiconductor chip is a delicate process. So first
understand well the working of the apparatus. The semiconductor chip and probe set
is costly.
(2) Note the values of probe spacing (s) and the thickness (w) of the semiconductor
chip. Note the type of semiconductor (germanium or something else).
(3) Make the circuit as shown in Fig.I & III. Put the sample in the oven (normally
already placed by lab instructor) at room temperature.
(4) Carefully, with the help of screw and delicate up/down movements, touch
(kelvin connection) the probes to the semiconductor chip.
(5) Pass a milliampere range current (say 2 mA) in the sample using constant current
power supply.
(6) The reading of the current through the sample is measured using milliammeter
provided for this purpose. The voltage is measured by a high impedance
millivoltmeter connected to the inner probes. The readings can be taken alternately on
digital meter provided for this purpose.
(7) Note temperature of sample (oven) using thermometer inserted in the oven for this
purpose.
(8) The oven temperature is increased a little, and its temperature noted after reaching
steady state. Again the constant current reading (advised to be kept the same) and the
corresponding voltage readings are taken.
(9) Repeat the procedure for different temperatures. Note the data in the observation
table.
(10) For each temperature, calculate the resistivity by using the relation
𝜌 𝑉 2𝜋𝑠
𝜌 = 0𝑤 = ( ) 𝑤
𝐺7 ( ) 𝐼 𝐺7 ( )
𝑠 𝑠

(11) Compute log10 ρ and 103 /T and write it in the observation table.
(12) Plot a graph between log10 ρ and 103 /T . It is a straight line. Find its slope.
(13) Calculate the band gap using formula
Eg = 2.3026×103 ×2 k × (slope).
Use k =8.617×10−5 eV K −1 to get E g in eV unit. Note that up to four-significant digits,
k =1.3806×10−23 J K−1 , and 1eV=1.602×10−19 J.
Observations:
1. Semiconductor chip material = Germanium(verify from your lab manual)
2. Spacing (distance) between the probes, s = ….........mm = ….........m.
3. Thickness of the sample, w = ….........mm = ….........m.
Table 1: Voltage across the inner probes for a constant current at different sample
temperatures
(a) Constant current passed through the sample = ….......mA
S.NO Temperature Voltage T(K) ρ(Ω m) log 10 ρ
T (K) across inner (calculated) (calculated) (calculated)
probes
V (mV)
1
2
3
--
--

(If instructed, make one more table with a different value of constant current in the sample.)
Calculations:
1.
For the given sample, w/s=………
2. The correction factor G7 (w /s) =........
3. Calculation value of 103 /T , ρ(Ω m) and log10 ρ
(I) For S.No. 1 of Table 1
(i) Temperature T = ….....K. Therefore
103 /T =........... (K−1 ).

(ii) Resistivity is
ρ = ( 𝐼 ) 𝐺2𝜋𝑠
𝑤 =............. Ω m
𝑉
( )
7 𝑠
log10 ρ=...........

(II) Repeat calculations for other S.Nos.

2 Slope of the graph between 103 /T(K−1 ) and log10 ρ ) is

(𝐴𝐶)
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = = ⋯ … … ..
𝐵𝐶

5. Energy band gap

Eg = 2.3026×103 ×2 k×(slope )
=2.3026×103 ×2×8.617×10−5 × (slope) =................. eV

Result:
1. The temperature dependence of the resistivity of semiconductor (germanium) chip
is as shown in the graph. The resistivity increases exponentially with the increase in
1/T. That is as at low temperatures resistivity is more and at high temperatures the
resistivity is less.
2. The energy band gap for the given semiconductor (germanium) is = …......eV.
Precautions:
1. The surface of the semiconductor should be flat
2. All the four probes should be collinear.
3. The adjustment of 4-point probes should be done gently, as the semiconductor chip is
brittle.
4. The voltage should be measured using inner probes only using a high impedance
millivoltmeter.
5. Temperature of the oven should not exceed the limits set by manufacturer of the
probes and chip set.
 Department of Physics Course Code: PHIR12
National Institute of technology Course title: Physics-II
Kurukshetra (practical)

EXPERIMENT NO:- 9

Object: To Calibration of a voltmeter by using potentiometer.

Apparatus: Potentiometer, two storage batteries, two rheostats (50, 110 ohms), a standard cell,
galvanometer, two one way key, one two-way key and connection wires.

Formula Used:
The error in voltmeter reading is given by
V/ – V = (E l2 / l1 ) – V

where V = potential difference between two points read by voltmeter,

V/= potential difference between the same two points read by potentiometer.
E = E.M.F. of the standard cell.

l1 = length of the potentiometer wire corresponding to E.M.F. of standard cell.

l2 = length of the potentiometer wire corresponding to the difference (V/) measured by

potentiometer.

Electrical Connections:

The electrical connections are shown in fig. (1)

Procedure:
(i) Make the electrical connection as shown in fig. (1)

(ii) Place the jockey on the last end, B, of the tenth wire so that total length of the wire is 1000
cm.
Close K1 and K2 (i). In this case a deflection is observed in the galvanometer, which is reduced to
zero by adjusting the rheostat Rh in the main circuit. The adjustment of the rheostat should not be
described in performing the next steps.

(iii) Note down the total balancing length l1 (which we have taken as 1000 cm.) and E.M.F. (E) of
the standard cell.

(iv) Open K1 (i) and close K2 (ii) By closing K3 , adjust the variable point P of the potential
divider such that the voltmeter reading may be 0.1 volt. Adjust the jockey on the wire such that
there is no deflection in the galvanometer. Note down the total balancing length l2.

(v) By altering the position of the variable point p, continue the above procedure in steps till the
entire range of the voltmeter is covered.

(vi) Plot the graph between the observed value V of the voltmeter and the error (V/ – V).

Observation:

(A) Table for the calibration of potentiometer wire :

Length of the potentiometer wire

corresponding to E.M.F. of Standard cell, Remark
l1 cm
1000 E.M.F. of Standard cell E =……… volts
Potential Gradient = E
l1
=………. Volts/cm
 (B) Table for the calibration of Voltmeter :

Sr.No Voltmeter Balancing length of the

Reading V volts potentiometer wire l2
No. of *Length Total l2 in V/= kl2 (V/ – V)
complete on sliding cms. volt
wires wire
1. 0.1
2. 0.2
3 0.3
4 0.4
5. 0.5
6. 0.6
7. 0.7
8. 0.8
9. 0.9
10. 1.0

*For even numbered wires (e.g., second, fourth, sixth, eighth and tenth) either the length
should be read from the right end (not connected with the cell ) or it should be subtracted
from 100.

Calculations: Potential gradient k = E=……volts/cm

l1
Now V/=E×l2 = k × l2 =…….volts.
l1
Make similar calculations for other readings.
Draw a graph between the error (V/ – V) and the voltmeter reading (V). The shape will be
zig zag as shown in fig. (2).

Result: The graph so obtained by plotting the error against the voltmeter reading is the
calibration curve of the given voltmeter.
Sources of error and Precautions:

(i) The e.m.f. of the call used in the primary circuit should be greater than the
e.m.f. of standard cell.
(ii) All the positive terminals should be connected to the same point of the
potentiometer.
(iii) The batteries should be fully charged.
(iv) Jockey should not be moved on the potentiometer wire.
(v) The calibration should be checked after few readings.
(vi) Voltmeter should be connected in parallel.
 Department of Physics Course Code: PHIR12
National Institute of technology Course title: Physics-II
Kurukshetra (practical)

EXPERIMENT NO: - 11

AIM: - To Determine the saturation magnetization, retentively and coercively of a given

ferromagnetic sample using the magnetometer method.

APPARATUS: - Apparatus for magnetometer method for B-H curve, DC power supply, Step –
down Transformer (0-6V), Ammeter (0-3A).

DISCUSSION:- Magnetometer method is applicable to samples in the form of a rod. The

sample is kept in a vertically placed solenoid (S) which is connected in series with a
compensating coil (C) Fig.1.The orientation of C is such that its axis is horizontal and passes
through one of the poles (say, +m) of the magnetized sample and a magnetometer M, set in T an
A position.

Fig.1
The position of C is so adjusted that the magnetic effect of the solenoid on M is compensated by
that of C for any current passing through them. The intensity of magnetization I of the sample
for a current i passing through S can be calculated as

4µo d2 Ho tanθ
I= d 3 ………………………….(1)
r2(1− 13 )
𝑑2

=Ktan

Where

µo = permeability of free space

Ho = horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field

o = deflection of the magnetometer needle

r = radius of the specimen

d1, d2 = distance of the poles of the magnetized sample from M (d1 <d2 )
1⁄
It can be seen that 𝑑2 = (𝑑 21 + 𝑙 2 ) 2

l Being the magnetic length of the sample = 7/8 of the geometrical length. The corresponding
value of H is given by H = ni ………… … (2)

Where n is the number of turns per unit length in the solenoid S. The magnetic induction B in
unit length of the sample can then be calculated as B = µo H +I …………………. (3)

The horizontal component of the earth’s fiels H may be determined by passing a current i
through the coil C alone and noting the deflection Ө 0 of the magnetometer needle. From the
relation

𝑖oa2
= Ho tanθo …………………………….(4)
2 ( 𝑎 +𝑥 2 ) 3/2
2

Where a is the radius of the coil C, x its distance from M and n the number of turns in it, H o can
be determined.

PROCEDURE:
(a) Setting up the magnetometer : To set the magnetometer in Tan a position make the zero-
zero line of the magnetometer dial parallel to the scale and turn the magnetometer bench as a
until the pointer reads zero-zero .take care that this setting is not disturbed during the
experiments.

(b) Finding Ho: Pass a current i say 2amp, through the coil C alone and adjust its distance x
from M so that the deflection Өo of the magnetometer needle is between 30 and 60 degrees
.Note the deflection and the distance of M from the centre of C. Repeat three times for three
different values of io .

(c) Setting the positions of S and c: Make connection as shown in Fig.1 and insert the
demagnetized specimen in solenoid S. Increase the current through S and C until the saturation
state of the sample is reached. Adjust the position of M so that the deflection is about 60 o . Now
take the specimen out of S and adjust the position of C until the magnetometer shows zero
deflection.

(d)Demagnetisation of the specimen: Place the specimen in S and demagnetise it again by

passing an alternating current through S, gradually decreasing the applied AC voltage from say,
6V to zero. Ensure complete demagnetization of the specimen.

(e) Measuring B and H: connect S and C once again to the variable output DC supply through a
commutator (reversing key) and an ammeter (Fig.1). Change the value of i starting from zero to
say 3.0Amp in short steps of 0.4 Amp. The exact maximum value of i will be determined by the
saturation state of the specimen. Now decrease the current through similar steps to zero. Reverse
the direction of current and increase it again in steps to its maximum value in this direction.
Reduce the current again to zero in similar steps. Reverse its direction once again and slowly
increase it to maximum in the original direction. Note the values of Ө corresponding to each
value of i , taking care that the circuit has been brought to zero. A typical way of tabulating the
results of this measurement is shown in Appendix-1.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

l= (m)

d1= (m)

r= (m)
1⁄
𝑑2 = (𝑑 21 + 𝑙 2 ) 2= (m)

4µo d2 Ho tanθ
K= d 3 =
r2(1− 13 )
𝑑2

a= (m)

Determination of Ho

Sr.No Position of io Deflection

Ho (Amp m-1 )
C M (i) (ii) Mean
1.

2.

3.
TABLE No.2

Sr.No I 1 2 Mean Ten I=K H-ni B=µH+I

In tan
Amp.
1 0
2 0.4
3 0.8
4 1.2
5 1.6
6 2.0
7 2.4
8 2.8
9 2.4
10 2.0
11 1.6
12 1.2
13 0.8
14 0.4
15 0
Reverse the reaction of current
1 0
2 0.4
3 0.8
4 1.2
5 1.6
6 2.0
7 2.4
8 2.8
9 0
10 0.4
11 0.8
12 1.2
13 1.6
14 2.0
15 2.4
16 2.8