CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO CAR BODY

1.1 Introduction
In the beginning, the automobile looked like the horse-drawn carriage it was designed to replace. In
1919, 90% of the cars had carriage like open bodies. These early cars had rear-mounted engines and very
tall tires. They were designed to move people down dirt roads.

The 1886 Benz Patent Motor Wagen, one of the first automobiles made

The automobile changed when the roads became paved, more people owned cars, manufacturers tried to
sell more cars, concerns for safety and the environment grew, and new technology was developed. All
of these changes resulted in automobiles that are more practical, more affordable, safer, more
comfortable, more dependable, and faster. Although many improvements have been made to the original
design.

1.1.1 Importance of vehicle body engineering

✓ Vehicle body contributes about 40% to 60% of total weight in the case of cars and about 65 to
70% in the case of buses. Payload is determined by body weight.
✓ Reduction in body weight not only improves capacity but also fuel consumption.
✓ Aerodynamic characteristics determine the fuel consumption of high speed and stability in cross
wind. Positive pressure on the front and negative pressure on the rear of the car should be
minimized.
✓ Safety of driver, passenger and pedestrians should be considered.
1.1.2 Vehicle body construction
There are two types of vehicle body construction. These are body over frame and unitized body
construction. In body-over-frame construction, the frame is the vehicle’s foundation. The body and all
major parts of the vehicle are attached to the frame. The frame must be strong enough to keep the rest of
the vehicle in alignment when a collision occurs. A unibody is a stressed hull structure in which each of
the body parts supplies structural support and strength to the entire vehicle. Unibody vehicles tend to be
tightly constructed because the major parts are all welded together.

(a) Body-over-frame construction and (b) The structure of a unibody car

1.2 Body Shapes

Various methods of classifying vehicles exist. Vehicles may be classified by engine type, body/frame
construction, type of drive, or the classifications most common to consumers, which are body shape, seat
arrangement, and number of doors. Various body shapes are used today. These are:
sedan or saloon, station wagon or estate car, hatchback, coupe, pick up, van, Convertibles,
limousine or limo for short, sports car, Racing cars

✓ Sedan
A sedan or saloon (British English) is a passenger car in a three-box configuration with separate
compartments for an engine, passengers, and cargo. A vehicle with front and back seats that
accommodates four to six persons is classified as either a two- or four-door sedan. Often, a two-door
sedan is called a coupe. If the vehicle’s B pillars do not extend up through the side windows, the car is
called a hardtop.
 (a) Sedan and (b) Coupe

✓ Station Wagon
A station wagon (US, also wagon) or estate car (UK, also estate), is an automotive body-style variant
of a sedan/saloon with its roof extended rearward over a shared passenger/cargo volume with access at
the back via a third or fifth door (the liftgate or tailgate), instead of a trunk/boot lid. The body style
transforms a standard three-box design into a two-box design to include an A, B, and C-pillar, as well as
a D-pillar. Station wagons can flexibly reconfigure their interior volume via fold-down rear seats to
prioritize either passenger or cargo volume.

Station wagon
 ✓ Hatchback
A hatchback is a car body configuration with a rear door that swings upward to provide access to a
cargo area. Hatchbacks may feature two or three-box design. When describing the body style, the hatch
is often counted as a door, therefore a hatchback with two passenger doors is called a three-door and a
hatchback with four passenger doors is called a five-door.

Hatchback

✓ Pick up
Pickup truck body designs have an open cargo area behind the driver’s compartment. They can be in
two-, three-, or four-door models. Some have extended cab areas with seats in back of the front seat.
They are available in two-wheel drive, four-wheel drive (4X4), or all-wheel drive.

Pick-up
 ✓ Vans
The van body design has a tall roof and a totally enclosed large cargo or passenger area. Vans can seat
from two to twelve passengers, depending on size and design.

Vans

✓ Convertibles
Convertibles have roofs that can be raised or lowered. A few late-model convertibles feature a folding
metal roof that tucks away in the trunk when it is down. Some convertibles have both front and rear
seats. Those without rear seats are commonly referred to as sports cars.

Convertible
 ✓ Sports car
A sports car is a car designed with an emphasis on dynamic performance, such as handling,
acceleration, top speed and racing capability. The most common layout for sports cars was a roadster (a
two-seat car without a fixed roof), however there are also several examples of early sports cars with four
seats.

Sport car

✓ Limousine
A limousine or limo for short, is a large, driver-driven luxury vehicle with a partition between the
driver compartment and the passenger compartment.

Limousine
 ✓ Racing cars
Sports car racing is a form of motorsport road racing which utilizes sports cars that have two seats and
enclosed wheels. They may be purpose-built prototypes or grand tourers based on road-going models.

Racing cars
✓ Sport utility vehicles (SUVs)

SUVs are best described as multipurpose vehicles that can carry a wide range of passengers, depending
on their size and design. A good majority of SUVs have four-wheel drive, although some do not. Most
small SUVs are based on automobile platform and take on many different looks and features. There are
many large SUVs available. These vehicles can seat up to nine adults and tow up to 6 tons.

Sport utility vehicles

 ✓ Crossover vehicles
These automobiles look like an SUV but are built lighter and offer fuel efficiency. They are actually a
combination of a station wagon and an SUV. They have SUV features but are not quite the same size.
The basic construction of a crossover vehicle leads to a less trucklike ride than a normal SUV. They also
are not designed to tow heavy loads or for off-the-road use.

Crossover vehicles

1.3 Visibility
In transport, driver visibility is the maximum distance at which the driver of a vehicle can see and identify
prominent objects around the vehicle. Visibility is primarily determined by weather conditions and by
a vehicle's design. A blind spot, in the context of driving an automobile, is the area of the road that
cannot be seen while looking forward or through either the rear-view or side mirrors.

The parts of a vehicle that influence visibility include the windshield, the dashboard and the pillars.
Good driver visibility is essential to safe road traffic. Blind spots may occur in the front of the driver
when the A-pillar (also called the windshield pillar), side-view mirror, and interior rear-view mirror
block a driver's view of the road. Behind the driver, there are additional Pillars, headrests, passengers,
and cargo, that may reduce visibility.
1.3.1 Forward Visibility
Front-end blind spots are influenced by the following design criteria:
✓ Distance between the driver and the pillar
✓ Thickness of the pillar
✓ The angle of the pillar in a vertical plane side view
✓ The angle of the pillar in a vertical plane front view
✓ The form of the pillar straight or arc-form
✓ Angle of the windshield
✓ Height of the driver in relation to the dashboard
✓ Speed of the opposite car

1.3.1.1 Effects of A-pillar angle on visibility

Most passenger cars have a diagonal pillar as shown in this side view. The angle between the horizon
and A-pillar is approximately 40 degrees with a straight pillar that is not too thick. This gives the car a
strong, aerodynamic body with an adequately-sized front door.

1.3.1.2 Panoramic windshield

The sides of a panoramic windshield are curved, which makes it possible to design vertical A-pillars
that give the driver maximum forward visibility. However, it is impossible to design an aerodynamic
small car with a vertical A-pillar because the more vertical the A-pillar is, the less space the door opening
has, and the greater frontal area and coefficient of drag the vehicle will have.

1.3.1.3 Flat A-Pillar

Some modern car designs have an extremely flat A-pillar angle with the horizon. For example, the
Pontiac Firebird and Chevrolet Camaro from 1993-2002 had a windshield angle of 68° with the
vertical, which equals just 22° with the horizon. A flatter A-pillar's advantages include reducing the
overall drag coefficient and making the car body stronger in a frontal collision, at the expense of reducing
driver visibility in a 180° field of view from left to right.

Other disadvantages of a flat windshield angle

✓ The heater needs more time to heat the bigger window surface.
✓ The flat windshield angle does not let snow slide off easily.
✓ The driver cannot reach the whole flat window to clean it easily.
1.3.1.4 Height of the driver
Driver height can also affect visibility. An A-pillar that is split up and a small triangle window (Front
Quarter glass) can give a short driver visibility problems. Some cars the windshield is fillet with the roof-
line with a big radius. A fillet round A-pillar can give a tall driver visibility problems. Also, the B-pillar
(car) can block the vision of a tall driver in small 4 door cars.

1.3.1.5 Dashboard reflection

It is best if the dashboard has a non-reflecting dark coloured surface. A small dashboard gives some
reflection on the lower part of the windshield. A big dashboard can give reflection on eye height.

1.3.2 Field of View of the Driver

Direct view: The views observed by the driver directly through eyes are considered as direct views. It
can be represented by sight lines drawn from the eye to all the points which can be seen, collectively
defining the visible field of view.

The viewing angle above the horizon can be considered for traffic signals and signs. The downwards
view can be considered for road. Height of the dashboard and curvature of the bonnet are the two-
determining factor for downward view.
Indirect View: The views to the rear of the vehicle mainly obtained through the mirrors. This view
provides information on passing vehicle, vehicle close to the rear when the driver proposing to change
the lane. The view of image is bounded by the frame of mirror.

Blind Spot: A blind spot in a vehicle is an area around the vehicle that cannot be directly observed by
the driver while at the controls, under existing circumstances. Blind spots exist in a wide range of
vehicles: cars, trucks, motorboats and aircraft. Other types of transport have no blind spots at all, such
as bicycles, motorcycles and horses. Blind spots may occur in the front of the driver when the windshield
pillar, side-view mirror, and interior rear-view mirror block a driver’s view of the road.

1.3.3 Methods of Improving Visibility

✓ Windshield
The windshield or windscreen of an aircraft, automobile, bus, motorcycle, or tram is the front window.
Modern windshields are generally made of laminated safety glass, a type of treated glass, which consists
of two (typically) curved sheets of glass with a plastic layer laminated between them for safety, and are
glued into the window frame. The best way to improve visibility is to have car’s windshield in a pristine
condition. Windscreen is an essential component of the car. This helps improve or reduce driver’s
visibility based on how clean or shiny the windows and the windscreens are.

✓ Headlights
Check headlights for brightness. Headlights dim over time, which can diminish your visibility. Change
bulbs to high-quality bulbs that burn brighter. Even if both bulbs do not need replacement, change both
bulbs at the same time to get the best results. Look at headlight lenses. If they are cloudy and dirty, clean
them up to increase driving visibility in rain. Use low-beam headlights in the rain to improve visibility
and to ensure that others are able to see the car.

✓ Rear View Mirrors

A rear-view mirror (or sometimes, rear-vision mirror in British English) is a mirror in automobiles and
other vehicles, designed to allow the driver to see rearward through the vehicle's backlight (rear
windscreen). In the past, some cars had the rear-view mirror mounted on top of the dashboard. Rear-
view mirrors are designed to break away to minimize injury to occupants who may be thrown against it
in a collision.
 Rear-view mirror showing cars parked behind the vehicle containing the mirror

A prismatic rear-view mirror can be tilted to reduce the brightness and glare of lights, mostly for
headlights shining directly on the eye level at night.

Recently, rear-view video cameras have been built into many new model cars. This was partially in
response to the rear-view mirrors' inability to show the road directly behind the car, due to the rear deck
or trunk obscuring as much as 3–5 meter (10–15 feet) of road behind the car. These camera systems are
usually mounted to the bumper or lower parts of the car allowing for better rear visibility.

✓ Side View Mirrors

A wing mirror (also known as a side mirror or side-view mirror, especially in American English) is a
mirror found on motor vehicles for the purposes of helping the driver see areas behind and to the sides
of the vehicle, outside of the driver's peripheral vision (in the 'blind spot'). Although almost all modern
cars mount their side mirrors on the doors, normally at the "A" pillar, rather than the wings (fenders),
the term is still frequently used.

Wing mirror retraction control

Some car manufacturers allow mirrors to be either manually pushed or electrically folded in, to protect
them when they are parked.

Because of the location, wing mirrors are commonly broken in accidents

In some passenger-side mirrors there is a text written on the lower part of the mirror: Objects in Mirror
Are Closer Than They Appear, this is because passenger-side mirrors are convex to allow the drivers to
get a wide-angle view of the road behind them and to the sides but at the same time, they cause objects
to appear more distant. The flat mirror used on driver's-side mirrors, on the other hand, would not cause
the same distortion.

Side-view mirror with a caution note "Objects in the mirror are closer than they appear".

✓ Parking Sensors
Parking sensors audibly guide the driver through a ding-free parking experience. Like the backup
camera, these are available as aftermarket parts or an option on new vehicles.
 ✓ Driving Seat Adjustment
Adjust your seat so that you can see comfortably over the wheel and visibility is maximized.

✓ Reducing of brightness of Instrument Panel

Reducing the brightness of the instrument panel to improve visibility. Many drivers set this overly
bright, which forces their eyes to overcome the glare.

1.4 Minimum space requirements and method of improving space in car

✓ The amount of space can be allocated to passenger varies according to the dimension and type of
body of a given passenger car.
✓ The window openings should ensure good visibility and not cause any considerable reduction of
the stiffness of the body shell.
✓ The main requirements of the door opening is comfort of entry ,but when dealing with a two door
design it must be remembered that free passage way from the back seats must be ensured.
✓ The measurements of such passage way as given in (figure 1) is considered to be the minimum
permissible, if these measurements are decreased, entering and leaving the car becomes more
difficult
✓ Four door bodies are more comfortable for passengers, but they are also more expensive.
✓ This depends on avoiding pockets for the feet, which are uncomfortable and these can be removed
by suitably sloping the door post and by sloping the side wall

Figure 1: Location of front seat in relation to the door edge of a two-door body. (Dimension in mm)
How to improve Space in Cars?
1. Put a Cargo on the Roof: Even if the car doesn’t come with roof rails or racks, it can be installed
for putting the additional luggage and free the space inside the car.
2. Hook up a Trailer: This is the most powerful option. Luggage can be put in the trailer and free
space in the car for seating and creating a space for additional passengers.
3. Method of placing the spare wheel: Placing wheel outside the car can create space inside the car.
4. Designing adjustable seats: By designing adjustable seats, space can be created according to the
requirement. Rear seats can be folded to accommodate more luggage.
5. Designing the car with respect to engine and drive wheels: More space may be created with rear
engine and rear wheel drive combination.

1.5 Safety
A vehicle designer should not neglect the importance of safety in the design of body work. The designer
should ensure maximum safety of the driver, the passengers and other road users. It should be designed
to reduce the effects of collision. Safety in vehicles classified in to two, these are active and passive
safety.

1.5.1 Active Safety

Active safety deals with safety designs for the avoidance of accidents. Unlike passive safety which
entails introducing measures for protecting those involved from injury when an accident occurs, active
safety entails, in effect, rendering the vehicle inherently safe before it occurs.

If the ride is good and the road holding is such that the wheels never lose contact with the ground, the
driver will more easily be able to maintain control in difficult circumstances, including in an emergency.
Active safety embraces the design of the vehicle for ease of control by the driver without his becoming
fatigued, as well as the more obvious features such as harmonization of the steering, braking, tires
suspension and handling characteristics, to reduce the likelihood of his losing control.

There are five main requirements of active safety system. These are:
1. While the driver is at the wheel, he can readily verify that driving conditions are safe
2. In every situation, all control responses should be proportional to the driver’s input
3. All responses of the vehicle must be instant as well as accurately reflect the input
4. The vehicle must be dynamically stable
5. Drivers must be able to recognize when limits of stability are being approached.
Modern measures for improving dynamic stability include anti-lock brake systems (ABS), traction
control systems (TRC), and vehicle stability control (VSC), sometimes called vehicle dynamics control
(VDC).

✓ Anti-lock braking system (ABS): It prevents skidding which allows the driver to remain in
control.
✓ Traction control: It prevents skidding while accelerating so the car can quickly escape a
dangerous situation.
✓ Daytime Running Lights (DRL): (DRL) are multi-purpose or specially designed lights on the
front of a vehicle for use in daytime to increase its visibility and avoid multi-party crashes.

1.5.2 Passive Safety

Passive safety is about the protection of the occupants and pedestrians from serious injury if they are
involved in accidents. Passive safety can be sub-divided into two categories: safety for the occupants
and safety for pedestrians struck by the car.

As regards pedestrian safety, the design of the front end is all important. Ideally, the front would be a
vertical plane surface with reduced stiffness at shoulder and hip level. The stiffness of all shock absorbent
material in crash safety-related applications is critical: if too soft, the part of the human body involved
will crash right through it on to the underlying structure; if too hard, its shock absorption capability will
be reduced. Bumper stiffness involves a difficult compromise: if too stiff it breaks bones and, if too soft,
it fails to perform its function of energy absorption. Some of the passive safety equipments are:

✓ Seat belts: They prevent occupants being ejected from the vehicle and ensure that they are in
the correct position for the operation of the airbags.
✓ Airbags: The most important being the prevention of direct impact of the driver’s head with the
steering wheel and door pillar.
✓ Head injury protection: These are designed to help protect occupants from injuries caused when
their head strikes the upper interior of a vehicle.
✓ Laminated windshields: Tempered glass side and rear windows break into granules with
minimally sharp edges, rather than splintering into jagged fragments as ordinary glass does.
✓ Safety Cell: The passenger compartment is reinforced with high strength materials, at places
subject high loads in a crash, in order to maintain a survival space for the vehicle occupants.
 ✓ Collapsible universally jointed steering columns: This reduces the risk and severity of driver
impact or even impalement on the column in a frontal crash.
✓ Cargo barriers: These helps prevent injuries caused by occupants being struck by unsecured
cargo. They can also help prevent collapse of the roof in the event of a vehicle rollover.

Various passive safety system in vehicle

1.6 Car Body Construction

Based on body structure, car body construction classified in to two. These are unibody and body over
frame construction.

1.6.1 Uni Body Construction (Integral Type Body)

A Unitized body or unibody in which the chassis parts cannot be physically removed from the upper
body part. In the case all the units like suspensions and other mechanical parts are directly fitted (using
brackets) to the body frame which is then directly attached to the vehicle body. In the more modern
unibody construction used in the cars today, the integral floor pan is the main structural element.

Advantages
✓ It is relatively low height

Disadvantages
✓ Low dimensional precision of suspension attachment
✓ Lower filtering performance of the suspension fitting
✓ Reducing the insulation of vibrations due to road wheel excitation.
 1.6.2 Body on Frame (Conventional Body)
In this type of body, the chassis frame is connected to the upper frame by bolts with or without the inter
position of rubber bushes. Body on frame construction means a vehicle body utilizes a rigid steel frame
separate from the body. The ladder type frames provide the vehicle strength and attachment points for
the mechanical components

Advantages
✓ Allowing the adoption of one chassis for different body shapes.
✓ Providing mechanical parts standardization
✓ Simplification of the assembly process of a mechanical chassis before being matched to the upper
body.

1.6.3 Car Body Terminology

✓ Chassis: the basic frame for a motor vehicle
✓ “A” Post: the post on which the front door hinges are fixed
✓ Body Mounting: fittings for mounting the body to the chassis for older types of car or heavier
vehicles
✓ Composite Construction: the chassis and body of the vehicle are built as two separate units
✓ Integral Construction: most modern light vehicles use this method, also called mono or unity
construction. The body and chassis are combined
✓ Body Panels: wings, bonnet and door etc.
✓ “BC” post: the center post, the B post has the front door striker plate and the C has the hinges for the
rear doors. Only appropriate to four/five door vehicles
✓ “D” post: the rear post on which the rear door striker is fitted. Front door striker if a two/three door
vehicle