Construction Equipment

MEng5343

By Gosaye S.
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 Chapter 1
Introduction to construction
equipment

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 equipment classification
equipments are classified in different ways
 by engine types
 by hauling capacity
 by function

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 By engine type
a) light duty
a two stroke gas engine are normally
designed for light duty application
- light motor bike, chain saws, etc
b) Medium duty
four stroke gas engines are normally
designed for medium duty application

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 Contd.
• Eg. Personal car, heavy motor bikes, etc
c) Heavy duty
Diesel engines are normally designed for use
of heavy duty applications such as in
trucks, construction mobile machines,
marine propulsion, etc

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 By hauling capacity
a) Light duty
for vehicles with hauling capacity from 0-
4535 kg
b) Medium duty
for vehicles with hauling capacity 4535-
8845kg
crane, Garbage truck, Hook lift, pick up
truck are the most popular types
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 Contd.
c) Heavy duty
the are the highest hauling power
8845(100)-36000(40000)kg
Most commons are beverage truck, fire truck,
packer truck, Dump truck

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 Fundamental concepts of
equipment economics
Equipment economics
• Provide the right equipment at the right
time and place so the work can be
accomplished at the lowest cost result in:
 minimized ownership and operating(o & o)
 increased availability
 increased utilization

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 Work at the lowest cost
• not the same as machine at the lowest cost
• Machine utilization
• utilization drives purchase or rent/lease
decision.

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 Equipment economics
• a successful equipment owner must
analyze and answer two question:
1. How much does it cost to operate the
machine on a project?
2. What is the optimum economic life and
the optimum manner to secure a machine?

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 Q1 is critical to bidding and
operation planning
• identify the expense associated with
productive machines
- ownership and operating cost
O & O is usually stated in hourly basis (
eg,$90/hr for Dozer) If a Dozer can push ,
300cy yd (cubic yard) per hour, and it has
$90/hr o & o cost, then the production cost
(PC) will be
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 Contd...

• PC= $90/hr = $0.3/cy yd

300cy yd/hr

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 Q2 is important for machine
replacement
- identify the optimum point in time to
replace a machine and the optimum way to
secure a machine
 this is important in that it will reduce
o&o cost and there by lower production
expense.

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 Equipment economics
• The money a company spends for
equipment is an investment which must be
recovered as the machine is utilized on
projects.
 Time Value of Money
 Methods for comparing alternatives
 Financial Analysis for Single payment and Uniform
Series of Payment
 Owing Cost
 Operating Costs
 Replacement Decisions
 Buy, Rent or Lease 15
 Time value of money
P-Pattern “present”
1 2 3 n

F-Pattern “future”
1 2 3 n

A-Pattern “annual”
1 2 3 n

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 The equation of single payment
• To calculate the future value F of a single
payment P after n periods at interest rate i:
• F = P(1 + r)n
– F = future value
– P = present value
– r = period interest rate, expressed as a decimal
– n = number of periods
• Future value interest factor = (1 + r)n
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 Contd…
• F is related to P by factors that depend only
I and n. [ ( 1+i)n ]
• The term is known as single payment
compound amount factor ( SPCF)
• if the future value is given,

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 Formula for uniform series
payment
• Often payments handled or receipt occurs
at regular intervals. This handled by d/t
formula.

A= uniform end of period payments or

receipt continuing for n periods

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• To determine the equivalent uniform
period series required to replace the present
value of P,

the r/ship is known as the uniform series

present worth factor and uniform capital
recovery factor

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 Elements of ownership cost

1. purchase expenses
2. salvage value
3. Tax saving from depreciation
4. Major repairs and overhauls
5. property taxes
6. insurance
7. Storage and miscellaneous
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1. Purchase expense :-
-the cash outflow the firm experience in
acquiring ownership of a machine

- It is the total delivered cost (drive away

cost), including amounts for all options,
shipping, and taxes, less the cost of tires if
the machine has pneumatic tires.

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 2. Salvage value
- is a cash inflow a firm receives if a
machine has value at the time disposal
- a machine having divers and layered
service potential will command a higher
resale value
- medium size dozers, which often exhibit
rising salvage value at the later years
( used in an infrequent land clearing
assignment by farmers) 24
 3.Tax saving from depreciation
• a machine’s loss in value with age will
lessen the net cash outflow, afforded by tax
depreciation is a result of shielding the
company from taxes.
• Straight line depreciation- is easy to
calculate. The annual amount of
depreciation(Dn), for any year n, is a
constant value, and the book value(BVn)
decrease at a uniform rate over useful life
of the machine 25
• Where N is the number of years

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Tax code depreciation schedule

under tax code machines are classified as

3-,5-,10-, or 15 –yr real property.
different depreciation percent is allocated for
each year.

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 4. Major repair and overhaul
• Are included under ownership cost because
they result an extensions of machines
service life.
• they can considered as an investment in
new machine.

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 5. Taxes
• Are equipment ownership taxes that are
charged by any government subdivision.
• are commonly assessed at a percentage
rate applied against book value of the
machine.

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 6. Insurance
• include the cost to cover fire, theft, and
damage to the equipment.
• Annual rates can range from 1 to 3%
• it may be annual premium payment to
insurance company or allocation to self
insurance fund by the owner

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 7. Storage and Miscellaneous
• Between jobs or during bad weather, a
company require storage facility for
equipment.
• Typical expense include space rental,
utilities, and the wage for laborers or
watchmen.
• the rate may range from nothing to 5%

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 Equipment Economics
 Equipment Economics
 Time Value of Money
 Methods for comparing alternatives
 Financial Analysis for Single payment and Uniform
Series of Payment

P-Pattern 1 2 3 n “present”
F-Pattern 1 2 3 n “future”
–
A-Pattern 1 2 3 n “annual”

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 Equipment cost
 Owing Cost
 Operating Costs
 Replacement Decisions
 Buy, Rent or Lease

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 Elements of operation cost
• Operation cost is the sum of those
expenses an owner experiences by working
with machines on a project. Typical
expenses include:
1. fuel
2. lubrication, filters and grease
3. Repairs
4. Tires
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5. Replacement of high –wear items
 Fuel
• Fuel expense is best determined by
measurement of on job
• accurate service records tells to owner the
consumption of the machine at what period
of time and under what job condition
- fuel cost can be calculated directly or
- by manufacturer’s fuel consumption
estimates.
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• The amount of fuel required for a specific
period of time depends on the brake horse
power of the machine and the working
condition

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 Lubricants- lube Oils, Filters,
and Greece
• The costs of these depends on the
maintenance practice of the company and
the condition of the working location
• Or it depends on manufacturers PM
guidelines
• if the machine is to be operated under
adverse conditions such as deep mud,
water, or sever dust, the data values will
have to be adjusted 38
• a formula can be used to estimate the
quantity of oil required

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 Repair
• These are expenses incurred on job site
where the machine is operated and would
include the cost of parts and labor
• Major repair and overhaul are an
ownership cost
• repair expenses increase with the machine age
• Usually calculated by dividing the total
expected repair cost, for the planned
service life of the machine, by the planned
operating hour
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 Tire
• For wheel type equipment is a major
operating cost b/c it has short life in r/n to
iron of the machine
• is difficult to estimate its cost
- the variability in tire wear with the
project site condition and
- skill of the operator
• manufacturers guide line based on good
operating condition, not account for abuses
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Replacement of high wear items
• Items that have short service life can be
critical operating cost
• the items will differ depends on the type
of machine, typical items include cutting
edges, ripple tips, bucket teeth, body liners,
and cable
• can be used past experience or
manufacturer guide line to calculate the
cost, converted to hourly bases 42
 Replacement decision
A piece of equipment has two lives:
1. A physically limited working life and
2. A cost limited economic life
Because equipment owners are in business to
make money economic life of their
equipment is of critical importance
All factors must be examined when
considering a replacement decision

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If the owners considers only ownership cost
the m/c should not be traded
If the owners consider only the OC , the
owner trade after the end of first year.
The analysis should be based on cumulative
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effect
 Example
A small dozer purchased for $106,000. a forecast of
expected operating hour, salvage value and maintenance
expense presented in the table. Determine the optimum
replacement time of the dozer?

operating Maintenance
year Hour Salvage($) Expense ($)
1 1850 79,500 3340
2 1600 69,500 3900
3 1400 76,320 4460
4 1200 73,000 5000
5 800 70,000 6600
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Replacement Analysis

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 Rent and lease consideration
• There are three basic methods for securing
a particular machine to use
1. Buy ( direct ownership)
2. rent or
3. Lease
Each methods has own pros and cons

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 Rental
• Rental of a machine is a short term
alternative to direct equipment ownership.
Advantage
used to pick that machine that exactly fit
for the job at hand
used to test machine prior to purchase
(profitability, model, job condition)

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 Disadvantage
• Rental companies have only limited
number of machines
during pick season
all type are not always available
many specialized or custom machine

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 Lease
• Is a long term agreement for the use of an asset
• is an alternative to direct ownership.
Advantage
 the lessor provides the equipment mgt and
servicing
no cost from hiring mechanic and servicing
personnel
Working capital is not tied up in equipment
Borrowed funds are not used, credit
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capacity is preserved
Owners should make a careful examination of the
advantage the lease situation. The cash flows,
which should be considered when evaluating the
cost of lease.
1. Inflow initially of the equivalent value of the
machine
2. Outflow of the periodic lease payment
3. Tax shielding provided by the lease payments.
(This is allowed only if the agreement is true
lease. Some lease are installment sale
arrangements)
4. Loss of salvage value when the machine is
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returned to the lessor.
 Power Requirement
• a contractor or owner must select proper
equipment to relocate and/or process
material economically
• Cycle time and payload determine
machine’s production rate
• Machine travel speed directly affected by
cycle time

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 Required power
• Power required is the power needed to
overcome resisting force and cause
machine motion
• The force resisting the movement of
mobile equipments are
1. Rolling resistance- the resistance of level
surface to constant motion across it
2. Grade resistance-the force opposing
mov’t of a machine up a frictionless slope
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 Fig. mechanism of rolling resistance

• The resistance varies considerably with the

types and condition of the surface.
• Soft surface have higher resistance than
hard surfaced roads like concrete or asphalt54
 Grade resistance
• It act against the total weight of the
machine
• In up hill the power required to keep it
moving increase proportional to the slope

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 F = Wsin α
N = Wcosα
for angles less than 10, sinα= tanα(the
small angle assumption; with that
substitution:
F=Wtanα

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 Total resistance(TR)
• TR= RR+GR
can be expressed as effective grade
Rolling resistance can be equated to an
equivalent grade

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Table 3 values for the effect of slope, expressed in kg/m ton
of the vehicle weight

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example

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 Available Power
• Internal combustion engines power most
construction Equipment
• Diesel engine is better than gasoline in:
- used for heavy duty application
-longer service life
-low fuel consumption
-less of a fire hazards
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 Work and Power
• Work done = Force x distance
• Power is the rate of doing work

• 1hp = 746w 62
 Horse power rating
• Gross horse power- actual generated by
engine prior to load losses for auxiliary
systems such as alternator, air conditioner,
compressor and water pump.
• Fly wheel horse power- can be considered
usable horse power
- it is the power available to operate the
machine
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 Rim pull and Draw bar pull
• Rim pull – the tractive force b/n the tire a
machine’s driving wheels and the surface
on which they travel
• If the coefficient of traction is sufficiently
high there is no tire slippage

• SAE recommends using 0.85 when

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efficiency is not known.
 Example
• Assuming that the coefficient of traction is
sufficient such that the machine’s total
power can be developed, calculate the rim
pull of a pneumatic-tired truck with a 140-
hp engine. The tractor is operating at a
speed of 3.3mph in first gear. Use SAE
recommended efficiency.

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 Contd…

In computing the pull that a tractor can exert

on a towed load, it is necessary to deduct
from the rim pull of the tractor force required
to overcome the total resistance.

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 Draw bar pull
• The towing force a crawler tractor can
exert on a load
• To determine the draw bar pull available
for towing a load it is necessary to subtract
from the total pulling force available at the
engine the force required to over come the
total resistance imposed by the haul
condition
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 Usable Power
• Usable power depends on project condition
- haul road surface condition, altitude,
and temperature
• Underfoot condition determine how much
of the available power can be transferred to
the surface to propel the machine

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 Example
Consider a tractor that weighs 12.4 tons
and whose maximum rim pull in the first
gear is 13,730lb, if it is operated on a haul
road with a positive slope of 2% and a
rolling resistance of 100lb/ton, the full
13,523lb of rim pull will not be available
for towing, as a portion will be required for
overcoming the total resistance arising
from the haul condition. Determine the pull
available for towing a load.
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Solution

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Draw bar pull performance chart crawler tractor

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Managing Earth moving
operation

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 Earth moving operation may include:
• site preparation
• Excavation
• Embankment construction
• Backfilling
• Dredging
• Preparing base coarse, sub base, and sub grade
• Compaction and road surfacing

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 Equipment selection
• Proper equipment selection is crucial in
achieving efficient earth moving operation
• The manager should visualize how best to
employ the available equipment based on:
- production estimates
-soil(material) considerations,
-zone of operation and
-project specific requirement
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 Production estimate
1. Production rate formula
the most convenient and useful unit in
calculating productivity

Production rate. It can be cubic yard per

hour, ton per shift, or feet of ditch per hour
Unit of work done. Denotes the units of
production accomplished. It can be volume
or weight of material moved, the no. of
pieces of material cut, distance traveled, or
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any similar measurement of production
2. Time required formula
-it is the inverse of production rate.
-it is some times useful when scheduling a
project because it defines the time required
to accomplish a certain work

Note: express time required in units such as

hours per 1000 cubic yard, hours per acre,
minute per foot of ditch

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 Material consideration
• Depending on where a material is
considered in the construction process,
during excavation versus after compaction,
the same material will occupy different
volumes.
• Material volume can be measured in three
stages
Bank cubic yard
Loose cubic yard
Compacted cubic yard 77
Soil volume is measured in one of the three states

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• When manipulating the material in the
construction process, it volume changes.
• The prime question for an earth mover is
the material physical properties
Rock. Is a material that an ordinary earth
moving equipment cannot be removed.
it requires fracturing of rock by drilling and
blasting.
Some times requires explosives
Soil. Soils are classified by particle size and
cohesiveness
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 gravel and sand have blocky shaped and
non cohesive
Clay has small and platy-shaped particles
and is cohesive
ripping equipment may be necessary to
loosen consolidated deposits.
• Unclassified. Is the combination of the
most common materials
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 Soil properties
• In earth moving operation the material
properties are thoroughly analyzed:
 load ability
Moisture content
Percentage of swell and
compatibility

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• Load ability- if a material is easy to dig
and load it has high load ability
conversely if a material is hard to dig and
load, it has low load ability
• Moisture content . Moisture content is very
important factor in earth moving work
since moisture affects a soils unit weight
and handling properties.
• Percentage of swell. Most earth and rock
materials swell when removed from natural
resting place( expressed as %ge of volume)
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• Compactibility- it is common to compact
soil to higher density than its natural state.
higher density assist to: increase strength,
reduce settlement, improve bearing
capacity and lower permeability
• Soil weight. Soil weight affect the
performance of the equipment
To estimate the equipment requirements of
a job accurately, the unit weight of material
being moved must be known
the same material weight will occupy d/t
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volumes in BCY,LCY and CCY
 Load factor
• Use load factor to convert to find volume
of material at a certain state

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 Zone of operation
• The relation ship b/n zone of operation and
earth moving equipment is significant in
selecting equipments
• There are three zones of operation to
consider in construction project
 power zone
 slow speed hauling zones and
 High speed hauling zones

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 Power zone
• In power zone, maximum power is
required to overcome adverse site or job
conditions
• Such conditions include: rough terrain,
steep slopes, pioneer operations, or
extremely heavy loads.
• The work in these area requires crawler
tractors that can develop high drawbar pull
at slow speed
• The more traction a tractor develops, the
more it will reach its full potential 88
 Slow speed hauling zone
• Slow speed hauling zone is similar to the
power zone, since power, more than speed
is the essential factor
• Site conditions are slightly better than
power zone and the haul distance is short
• Dozers get more power for improved
condition

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Considerations that determine slow hauling zones
are as follows:

• The ground conditions do not permit rapid

travel and movement distance of the
material is beyond economical dozing
operation
• The haul distance are not long enough to
permit scrapers to travel at high speeds

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 High speed hauling zone
• In high speed hauling zone, construction
has progressed to where ground conditions
are good, or where long, well maintained
haul roads are established
• Achieve this condition as soon as possible

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Considerations that determine a high speed hauling
zone are as follows:

• Good hauling conditions exist on both

grade and haul road surfaces
• Haul distances are long enough to permit
acceleration to maximum travel speeds
• Push tractors are available to assist loading

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 Using mass diagram
• Is analysis tool to select appropriate
equipment for excavation and hauling
material in zones of operation.

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 Summary
• Classification of equipment
• Fundamental concept of equipment
economics
• Equipment economics
• Power requirement
• Managing earth moving operation

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 Equipment Economics
 Equipment Economics
 Time Value of Money
 Methods for comparing alternatives
 Financial Analysis for Single payment and Uniform
Series of Payment

P-Pattern 1 2 3 n “present”
F-Pattern 1 2 3 n “future”
–
A-Pattern 1 2 3 n “annual”

97
 Equipment cost
 Owing Cost
 Operating Costs
 Replacement Decisions
 Buy, Rent or Lease

98