Chapter_1

Signal Analysis
 Communication system:
System: is an entity that processes a set of signals (inputs) to yield another set of signals
(outputs).

Example: Voice communication system.

 Basic Concepts:
o A signal: is a physical quantity that varies with time, space or any other independent variable,
by which information can be transmitted.
1- Input Signal: is the signal that enter the system from external source. For example the
voltage from generator, electrocardiogram from heart.
2- Output signal: is the signal produced by the system in response to the input signal. For
example output voltage from an amplifier or biochemical signal from chemical reaction.
o Type of signals
1- Continuous-time and Discrete time signals

Continuous-time signal, x(t) discrete-time signal, x(n)

o Examples of Continuous-time: Electrocardiographic (ECG), Electrogastrogram (EGG) and
speech signal.
 2- Even and Odd signals:
o Even signals are symmetric around
vertical axis, and Odd signals are
symmetric about origin.
o Even Signal:
x(t) = x(-t)
o Odd Signal:
x(t) = - x(-t)
3- Periodic and aperiodic (Non-periodic) signals:

The signal is periodic if

x (t )  x (t  nT ) n=1, 2, 3, ....
where T is fundamental period (the smallest period) of signal x(t))
4- Deterministic and Random signals:

5- Energy and power signals:

o The energy signal has a finite energy, E < ∞. In other words, energy signals have values
only in the limited time duration. (has zero power)
o The power signal is not limited in time. The power of power signal is finite, 0 < p < ∞. (has
infinite energy)
o On the other hand, there are signals that are neither energy nor power signals.
6- Analog and Digital signals:

 Analog to Digital conversion (ADC):

performs three functions
1) Sampling
2) Quantizing
3) Encoding
1) Sampling:
o Make the signal discrete in time.
o If the analog signal has a bandwidth of W Hz, then the
minimum sampling frequency must be 2W Hz such
that the signal can be reconstructed without
distortion.(Sampling Theorem)
2) Quantization:
o Make the signal discrete in amplitude.
o Round off to one of q discrete levels.
3) Encoding:
o Maps the quantized levels to digital words that are n
bits long.
o If the (Nyquist) sampling theorem is satisfied, only
quantization introduces distortion to the system.

 Properties:
1- Periodicity:
o The signal is periodic when x(t) = x(t+T)
o The signal is aperiodic when x(t) ≠ x(t+T) Where T is the fundamental period.
𝟐𝝅
For continuous signal 𝑻 = 𝒎 Where m is an integer number m=1, 2, 3, …….
𝝎𝒐
𝟐𝝅
For discrete signal 𝑻 = 𝒎
Ω𝒐
Example 1: 1) Determine whether the following signals are periodic or not:
i) x(t)=esin(t) ii) x(t)=tesin(t)
Solution:
i) x(t)=esin(t) where, 𝝎𝒐 = 𝟏 rad/sec
x(t + T) = esin(t+T) for T= 2π → sin(t + T)= sin(t + 2π)= sin(t)
x(t)= x(t + T), and hence x(t) is a periodic signal.
ii) x(t)=tesin(t)
x(t + T) = (t+T)esin(t+T) = (t+T)esin(t) ≠ x(t)
x(t) ≠ x(t + T), and hence x(t) is an aperiodic (nonperiodic) signal.
 Sum of Periodic signals:
If x1(t) is a periodic signal of period T1, x2(t) is a periodic signal of period T2 and
X(t) = x1(t)+ x2(t)
o X(t+T) = x1(t+ m1 T1)+ x2(t+ m2 T2) where m1 T1 = m2 T2 = To fundamental frequency.
𝒕𝝅 𝒕𝝅
Example 2: find the fundamental period of 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( ) + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( )
𝟑 𝟒
Solution:
𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅
o 𝝎𝟏 = = → 𝑻𝟏 = 𝝅 =𝟔 and 𝝎𝟐 = = → 𝑻𝟐 = 𝝅 =𝟖
𝟑 𝑻𝟏 ( ) 𝟒 𝑻𝟐 ( )
𝟑 𝟒
𝒎𝟐 𝑻𝟏 𝟔 𝟑
o Since, 𝒎𝟏 𝑻𝟏 = 𝒎𝟐 𝑻𝟐 → = = =
𝒎𝟏 𝑻𝟐 𝟖 𝟒
o The fundamental frequency, 𝑻𝒐 = 𝟑. 𝟖 = 𝟒. 𝟔 = 𝟐𝟒 rad
𝝅 𝝅
Example 3: determine the fundamental period of 𝒘(𝒕) = 𝟓𝟎𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝒕) + 𝟐𝟎𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝒕) and
𝟑 𝟔
test the periodicity.
Solution:
𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅
o 𝒙𝟏 (𝒕) = 𝟓𝟎𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝒕) → 𝑻𝟏 = = 𝝅 =𝟔
𝟑 𝝎𝟏 ( )
𝟑
𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅
and 𝒙𝟐 (𝒕) = 𝟐𝟎𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝒕)→ 𝑻𝟐 = = 𝝅 = 𝟏𝟐
𝟔 𝝎𝟐 ( )
𝟔
𝒎𝟐 𝑻𝟏 𝟔 𝟏
o Since, 𝒎𝟏 𝑻𝟏 = 𝒎𝟐 𝑻𝟐 → = = =
𝒎𝟏 𝑻𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟐
o The fundamental frequency, 𝑻𝒐 = 𝟐𝑻𝟏 = 𝑻𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐 rad
o The signal is periodic because it is sinusoidal signal.
𝝅 𝝅
Exercise: 1) find the fundamental period of 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝒕) + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝒕) and test the periodicity.
𝟑 𝟓
𝝅
2) Test the periodicity of 𝒙(𝒏) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 ( 𝒏) and find the fundamental period.
𝟖
Solution:
𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅
1) 𝝎𝟏 = 𝟑 = 𝑻 → 𝑻𝟏 = 𝝅
( )
=𝟔 and 𝝎𝟐 =
𝟓
=
𝑻𝟐
→ 𝑻𝟐 = 𝝅
( )
= 𝟏𝟎
𝟏 𝟑 𝟓
𝒎𝟐 𝑻𝟏 𝟔 𝟑
o Since, 𝒎𝟏 𝑻𝟏 = 𝒎𝟐 𝑻𝟐 → = = =
𝒎𝟏 𝑻𝟐 𝟏𝟎 𝟓
o The fundamental frequency, 𝑻𝒐 = 𝟓. 𝟔 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟎 =30 rad
o The signal is periodic because it is sinusoidal signal.
𝝅 𝟏 𝝅 𝟏 𝝅 𝝅
2) 𝒙(𝒏) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 (𝟖 𝒏) = 𝟐 [𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 (𝟖 𝒏)] = 𝟐 [𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝟒 𝒏)] where, Ω𝒐 =
𝟒
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅
We can obtain the period 𝑵𝒐 = 𝒎= 𝝅 𝒎 = 𝟖𝒎 for m=1, 𝑵𝒐 = 𝟖
Ω𝒐 ( )
𝟒
o The signal 𝒙(𝒏)is periodic with period (8) because it is sinusoidal signal.
Exercise: Test the periodicity of 𝒙(𝒏) = 𝒆−𝟕𝒋𝝅𝒏 and find the fundamental period.
Solution: 𝒙(𝒏) = 𝒆−𝟕𝒋𝝅𝒏 we can find Ω𝒐 = 𝟕𝝅
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅
We can obtain the period 𝑵𝒐 = 𝒎= 𝒎
Ω𝒐 𝟕𝝅
In order satisfy the integer condition for fundamental period, m is assumed to be 7, hence,
𝑵𝒐 = 𝟐
 o As the x(n) is exponential, hence it is periodic signal with period 2.
 Even and odd representations:
i) Even Signal, x(t) = x(-t) ii) Odd Signal, x(t) = - x(-t)
o If x(t) is not even or odd signal, we can find
𝟏
i) The even representation of x(t) as: 𝒙𝒆 (𝒕) = [𝒙(𝒕) + 𝒙(−𝒕)]
𝟐
𝟏
ii) The odd representation of x(t) as: 𝒙𝒐 (𝒕) = [𝒙(𝒕) − 𝒙(−𝒕)]
𝟐
Example: Draw the odd and even
representation of the given signal, x(t).
Solution:

𝟏
o Even, 𝒙𝒆 (𝒕) = [𝒙(𝒕) + 𝒙(−𝒕)]
𝟐
𝟏
o Odd, 𝒙𝒐 (𝒕) = [𝒙(𝒕) − 𝒙(−𝒕)]
𝟐

Exercise: Draw the odd and even components of

 Energy-Type and Power-Type Signals.

o This classification deals with the energy content and the power content of signals.
Before classifying these signals, we need to define the energy content (or simply the
energy) and the power content (or power).
i) For any signal x(t), the energy content of the signal is defined by

ii) The average power content is defined by

For real signals, |x(t)|2 is replaced by x2(t).

o How can you know, the type of signal?
i) The signal x(t) is an energy signal if and only if its energy is finite, E x  
ii) The signal x(t) is a power signal if and only if satifies, 0  Px  
 Example 1: find the energy in the signal described by:
3 x  3
x (t )  
0 otherwise
 3
Solution: we have, E x   x (t )dt   9dt  54
2

 3

Therefore, the signal x(t) is an energy-type signal.

Example 2: describe the type of the signal, x(t)=A cos(2πfot+θ)
Solution: The average power content is defined by
T /2
1
Px  lim 
2
x (t ) dt
T  T
T /2
T /2 T /2
1 1 A2
Px  lim       2 [1  cos(4 f ot  2 )]dt
2 2
A cos (2 f ot )dt lim
T  T T  T
T /2 T /2

 A 2T T /2 A 2   A 2T  A 2 
T /2
 A2
= lim    cos(4 f ot  2 )dt   lim   sin(4 f ot  2 )dt  
T 
 2T 2T 
T 
 2T  8 f T  T /2  2
T /2  o

Therefore, the signal x(t) is a power-type signal and its power is A2/2.
The energy content is
T /2
Ex  
2
x (t ) dt
T /2
T /2
E x  lim
T  
T /2
A 2 cos 2 (2 f ot   )dt   Therefore, the signal x(t) is not energy-type signal.

 A signal is an energy-type if and only if its energy is finite (Ex<∞) and it is a power-type if
and only if 0< Px<∞.
 A signal cannot be both energy-and power-type because Px=0 for energy-type signals and
Ex= ∞ for power-type signals. A signal can be neither energy-type nor power-type.
 However most of the signals of interest are either energy-type or power-type.
 Practically, all periodic signals are power-type and have power
 T
1 o
Px  
2
x (t ) dt
To 
Where To is the period and α is any arbitrary number.
 All periodic signals are power signals, because they do not converge to a finite value so their
energy is infinite and their power is finite. So we say that a signal is a power signal if its power
is finite and its energy is infinite. And the signal is an energy signal if its energy is finite and
power is zero.
Example: Test whether the given signal:
1) 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝒖(𝒕)
Solution: Energy,

Power,

It is an energy signal.
 2) 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒕𝒖(𝒕)
Solution: Energy,

Power,

It is neither energy nor power signal.

Example: Determine the suitable measure (power or energy) of the following signals

Solution:
(a) g(t) = t
The signal amplitude doesn't → 0 as │t│→ ∞ (periodic), thus the suitable measure is power.
The power is given by (T=2 sec):
T /2 1
1 1 2 1
Pg  lim  2 1
2
x (t ) dt  t dt 
T  T 3
T /2

The signal is a power signal. The rms value of this signal is 1/ 3

(b) The signal amplitude → 0 as │t│→ ∞ (finite), thus the suitable measure is energy.
The energy is given by
 0  0 
(t )dt   (2) dt    2e  dt   4dt   4e
2
Eg   x
t /2 t
2 2
dt  4  4  8
1 0 1 0
The signal is an energy signal.
Example: Determine the power and rms value of the following signals

 Basic Signals
1- Unit Step Function:

o Area under unit step function is unity.

o What is the difference between x(t)= e-at and x(t)= e-at u(t)?
The signal e-at start at t = -∞, but the signal e-at u(t) start at t=0(the causal form).
o Causality: the signal g(t) is causal signal if:
g(t) = 0 for t < 0
o If we want the signal to start at t=0, must be applied by u(t).
 2- Unit Impulse Function:
1 t=0
 (t)  
0 t0
o Relation between u(t) and δ(t)

Integration Differentiatio
n

3- Ramp Signal:
t t  0
r (t)  
0 t<0
o Area under unit ramp function is unity.

4- Parabolic Signal:
 t 2 /2 t  0
x (t)  
0 t<0

o
5- Signum Signal:
1 t0
sgn(t)  0 t=0
-1 t>0

sgn(t)  2u (t ) 1
6- Exponential Signal:
o The exponential signal is in the form x (t)  e t
o The shape of exponential can be determined by α
 Case i: if α=0 → x (t)  e 0  1
 Case ii: if α < 0 → x (t)  e t decaying exponential
 Case ii: if α > 0 → x (t)  e t raising exponential
 7- Rectangular Signal:
Let it be denoted as x(t) and it is defined as

 A -T / 2  t  T / 2
x (t)  A rect  t 
T  0 otherwise

Ex: x (t)  4 rect  t 

6

8- Triangular Signal:
Let it be denoted as x(t) and it is defined as

x (t)  A   t   A 1  t 
T   T 

Ex : x (t)  A  t   A 1  t 
5  5

9- Sinc Function:
It is denoted as sinc(t) and it is defined as

sinc(t)  sin( t )
t
=0 for t =  1,  2,  3,....
10- Sinusoidal Signal:
It is in the form of x (t )  A cos(ot   ) or A sin(ot   )

𝟐𝝅
Where, 𝑻𝒐 =
𝝎𝒐
 Basic Signal Operations:
1- Signal addition:
2- Constant Multiplication:
3- Time and frequency Shifting:
i) Shift in time: Delay
ii) Shift in frequency: Modulation
4- Time Scaling:
Example" x(-t) is a reflection of x(t)
5- Time Windowing:
Multiplication by a Window signal w(t).
1- Amplitude Scaling(Multiplication by constant):
o c x(t)is a amplitude scaled version of x(t) whose amplitude is scaled by a factor c (2 or 0.5).

Example 2: x(t)= sin(ωt) and y(t) = αx(t)

2- Signals Addition:
Let y(t) = x1(t)+ x2(t)

3- Signals Subtraction: Let z(t) = x1(t)- x2(t)

4- Signals Multiplication:
Multiplication of two signals x1(t) and x2(t) results in a signal
y(t) = x1(t).x2(t)
5- Time Shifting:
o The signal x(t ± to) is a time shifted version of x(t).
o A time shift delay or advances the signal in time by a time interval +to or –to, without
changing its shape.
o x(t - to) is a positive shift while x(t + to) is a negative
shift

Examples:

6- Time Scaling:
o y(t)=x(At) is time scaled version of the signal x(t) , where A is called scaling factor always
positive.
|A| >1------ > Compression signal shift |A| <1------ > Expansion signal shift

 Time Reversal or Reflected Signal:

x(-t) is the time reversal of the signal x(t).
Examples: for Signals Basic Operations:
Exampe 1: Find x([t-4]/2) for a given signal x(t).
t
Solution: x (  2)
2
Step 1: time shift by 2 Step 2: time scaling by 1/2

Exampe 2: Find x(2t+3) for a given signal x(t).

Solution: x (2t  3)
Step 1: time shift by -3 Step 2: time scaling by 2

Exampe 3: Find x(t/2+3) for a given signal x(t).

t
Solution: x (  3)
2
Step 1: time shift by -3 Step 2: time scaling by 1/2

Exampe 4: Find x(2t-3) for a given signal x(t).

Solution: x (2t  3)
Step 1: time shift by 3 Step 2: time scaling by 1/2
 Line Spectra:
Line spectra means that, the signal is represented in frequency domain, it draws the amplitude
and phase as function of frequency.
o Example: line spectrum of sinusoidals:
Ao Ao
x(t)= Ao cos(2πfot+θo)

-fo 0 fo f

θo

-fo 0 fo f
-θo
Note that:
1) If the signal is sine wave, you should change it to cosine wave
sin(ωt)=cos(ωt-90)
2) The amplitude is always +ve, so
-Acos(ωt)=Acos(ωt  180)
3) All spectral drawings with f not with ω
Example: Sketch the line spectrum of the following signal:
m(t)=3-5cos(40 t-30)+4sin(120 t)
Solution:
i) The first term is dc that at f = 0,
amplitude spectrum is 3
ii) The second term is -5 cos(40πt-30), we
should change it to +ve by adding 180
as follows
-5cos(40 t - 30)  5cos(40 t - 30  180)
 5cos(40 t  150)
Note that ω=2πf, then, we can write
5cos(40t  150)  5cos(2 20t 150)
iii) Third term is sine wave, so we can
write it as
4sin(120t )  4cos(2 60t  90)
 Assignment 2
1) Find
t 5t  6
i ) y (t )  x (5t  6) ii ) y (t )  x (  2) iii ) y (t )  x ( )
3 10
2) Find
t
i )x (3t  2) ii )x (  2)
3

3) Sketch odd and even signal x(t)

2
1

4) Consider the signal x(t)

-2 2 4 t

Sketch the signal y(t)=x(2t+3)

5) Consider the signal x(t)

Sketch the even and odd components of the signal

6) Sketch the line spectrum of the following signal:
x(t)=100-80sin(60 t+30)+50sin(80 t)