Course: Communication Engineering

Course
Communication Engineering
(Signals and Systems Part)
x(t) Rx(t)
Integrator
Adjustable delay x(t-t)
Prepared by
Prof. Saied M. Abd El-atty
Chapter 1: Aspects of Communication Eng.
Chapter 1
Aspects of Communication Eng.
(Signals and systems)
Objective:
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
 System.
 Signal models
 Signal Classification.
 Signal Operations
 Line spectra.
 System types
Prof. Saied M. Abd EL-atty 1

1- Basic Concepts
As an electronic engineer, you can see any electronic system as a
communication system, for example the control system, computer
system and biomedical system as shown in the figures below:
Communication system
Computer system

Control system
Network is Communication System?
Biomedical system

Signal Definition
A signal is a function of one or more variables which transmits

information.
Or
A signal is a source of information generally a physical quantity
which varies with respect to time, space, temperature like any
independent variable"
Input Signal: a signal that enter the system from external source is referred to as an
input signal. For example the voltage from generator, electrocardiogram from
heart.
Output signal: a signal produced by the system in response to the input signal. For
example output voltage from an amplifier or biochemical signal from chemical
reaction.

Type of signals
 Continuous-time and Discrete time signals
𝑥(𝑡)
𝑥(𝑛)=𝑥(𝑛𝑇)=𝑥(𝑡)|𝑡=𝑛𝑇
 Reflected of signal

 Even and Odd signals
 Periodic and aperiodic (Non-periodic) signals

Aperiodic or
Periodic
Non periodic
 Deterministic and Random signals

 Energy and power signals
 Analog and Digital
How can you convert the signal from analog to digital?
By performing the following steps:

1) Sampling
2) Quantizing
3) Encoding


Signal properties
1) Periodicity
The signal is periodic when x(t)=x(t+T)
The signal is aperiodic when x(t)≠x(t+T)
Condition for periodic signal
For continuous signal

2
T  m
0
where m is integer number, 1,2,3…

For discrete signal

2
N  m
0
Example:
Determine whether the following signals are periodic or not:
i) x(t)=esin(t) ii) x(t)=tesin(t)
x(t)=x(t+T), and hence x(t) is periodic signal
hence x(t) is aperiodic signal
Example:
Determine the fundamental period of
( ) ( ) ( ) and test the periodicity.
Let
( ) ( )

( ) ( )
The ratio of = it is rational, so the fundamental period is
=12
The signal is periodic because it is sinusoidal signal.
2) Even or Odd
Even Odd
x(t)=x(-t) x(t)=-x(-t)
x(t)={x(t)+x(-t)}/2 x(t)={x(t)-x(-t)}/2
Example:
Draw the odd and even representation of the given signal, x(t)

Even odd
Exercise
Draw the odd and even components of

3) Energy-Type and Power-Type Signals.
This classification deals with the energy content and the power
content of signals. Before classifying these signals, we need to define
the energy content (or simply the energy) and the power content (or
power).
For any signal x(t), the energy content of the signal is defined by
The average power content is defined by
For real signals, |x(t)|2 is replaced by x2 (t) .

How can you know, the type of signal Energy or Power?
Energy-Type and Power-Type Signals. This classification deals with

the energy content and the power content of signals. Before
classifying these signals, we need to define the energy content (or
simply the energy) and the power content (or power).
A signal x (t) is an energy-type signal if and only if x is finite. A

signal is a power type signal if and only if Px satisfies
For any signal x (t ) , the energy content of the signal is defined by
The power content is defined by
We note that there is no need to carry out the limiting operation.

Important Note:
All periodic signals are power signals, because they do not
converge to a finite value so their energy is infinite and
their power is finite. So we say that a signal is a power signal if
its power is finite and its energy is infinite. And the signal is an
energy signal if its energy is finite and power is zero.
Example:
Example: describe the type of the signal, x(t)=A cos(2f0t+)

Example: Test whether the given signal energy or power?

) ( ) ( )
Energy:
∫ | ( )| ∫ | |
Power:
∫ | ( )| 0
It is energy signal
) ( ) ( )
Energy:
∫ | ( )| ∫
Power:
∫ | ( )| ∫
This signal is neither energy nor power.

Singularity Function

Here are few basic signals:


Signals Basic Operations

Amplitude Scaling
Cx(t) is a amplitude scaled version of x whose amplitude is scaled by
a factor C (2 or 0.5).
Addition
Addition of two signals is nothing but addition of their corresponding
amplitudes. This can be best explained by using the following
example:

Subtraction
Subtraction of two signals is nothing but subtraction of their
corresponding amplitudes. This can be best explained by the
following example:

Multiplication
Multiplication of two signals is nothing but multiplication of their
corresponding amplitudes. This can be best explained by the
following example:
Time Shifting
A time shift delay or advances the signal in time by a time interval
+t0 or –t0, without changing its shape. In other words it is time shifted
version of the signal x .

Time Scaling
Y(t)=x(At) is time scaled version of the signal x(t) , where A is called
scaling factor always positive
|A| >1------ > Compression signal shift
|A| <1------ > Expansion signal shift

Time Reversal or reflected signal

x(-t) is the time reversal of the signal x .
Example: for the signal in figure below find:

) ( ) ( )
b) ( ) ( )
c) ( ) ( )
x(t)
t
-1 1
0
Solution

Practice Example: Find x(3t+2) and x(t/3+2)

f(t)
1
t
0 1 2 3

Example: Sketch the odd and even for the following signal:
x(t)
t
-4 -2 0 2 4
Even odd

Line Spectra
Line spectra means that, the signal is represented in frequency
domain, it draws the amplitude and phase as function of frequency.

Note that:
1) If the signal is sine wave, you should change it to cosine
wave sinwt=cos(wt-90)
2) The amplitude is always +ve, so
-A coswt=A cos(wt180)
3) All spectral drawings with f not with w
Example:
Sketch the line spectrum of the following signal:
m(t)=3-5 cos(40t-30)+4 sin(120t)
i) The first term is dc that at f=0, amplitude spectrum is 3
ii) The second term is -5 cos(40t-30), we should change it to +ve by
adding 180 as follows
-5 cos(40t-30)=+5 cos(40t-30+180)=+5 cos(40t+150)
Note that w=2f, then, we can write
+5 cos(40t+150)= +5 cos(2 20t+150)

iii) Third term is sine wave, so we can write it as

4 sin(120t)=4 cos(2 60t-90)

System: is an entity that manipulates one or more input

signals to perform a function, which results in a new output
signal. Input to the system is called as excitation and output
from it is called as response
x(t) y(t)
System
Input signal Output signal
For example a communication system
For example a medical system

What is the main properties of any system?
Continuous and discrete system
Stable and Unstable system
Memory and memoryless system

Properties of
system
Invertible and noninvertible system
Time variant and time invariant system
Linear and nonlinear
Casual and Non causal
Continuous and Discrete Time-system

Continuous-time system: if the input and output of the system are
continuous-time signal.
x(t) y(t)
H[.]
Discrete-time system: if the input and output of the system are

discrete-time signal.
x(n) y(n)
H[.]

Stable and Unstable

In stable system, system is said to be stable if and only if every
bounded input produces a bounded output.
stable system is also called BIBO
| x (t ) | M x  for all t
| y (t ) | M y  for all t
X(t)
t
0
In unstable it has unbounded output

t ----------infinity

Invertible and noninvertible system

Invertible system: the system is said to be an invertible if the input
signal can be recovered from the output signal of the system.
x(t) y(t) x(t)

H[.] H-1[.]
Input signal Output signal Recovered signal
Noninvertible system: the system is said to be an noninvertible if

the input signal given to the system cannot be recovered from the
output signal of the system.
Example: square law system is generally Noninvertible system
Memory and Memoryless system
Memory system: the system is called memory when the output of

the system depends on past and future values.
y(t )  x(t )  x(t 1)  x(t  1)
Memoryless system: the system is called memoryless when the
output of the system depends solely on the present value.
y (t )  x 2 (t )
or
y (t )  5 x(t )

Time variant and time invariant system

Time invariant system: if the input signal is delayed or advanced by
any factor that leads to some delay or advancement in the time scale
of the output by the same factor.
Output signal
x(t) Time Invariant (TI) y(t)
system
Input signal
x(t-t) y(t-t)
1 1
t t
t t
-1 -1
Example: y(t )  sin x(t )
Time variant system: if the output signal is delayed or

advanced with respect to input signal.
Output signal
x(t) Time variant (TV) y(t)
system
Input signal
x(t) y(t)
t f t
Example: y (t )  x (t )sinwt

Solved problem: The input-output relation is given by

y(t )  sin x(t )
Determine whether the system is time invariant or not.

Linear and Non linear

There are two conditions should be satisfied :
responseof x 1 (t )  x 2 (t )  y1 (t )  y2 (t )
responseof ax 1 (t )  bx 2 (t )  ay 1 (t )  by 2 (t )
Example:
y (t )  t x (t )
y 1 (t )  tx 1 (t )
y 2 (t )  tx 2 (t )
Let x 3 (t )  ax 1 (t )  bx 2 (t )
Then the output y 3 (t )is defined as
y 3 (t )  tx 3 (t )  t ax 1 (t )  bx 2 (t )   atx 1 (t )  btx 2 (t )
 ay 1 (t )  by 2 (t )
Thus the system is linear
Casual and Non causal

In casual system, the output response at any time depends only on
the present input and/or the past input but not on the future inputs.
In noncasual system, the output response at any time depends on the
present input and the past input as well as on the future inputs.

Example: check whether the following systems are casual or not
1)
y (t )  t x (t )
Soultion
Let t  0, then y (0)  0
t  1 then y (1)  1x (1)
t  1 then y (1)  1x (1)
For values of t , the output depends on the present and the past
values of the input , hence the system is causal
2)
y (t )  x (t 2 )
Soultion
Let t  0, then y (0)  0
t  1 then y (1)  x (1)
t  1 then y (1)  x (1)
t  2 then y (2)  x (4)
As we can see, the last two cases, the output depends on the future of
the input. Hence the system is non causal.
Example:

Sheet 1
1) Find the fundamental period of, and show it periodic or not
x(t)=cos(/3)t+sin(/5)t
2) Test for the periodicity of x(n)=cos2(/8)n
solution
3)
solution

4) Determine the suitable measure (power or energy) of the

following signals
g(t)
g(t)
2
2e-t/2
2 1 0 1 2 t
-1 4 t
-1 0 2
Help Solution
g (t )  t
It is perodic signal with Peroid T  2
1
1 1 2
Pg    
2
| g (t ) |
dt t dt
T 2 1
1 1 1
  [1  (1)]  watt
2 3 3

The signal is an energy signal since its energy is finite and power is
zero.
5)
6)

Help solution
7) Sketch the line spectrum of the following signal:

x(t)=100-80sin(60t+30)+50sin(80t)
8)
8) Find the odd and Even component of the following:

a- x(t)=ej2t b-y(t)=cos(w0t+/3)
9) A discrete time-signal is defined by
1 n  1, 2

y [n ]  1 n  1, 2
0 n  0 and | n | 2

a- Sketch y[n] b-Find y[2n+3]
10) A) Check whether the following systems are casual or not
1) y (t )  x 2 (t )
2) y (n )  x (n ).x (n 1)
3) y (n )  x ( n )
B) Check whether the following systems are casual or not
1) y (n )  x (n )  x (n 1)
2) y (n )  ln[x (n )]
3) y (t )  sin[x (t )]
c) Check whether the following systems are:
1) y (t )  x (t )sinwt
2) y (t )  t 2 x (t )
-linear time variant or invariant
-causal or noncausal

11) Consider the system shown below. Determine whether it is (a)

memoryless, ( b )causal, ( c ) linear, time-invariant, or ( e ) stable.
Help solution

Chapter 2: Signal Analysis and Systems
Chapter 2
Signal Analysis and Systems
Objective:
 Signal Representation
 Fourier Series
 Fourier transform.
 Fourier transform properties.
Signal Representation
We have seen in Ch.1 signal representation in time domain. Here, we
discuss the signal representation in Frequency domain

Why frequency domain representation?

Generally, the signal is represented in time domain, however, the
analysis of such signal is not sufficient. Hence, we should represent it
in frequency domain, so we need to use Fourier transformation.
Therefore, we have to use frequency domain representation in order
to perform sufficient analysis, this analysis provides and evaluates
the followings:
1) Amplitude
2) Frequency content
3) Power and Energy density
4) Periodicity
For example in communication system……..the signal representation
as follows:

Fourier Series (FS)

Fourier series is applied to only periodic signal, it provides a sum of infinite
number of sine and cosine terms.
Why does use Fourier Series? To Know
1) How many frequency components are present in the signal

2) Their amplitude
3) Their relative phase difference between these frequency component
Trigonometric/Quadrature form
Trigonometric/Quadrature FS
A periodic signal x(t) with period T0, may be represented by
 
x (t )  a0   an cos(nw 0t )  b n sin(nw 0t )
n 1 n 1
where a0 is the dc value, and an and bn are the Fourier coefficients

x(t)=a0+a1cos(w0t)+a2cos(2w0t)+…+b1sin(w0t)+b2sin(w0t)+..
The graph of such Signal with Fourier series may as below

Polar Form


x (t )  C 0  C n cos(nw 0t  n )
n 1
Where C0 is the dc value, and Cn is the Fourier coefficients
Exponential Form


x (t )  C e
n 
n
jw 0 nt

DIRICHLET Conditions
Dirichlet conditions for existing Fourier series
1) x(t) must periodic with Finite integral
2) x(t) must have finite number of discontinuities in given time
interval
3) x(t) should have finite number of maxima and minima in
given time interval
4) x(t) is absolutely integrable
T 0 /2

T 0 /2
| x (t ) | dt  
Example:
A train of rectangular pulses making excursion from 0 to A volt has a
duration of  sec and separated by intervals of T0 sec. Assuming that
the centre of a pulse is located at t=0. Obtain the Fourier series of the
above signal. Find the fundamental and second harmonic. Calculate
the average power and the rms. Then, Plot the amplitude and phase
spectra of the signal.
x(t)
A
t
/ 2 0 / 2
-T0/2 T0/2
T0

Duty cycle? width of pulse/periodic interval= / T0

T 0 /2
1
Cn 
T0 
T 0 /2
x (t ).e  jw 0 nt dt
2  /2
A  T 0    j T 0 nt 
 /2
1

 jw 0 nt
 A .e dt    e 
T0  /2 T 0   j 2 n     /2
  j T  n 
 j n 
A   j T2 n 2 j
2 
n  A  e 0
 e T0

  e 0
 e T0 2
  
 j 2 n    n j2
 
n 
sin( )
A n  A n  T0 A n
 sin( )   sin c( )
n T0  n T0 n  T0 T0
T0
A n
Cn  sin c ( )
T0 T0

A A 
n
x (t )  C e
n 
n
jw 0 nt
 
T0 T0
 sin c ( T
n 1
) e jw 0nt
0
 A A n A n jw 0t A n j 2w 0t A n j 3w 0t 
  sin c ( )  sin c ( ) e  sin c ( ) e  sin c ( ) e  ...
 0
T T 0 T 0 T 0 T 0 T 0 T 0 T 0 T 0 
 A A  jw 0t A 2 j 2w 0t A 3 j 3w 0t 
  sin c ( ) e  sin c ( ) e  sin c ( ) e  ...
 0
T T 0 T 0 T 0 T 0 T 0 T 0 
Calculate the average power and the rms ?????????


P  |C
n 
n |2
RMS  P
Spectrum
 Im of C n  1  0 
phase spectrum , n  tan 1    tan    180

 Re of C n   Re of C n 

Example of Square Wave
Assignment 1

x(t)
A
t
/ 2 0 / 2
-T0/2 T0/2
T0
Evaluate the amplitude spectrum----------A=| Cn|
Assignment 2
A train of rectangular pulses making excursion from 0 to 10 volts has a
width duration of 50 msec and repeated every 500msec. Assuming that the
centre of a pulse is located at t=0, Obtain the Fourier series of the above
signal. Then, Plot the amplitude and phase spectra of the signal.
Example Plot the spectrum of sawtooth waveform in figure below
solution


Fourier Transform (FT)

Fourier series is applied to only periodic signal, while non-periodic
time limited signals can be represented by Fourier transform. As well
as it is possible to find FT for periodic signal.
Any signal is built up by addition of elementary signals which are at

different frequencies, have different amplitudes and relative phases.
Using the FT, we can plot the amplitude and phase spectrums which
provides us all the information about amplitudes and relative phases

of such elementary signals. Thus FT can be used for the analysis of a

signal. It is used for transformation from the time domain to
frequency domain.
 x (t ) e
 jwt
X (w )  F [x (t )]  dt

or

 x (t ) e
 j 2 ft
X (f )  F [x (t )]  dt


1
F 1[ X ( w)]  x(t )   X (w) e
jwt
dw
2 
or

 X ( f )e
j 2 ft
F 1[ X ( f )]  df

x(t )  X ( f )

Example:
Find the FT of the rectangular pulse with T duration and A
amplitude shown in Figure below 
Solution

Example: Find the FT of the exponential pulse shown in Fig. Also

Determine the amplitude and phase spectrum.
g(t)
eat
t
g(t)=eat u(-t)
0 0
1
e e
 j 2 ft (a  j 2 f )t
X (f )  at
e dt  dt  [e (a  j 2 f )t ]0
 
a  j 2 f
1 1
 (1  0) 
a  j 2 f a  j 2 f

amplitude spectrum
1 a  j 2 f a 2 f
| X (f ) |  2 j 2
a  j 2 f a  j 2 f a  (2 f ) 2
a  (2 f ) 2
1

a 2  (2 f ) 2
|G(f)|
1/a
-f f
a a
phase spectrum
 2 f 
 (f )  tan 1  
 a 

Dirac or Delta function

The Dirac delta function, (t) denoted by is defined as having zero
amplitude everywhere except at t=0 where it is infinitely large in
such a way that it contains unit area under its curve. Specifically,
satisfies the pair of relations
0 t 0 
 (t )  
 t 0
and   (t )dt  1

Sifting property of delta function


 f (t ) (t  t

d )dt  f (t d )
  (t ) e
 j 2 ft
X (f )  F [x (t )]  dt


Proof: use inverse Fourier and Sifiting property
Now we discuss the most important properties of the FT and we

solve also some numerical examples.
Duality or Symmetry Property
Duality or Symmetry Property

T  2W
A f
A sinc (tT )  rect ( )
T T
A f
A sinc (2Wt )  rect ( )
2W 2W

Time Shifting Property
Frequency Shifting Property
Examples
Obtain FT of the following pulse.
x(t)
-T 0
t T / 2 t T / 2
x (t )  rect ( ), thus x (t )  rect ( ), thus
T T
X (f )  T sin c (fT ) e  j  fT X (f )  T sin c (fT ) e  j  fT

Practice example
Obtain the FT of the following signal shown below, then find the
amplitude spectrum.
Multiplication in time domain property
x 1 (t )  X 1 (f ) , x 2 (t )  X 2 (f )
x 1 (t )  x 2 (t ) 
F
 X 1 ( f )  X 2 (f )
Convolution in time domain property

Property

x 1 (t )  X 1 (f ) , x 2 (t )  X 2 (f )
x 1 (t )  x 2 (t ) 
F
 X 1 (f )  X 2 (f )
Applications of Delta function
Sinusoidal Functions

Modulation

Differentiation and Integration in time domain
x (t )  X (f )
d
x (t ) 
F
 j 2 f X (f )
dt
x (t )  X (f )
t
1
 x (z )dz  j 2 f
F
X (f )

Example: A doublet pulse shown in Fig. By integrating this pulse

with respect to time, we obtain the triangular pulse in Fig below.

Parseval’s power Theorem

This theorem relates to the average power P of a periodic signal to its
Fourier series coefficient. The Parseval’s Power theory states that the total
average power of a periodic signal x(t) is equal to the sum of the average
power of the individual Fourier coefficients, i.e. Cn
Thus , average power of x (t )  (Power of C 1 )  (Power of C 2 )  ...

or the total average power : P   |C
n 
n |2

Pr oof :
The average power of signal x (t ) is given by ,
T 0 /2
1
P
T0 
T 0 /2
| x (t ) |2dt
Let us substitute | x (t ) |2 as x (t )x (t ) ,
where x (t ) is the complex conjugate of x (t )
T 0 /2
1
therefore , P 
T0 
T 0 /2
x (t )x (t )dt
W e define x (t ) by complex exp onential FS as follows :


x (t )  C
n 
n e j 2 f 0t
Hence , the complex conjugate x (t ) is given by


x (t )  C
n 
n
  j 2 f 0t
e
T 0 /2 
1
Thus , P   x (t )  C n e  j 2 f 0t dt
T0 T 0 /2 n 
rearrange it as follows ,
 1 
 T 0 /2
P  C n   x (t )e  j 2 f 0t dt 
n  T 0 T 0 /2 
Cn
Therefore ,

P C
n 
n C n
But C n C n  | C n |2 , hence

P  |C
n 
n |2

Convolution Theorem



Example: The impulse response of the system is h(t)=u(t) and the input
signal x(t)=e-at u(t), |a|>0. Find the output of the system, y(t).

Convolution for Discrete System

The convolution for discrete system is defined as follows:
We can calculate the discrete convolution by two methods

1- Graphical method
2- Tabular method
Graphical method
To solve it, we first identify the range of n as follows:
 From Lower of x(n)+lower of h(n)

 To upper of x(n)+upper of h(n)
 No of samples or response of y[n]=(no. of samples
of x +no number of samples of h -1
The method
1-Flip:-----------------------------h[-k]
2-shift:--------------------------h[n-k]
3-multiply:-----------------x[n]h[n-k]
4-Add---------------------x[n]h[n-k]
5-Repeat-----------------2-4 for all n

Tabular or array method

-Build a table with the number of sequence of both h and x
-Multiply one by one
-Sum each diagonal
Example
Example:

Example:


Important Example
-
-In the following discrete LTI system, if
x [n ]  {1, 2,1} and h[n ]  {1, 2, 1}
 
h[n]
Input signal y[n]
LTI
x[n] Output signal
a) Sketch x[n] and h[n]

b) Determine and sketch y[n], use graphical convolution and
tabular method to verify your answer


Correlation Theorem
Then, assuming that g1(t) and g2(t)are complex valued,
 Theoretically, convolution are linear operations on the signal

or signal modifiers, whereas correlation is a measure of
similarity between two signals.
 The basic difference between convolution and correlation is
that the convolution process rotates the matrix by 180
degrees.
 Also, correlation or auto-correlation is the measure of
similarity of signal with itself which has a different time lag
between them. Cross-correlation is a way of finding similarity
between two different signals.
Autocorrelation
The autocorrelation function provides a measure of the similarity
between a signal and its own time-delayed version

x(t) Rx()
Integrator
Adjustable delay x(t-)
Applications of Correlation
The important application is in Radar. The two main applications of correlation are
signal detection and pattern recognition. There are other applications such as:

Important Properties of Autocorrelation

The value of autocorrelation function of an energy signal at the
origin (i.e., at τ= 0) is equal to total energy of that signal, i.e.,
The autocorrelation function R(τ) and the ESD (Energy Spectral

Density) function 𝜓(𝜔) of an energy signal form a Fourier transform
pair, i.e.,
The autocorrelation function of a power or periodic signal x(t) with

any time period T is defined as
The value of the autocorrelation function for a power signal at origin

(i.e., at τ= 0) is equal to the average power (P) of that signal, i.e.,
If we take the FT of autocorrelation, we can obtain the energy or

power spectral density of the signal as follows:

Example for Autocorrelation

Determine and sketch the autocorrelation functions of the following
exponential pulse, then compute the energy content.
Important note: you can obtain the energy content of the above signal
from the property of area under curve, if you put =0 in R() you can
obtain the energy directly.
Energy--------------E=R(0)=1/2a

Cross correlation
The autocorrelation function provides a measure of the similarity
between a signal and its own time-delayed version. In a similar way,
we may use the cross-correlation function as a measure of the
similarity between one signal and the time-delayed version of a
second signal.
Let x(t) and y(t) denote a pair of complex-valued energy signals
The two Equation indicate that unlike convolution, correlation is not in general
commutative; that is
Spectral Density Function

The spectral density of a signal, defines the distribution of energy or
power per unit bandwidth as a function of frequency. The spectral
density of energy signals is called Energy Spectral Density (ESD)

while the spectral density of power signals is called Power Spectral

Density (PSD)
Energy Spectral Density (ESD)
According to Rayleigh’s energy theorem, the total energy of a signal
is given by

E  | X ( f ) | df
2

The squared of amplitude of spectrum |X(f)|2 is called Energy spectral
density (ESD)
ESD    f  | X ( f ) |2
Example:
solution

Energy: the total area under the curve of ESD of an energy

signal x(t) is equal the signal energy as follows:

Etotal   ( f ) df

LTI
i o
System
H(f)
In LTI system:
 f  | H (f )2    f 
where |H(f)|2 is the amplitude response of LTI system
Autocorrelation function:
R( ) 
F
  f 

The area under PSD is equal to the average power of a periodic

signal

P  S ( f df

LTI
Si So
System
H(f)
For LTI system

So ( f ) | H ( f ) |2 Si ( f )
Autocorrelation function:
R( ) 
F
 S( f 

If the signal x(t) is periodic with period T0, then according to the
Parseval’s power theorem, the average signal power is given by

P  |C
n 
n |2
For a periodic signal, Cn is expressed as

1
Cn  X  nf 0 
T0
Substituting Cn above, we obtain
1 
P  2  | X  nf0  |2
T0 n 
But the Fourier transform of a periodic signal is not continuous, it
is discrete and present only at frequencies, f0, 2f0 ,3f0…
Example: For the PSD, S(f) in figure, calculate the average power
signal
S(f)
-2 -1 1 2 f
Sol.
 1 1 2
P   S (f )df   1df   2df   1df
 2 1 1
 1[1  (2)]  2[0  (1)]  2[1  0]  1[2  1]  6W

Example: Find PSD for x(t)=A cos(2fct) and hence find the average
power of the signal.
Sol. To Find PSD we can obtain the R() first and hence we can use
FT to find PSD
 1 Tc /2
R x ( )   x (t )x (t   )dt  Lim  A cos(2 f 0t )A cos[2 f 0 (t   )]dt
 T c /2
Tc  T c
.
 2 cos A .cos B  cos(A  B )  cos(A  B )
we can obtain
A2
R x ( )  Lim [0  cos 2 f 0 T c ]
T c  2T c
A2
R x ( )  cos 2 f 0
2
R ( ) 
F
 S (f 
A2
S (f   [R ( )]  [ cos 2 f c ]
2
A2
 [ (f  f c )   (f  f c )]
4
Average power  power signal
1 T 0 /2 2 1 T 0 /2 2
P  x (t )dt   A cos 2 (2 f 0t )dt
T0 0T /2 T 0 T 0 /2
we can obtain
A2
P
2
Or
As we have R ( ),we put   0 and thus we obatin the power
A2 A2
P  R x (0)  cos 0 
2 2

Convolution Example:
The impulse response of the system is h(t)=u(t) and the input signal
x(t)=e-at u(t), |a|>0. Find the output of the system, y(t).

x(t) h() h(-)
1 1 1
  0 
0 0
h(t-)
t<0 for t  0
1 x ( ) and h (t   ) are not overlapped
Therefore ,

y (t )   x ( )h (t   )d   0
t 0  
h(t-) for t  0
t>0
1 e at 0    t
x ( ) h (t   )  
Therefore , 0, otherwise
t
y (t )   e at d 
0 t  0
y(t)
1/a
1 at t 1
t
y (t )   e at d  
a

e | 0  1  e at
a

0
Sheet 2
1- Find the Trigonometric FS of the following periodic sawtooth

Help
2- Find the quadrature (Trigonometric) FS for the full wave rectified

sine wave shown in figure below. Then obtain the exponential FS
and its spectrum
x(t)
0  2
t
T0
3-Obtain the Fourier series of the unit impulse response train shown below. Then,
Plot the amplitude and phase spectrums of the signal.
4-

5-
6-
7- Determine spectral density, and signal energy for the following signal
V(t)=A sinc[4W(t+td)]
Help solution
A2 f
2
rect [ ]
16W 4W
8- Find ESD for g(t)=A rect(t/T) and sketch the ESD
9- Find the Fourier transform of the following pulses

10- Find the Fourier transform of the following pulses

x(t)
t
-100 -50 0 50 100
0.5
What is Hilbert transform?

Write a short report about this
transform…….
Extra Important Problems
1-Determine the FT of each of the following signals:

a) y(t)=(t-3)+ (t+3)
b) x(t)=(t/4)+(t/2)

2-
3- Apply Fourier transform properties to determine the Fourier transform of the

following signals
x2(t)
x1(t) 1
200
-2 -1 0 1 2
-1
-4 0 4
4-As shown in the figure, the decaying exponential pulse function,

compute
1)The signal energy,
2)The amplitude spectrum and sketch it.
3)The percentage of total energy contained inside the frequency band
-W  f W where W=a/2

5) The bandwidth W such that 95% of the energy is contained in

frequency below B.
Help Solution:
1 (average power)
∫ ∫ ∫
2)The amplitude spectrum
3)The percentage of total energy contained inside the frequency band -W  f W

where W=a/2

The energy spectrum of the signal is given by
∫ ∫ ( )
* ( )+ * ( ) ( )+
* ( ) ( )+
( ) ( )=
4) The bandwidth B such that 95% of the energy is contained in frequency below W.
( )
Take inverse of tan of both sides
( ) ( )
( )
6- Obtain the FT RF pulse, then find the amplitude spectrum
7-Consider the square wave shown in Figure below Find the power
spectral density, average power, and autocorrelation function of this
square wave. Does the wave have dc power? Explain your answer.

8- Consider the power signal x(t) with autocorrelation function

Rx()=200sinc(200).
a) find and plot Sx(f), the PSD of x(t)
We can obtain the Sx(f) by using duality property as follows:
R( ) 
F
 S( f 
200sinc(200t)rect( )
Sx(f)
-100 0 100
b) compute the Px the total power of x(t)

 100
Px   S x (f )df   1df  200W
 100
c) compute the 95th % Bandwidth of x(t)
Sx(f)
Area=95% of total area
1
-100 -B B 100
0
Prof. Saied M. Abd EL-atty

100
B
0.95(Px )   S x (f )df
B
B f B
0.95  200   rect ( )df   1df  2B
B 100 B
B  95Hz
d) if x(t) is used as the input signal to ideal Low Pass Filter (LPF) with
amplitude response |H(f)|=rect( ). Compute the output power, Py

h(t)
x(t) y(t)
LPF

Py   S y (f )df

S y (f ) | H (f ) 2 S x (f )
f f
| H (f ) 2 | rect ( ) |2  rect ( )
100 100
f
S x (f )  rect ( )
200
Sx(f)
-100 0 100
H(f)
-50 0 50
Sy(f)
-50 0 50

Py   S y (f )df


101
50
Py   1df  100 w
50
9-A zero-mean white Guassian noise signal x(t) with a power

spectral density of N0/2=0.001 W/Hz is applied at the input of a
system with frequency H(f) given below. Compute and plot the
power spectral density Sy(f) of the output signal. Using the result in a)
compute the Py the power of the output signal.
10- A signal has an autocorrelation function
a- Find the energy spectral density function

b- What is the first null bandwidth of this signal?
R( ) 
F
  f 
  103  F 3 3
   2 10 sin c (2 10 f )
2
 2 
  103  F
   0.002sin c (0.002f )
2
 2 
The first null bandwidth of the signal is given by BW=
1/0.002=500Hz
102
Convolution problem
1-The impulse response is given by
u (t ) 0  t  T
h (t )  
0, otherwise
The input signal x(t)=e-at u(t). Find the output of the system, y(t).
2-Perform the convolution of the given signals
x() h()
1 1
t t
0 1 2 3 0 1 2
3-Find and plot the output, y[n] of LTI system if

x [n ]  {1, 2, 2} and h[n ]  {2,0,1}
 
4-Find and plot the output, y[n]=x1[n]* x2[n]

x 1[n ]  {1, 2,0,1} and x 2 [n ]  {3,1,0, 1}
 

103
Table of FT

104

105
Chapter 3: Transmission Signal & Noise in System
Chapter 3
Transmission Signal & Noise in
System
Objective:
 Type of distortion
 Ideal and practical filter.
 Thermal noise
 Noise in modulation system
Object of this chapter:
Error sources are present when data is transmitted over a

medium. Even if all possible error-reducing measures are used
during the transmission, an error invariably creeps in and begins to
disrupt data transmission. Any computer or communication
network must deliver accurate messages.
Error detection is applied mostly in the data-link layer but is

also performed in other layers. In some cases, the transport layer

includes some sort of error-detection scheme. When a packet

arrives at the destination, the destination may extract an error-
checking code from the transport header and perform error
detection. Sometimes, network-layer protocols apply an error-
detection code in the network-layer header. In this case, the error
detection is performed only on the IP header, not on the data field.
At the application layer, some type of error check, such as
detecting lost packets, may also be possible. But the most common
place to have errors is still the data-link layer. Possible and
common forms of errors at this level are described here and are
shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1 Types of errors in data transmission
Types of distortion
• Amplitude distortion: amplitude not constant in desired frequency
band
• Phase distortion: phase not linear through origin in desired
frequency band •
• Nonlinear distortion: system is nonlinear

Distortionless Transmission
In applications such as message transmission over communication
channel, the output waveform is required to be a replica of the
input waveform. To achieve this, distortion due to amplification or
communication channel must be minimized. Distortionless
transmission is thus desired. Transmission is said to be
distortionless if the input and the output have identical wave shapes
within a multiplicative constant. A delayed output that keeps the
input waveform is distortionless.
Given input x(t) and output y(t), a distortionless transmission
satisfies
y(t )  k.x(t  td )
Fourier transform of previous equation:

Y ( f )  k. X ( f )e j 2 ftd
Since Y(f) = X(f)H(f) then
H ( f )  k.e j 2 ftd
From previous equation
| H ( f ) | k
h ( f )  2 ftd
For distortionless transmission, amplitude response |H(f)| must be a
constant and phase response θh(f) must be linear function of f going
Prof. Saied M. Abd EL-atty | H ( f ) | k 109

through the origin. The slope of θh(f) with respect to ω= 2πf is –td (delay
of output w.r.t input.
h ( f )  2 ftd
All pass versus Distortionless Transmission

All-pass has constant gain for all frequencies (|H(f)|= k) without
linear phase requirement. Difference in transmission delay is due to
non-linear phase H(f) in the all-pass filter.
Distortionless system is always all-pass system but converse is not
true
For distortionless system td(f) have to be constant
| H ( f ) | k
h ( f )  2 ftd
Make derivative both sides w.r.t. f
d h ( f )  2 td df
1 d h ( f )
td  
2 df

Type of filters in communication system
Important Example
If g(t) and y(t) are the input and the output respectively of a simple
RC low-pass filter shown below. Determine the transfer function
H(f) and sketch |H(f)|, θh(f) and td(f).
For distortionless transmission through this filter, what is the

requirement on the bandwidth of g(t) if amplitude response
variation within 2% and time delay variation within 5% are
tolerable? What is the transmission delay? Find the output y(t).

Solution
Applying voltage division rule
Where a is the cut off frequency
Hence

1 d h ( f )
td  
2 df
1 1  1  2 f )   a
td    tan    2
2 df   a   a  (2 f )
2
In our case, amplitude response within 2% and 5% is tolerable

(acceptable). Let f0 be the highest bandwidth of a signal that can be
transmitted within these specification.

To compute f0, |H(f)| = 1 and td(0) = 1/a second

Hence |H(f0)|
The smaller of the two values is w0=203,00 or 32.3kHz is the

highest bandwidth that satisfies both constraints, |H(f)| and td. The
time delay td 1/a10-6 over this band. Also the amplitude response
is almost unity thus the output response,
y(t)=g(t-10-6)
Ideal versus Practical filters

Signal g(t) is transmitted without distortion but with delay td
For this filter
Unit impulse response of this filter

Figure: Practical vs ideal filter.

I: Ideal filter
P: Practical filter
R: Ripple
B: Effective bandwidth
For a physically realizable system h(t) must be causal
In frequency domain

The impulse response of previous filter is not realizable. To make it

realizable (causal), the tail could be cut off
• Ideally a delay of td = ∞ is needed for ideal filter

• The half-power bandwidth of a filter is defined as the bandwidth
over which the amplitude response |H(f)| remains constant
within a 3 dB or (ratio of 0.707)
• Half-power bandwidth of a low-pass filter is called the cutoff
frequency
Example:
In the illustration system whose response is h(t) is a rect pluse and
the input signal is cos2fct. Sketch the amplitude spectrum of the
output signal

1
cos 2 f c t   ( f  fc )   ( f  f c )
2
and
t 
rect    T sin c( FT )
T 
Y (F )  X (F ).H (F )
T
 sin cT (f  f c )  sin cT (f  f c ) 
2

Effect of Noise in Analog Communication systems
In any communication system, there are usually two dominant

factors that limit the performance of the system. One important
factor is additive noise that is generated by electronic devices that
are used to filter and amplify the communication signal. A second
factor that
affects the performance of a communication system is signal
attenuation. Basically all physical channels, including wireline and
radio channels, are lossy. Hence, the signal is attenuated (reduced
in amplitude) as it travels through the channel. A simple
mathematical model of the attenuation may be constructed, as
shown in Figure below, by multiplying the transmitted signal by

the factor α < 1. Consequently, if the transmitted signal is s(t), the

received signal is
Clearly, the effect of signal attenuation is to reduce the amplitude

of the desired signal s(t) and, thus, to render the communication
signal more vulnerable to additive noise. In many channels, such as
wire lines and microwave line-of-sight channels, signal attenuation
can be offset by using amplifiers to boost the level of the signal
during transmission. However, an amplifier also introduces
additive noise in the process of amplification and, thus, corrupts the
signal. This additional noise must be taken into consideration in
the design of the communication system.
In this section, we consider the effects of attenuation encountered

in signal transmission through a channel and additive thermal noise

generated in electronic amplifiers. We also demonstrate how these

two factors influence the design of a communication system.
 Characterization of Thermal Noise Sources
Any conductive two-terminal device is generally characterized as
lossy and has some resistance, say R ohms. A resistor that is at a
temperature T above absolute zero contains free electrons that
exhibit random motion and, thus, result in a noise voltage across
the terminals of the resistor. Such a noise voltage is called thermal
noise.
In general, any physical resistor (or lossy device) may be modeled

by a noise source in series with a noiseless resistor, as shown in
Figure below. The output n(t) of the noise source is characterized
as a sample function of a random process.
Based on quantum mechanics, the power spectral density of

thermal noise (see Section 5.3) is well approximated as

When connected to a load resistance with value RL , the noise

voltage shown in Figure delivers the maximum power when R = RL
. In such a case, the load is matched to the source and the maximum
power delivered to the load is E[N2(t)]/4RL . Therefore, the power
spectral density of the noise voltage across the load resistor is
As known the kT is usually denoted by N0. Hence, the power

spectral density of thermal noise is generally expressed as
For example, at room temperature (T0 = 290◦ K), N0 = 4 × 10−21

W/Hz.
 Effective Noise Temperature and Noise Figure

When we employ amplifiers in communication systems to boost
the level of a signal, we are also amplifying the noise corrupting
the signal. Since any amplifier has some finite pass band, we may
model an amplifier as a filter with the frequency-response
characteristic H( f). Let us evaluate the effect of the amplifier on an
input thermal noise source.

As illustrated in below Figure, a thermal noise source connected to

a matched two-port network having the frequency response H( f ).
The output of this network is connected to a matched load. First,
we recall that the noise power at the output of the network is
A signal source at the input to the amplifier with power Psi will
produce an output with power
Hence, the output SNR from the two-port network is
where
Te : effective noise temperature of the two-port network .
Beq: the noise equivalent bandwidth of the filter

E=|H(f)|2 is the maximum available power gain of the amplifier
By definition, (S/N)i is the input SNR to the two-port network.

When T is taken as room temperature T0 (290◦ K), the factor (1+Te
/T0) is called the noise figure of the amplifier. Specifically, the
noise figure of a two-port network is defined as the ratio of the
output noise power Pno to the output noise power of an ideal
(noiseless) two-port network for which the thermal noise source is
at room temperature (T = 290◦ K). Clearly, the ratio
is the noise figure of the amplifier. Consequently, the above

Equation may be expressed as
By taking the logarithm of both sides of Equation, we obtain
Hence, 10 log F represents the loss in SNR due to the additional

noise introduced by the amplifier.

It is easy to show that the overall noise figure of a cascade of K

amplifiers with gains Gk and corresponding noise figures Fk, 1 ≤ k
≤ K is
This expression is known as Fries’ formula. We observe that the

dominant term is F1, which is the noise figure of the first amplifier
stage. Therefore, the front end of a receiver should have a low
noise figure and a high gain. In that case, the remaining terms in
the sum will be negligible.
 Time-Averaged Noise Representations

Suppose n(t) is a random noise voltage or current.
Mean Value
The mean value of n(t) will be refered to as n(t), ̅̅̅̅̅̅ or E{n(t)}. It
is given by:
where ̅̅̅̅̅̅is often referred to as dc or average value of n(t).

Mean-Square Value
The mean value of n(t) will be refered to as n(t), ̅̅̅̅̅̅ or E{n(t)}.

Aside from a scaling factor the mean-square value ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ in

Equation above gives the time averaged power P of n(t). The
square root of ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ is known as the root-mean-square (rms) value
of n(t).
AC Component
The ac or fluctuation component σ(t) of n(t) is that component that
remains after “removing” the mean value n(t) and is defined as
Variance
is equal to the power of the ac component of n(t).
 Transmission Losses
As we indicated previously, any physical channel attenuates the

signal transmitted through it. The amount of signal attenuation
generally depends on the physical medium, the frequency of
operation, and the distance between the transmitter and the
receiver. We define the loss L in signal transmission as the ratio of
the input (transmitted) power to the output (received) power of the
channel, i.e.,

or, in decibels,
In wireline channels, the transmission loss is usually given in terms

of decibels per unit length, e.g., dB/km. For example, the
transmission loss in coaxial cable of 1 cm diameter is about 2
dB/km at a frequency of 1 MHz. This loss generally increases with
an increase in frequency.
Example
Determine the transmission loss for a 10 km and a 20 km coaxial
cable if the loss per kilometer is 2 dB at the frequency operation.
Solution The loss for the 10 km channel is L dB = 20 dB. Hence,
the output (received) power is PR = PT / L = 10−2PT . For the 20
km channel, the loss is L dB = 40 dB. Hence, PR = 10−4PT . Note
that doubling the cable length increases the attenuation by two

orders of magnitude.

In line-of-sight radio systems, the transmission loss in free space is

given as
where λ = c / f is the wavelength of the transmitted signal, c is the
speed of light (3 ×108 m/sec), f is the frequency of the transmitted
signal, and d is the distance between the transmitter and the

receiver in meters. In radio transmission, L is called the free-space
path loss.
Example: Determine the free-space path loss for a signal
transmitted at f = 1 MHz over distances of 10 km and 20 km.
Solution: The loss given in Equation for a signal at a wavelength λ
= 300 m is
for the 10 km path and

for the 20 km path. It is interesting to note that doubling the

distance in radio transmission increases the free-space path loss by
6 dB.
Example:
Consider a white noise process W(t) of zero mean and power
spectral density N0/2 applied to the low-pass RC filter, as in Fig.
below.

Determine:
5)The mean of the output noise power
Solution
The transfer function of the filter is
5)The mean of the output noise power

Using the property of autocorrelation RN(=0) is equal the mean

power.
Pavg=RN(0)=N0/4RC

Example:
Suppose that a random signal is a white noise signal. This means
that all frequencies are present in the signal and its power spectral
density will be a straight line as shown in Figure (a) below. The
level of the power spectral density is given as 25 Watts/Hertz. This
signal is passed though a low-pass filter whose frequency response
magnitude is shown in Figure (b). Calculate the total signal power
of the signal coming out of the low-pass filter.
a) b)
The total power of the filter output signal is the integration of this
function from 0 to ∞

=26250 Watts
EFFECT OF NOISE ON AMPLITUDE MODULATION

SYSTEMS
In this section, we determine the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the

output of the receiver that demodulates the amplitude-modulated
signals. In evaluating the effect of noise on the various types of
analog carrier-modulated signals, it is also interesting to compare
the result with the effect of noise on an equivalent baseband
communication system. We begin the evaluation of the effect of
noise on a baseband system.
 Effect of Noise on a Baseband System
Since baseband systems serve as a basis for comparison of various
modulation systems, we begin with a noise analysis of a baseband
system. In this case, there is no carrier demodulation to be
performed. The receiver consists only of an ideal lowpass filter
with the bandwidth W. The noise power at the output of the
receiver, for a white noise input is therefore

If we denote the received power by PR, the baseband SNR is given

by
Example:
Find the SNR in a baseband system with a bandwidth of 5 kHz and
with N0 = 10−14 W/Hz. The transmitter power is 1 kilowatt and the
channel attenuation is 10−12.
Example:
Find the SNR in a baseband system with a bandwidth of 5 kHz and
with N0 = 10−14 W/Hz. The transmitter power is 1 kilowatt and the
channel attenuation is 10−12.

Example:
A white noise has a 2-sided power spectral density of 6 kW/MHz. It is
passed through a low pass filter having a bandwidth of 1 kHz. Compute the
output noise power.
Example:
A composite TV signal has a bandwidth of 40 MHz and is
transmitted with a power of 0.1 W through a satellite channel. The

white noise has a 2 sided PSD is 10-15 W/Hz. What is the noise
power for the link?
 Effect of Noise on DSB-SC AM

In double-sideband suppressed-carrier amplitude modulation
(DSB-SC AM), the transmitted signal is
Adding the filtered noise to the modulated signal, we can express

the received signal as
If a phase-locked loop is employed, then φ = 0 and the demodulator
is called a coherent or synchronous demodulator. In our analysis in

this section, we assume that we are employing a coherent
demodulator. With this assumption, without loss of generality, we
assume that φ = 0; hence,

Therefore, at the receiver output, the message signal and the noise
components are additive and we are able to define a meaningful
SNR. The message signal power is given by
where PM is the power content of the message signal. The noise

power is given by
where we have used the fact that the power contents of nc(t) and
n(t) are equal. The power content of n(t) can be found by noting
that it is the result of passing nw(t) through a filter with bandwidth
Bc. Therefore, the power spectral density of n(t) is given by
The noise power is

Now we can find the output SNR as
In this case, the received signal power, as given by Equation
the output SNR in Equation for DSB-SC AM may be expressed as
which is identical to (S/N)b, which is given by the above Equation.

Therefore, in DSB-SC AM, the output SNR is the same as the SNR
for a baseband system. In other words, DSBSC AM does not

provide any SNR improvement over a simple baseband

communication
system.
Example: We assume that the message is a wide-sense stationary

random process M(t) with the autocorrelation function
We also know that all the realizations of the message process

satisfy the condition max |m(t)| = 6. We want to transmit this
message to a destination via a channel with a 50-dB attenuation
and additive white noise with the power spectral density Sn( f ) =
N0/2=10−12 W/Hz. We also want to achieve an SNR at the
modulator output of at least 50 dB. What is the required
transmitter power and channel bandwidth if we employ the
following modulation schemes?
1. DSB AM.
2. SSB AM.
3. Conventional AM with a modulation index equal to 0.8.

Solution: First, we determine the bandwidth of the message

process. To do this, we obtain the power spectral density of the
message process, namely,
which is nonzero for −5,000 < f < 5,000; therefore, W = 10,000 Hz.
Now we can determine (S/N) as a basis of comparison:
Since the channel attenuation is 50 dB, it follows that
Therefore,
1. For DSB-SC AM, we have

2. For SSB AM,
3. For conventional AM, with a = 0.8,

To determine PM, we have
therefore,
Hence,

Sheet
Q1: We are given that x(t) is a stationary random process with
RX(τ) = e-α| τ | where α>0. It is the input to an LIT system with
impulse response h(t) = e-βt u(t), where β>0 and β≠α.
Determine the output power spectral density.
Q2:A zero-mean white Gaussian noise with power-spectral density
N0/2 passes through an ideal low pass filter with bandwidth
B.
a. Find the autocorrelation function of the output process Y(t)
b. Mean power of the noise at the output
Q3 : Consider the transfer function of an ideal low pass filter
shown below, if a white-noise process w(t) of zero mean and
PSD, Sw(f)=N0/2 is applied filter.
1  B  f  B
H( f )  
0, otherwise
1) Draw the system diagram indicating PSD of output, Sy(f)
and input, Sw(f) and spectrum of H(f)
2) Determine the average noise power at the filter output.
Q4: The impulse response of a LTI system in frequency domain is

shown below, if an input signal applied to this system, the
energy spectrum density (ESD) of input signal, i(f) is also
illustrated below, answer the following:

1) Sketch the energy spectrum density (ESD), o(f) at the output

2) Exploit the relation between ESD and autocorrelation, Find the
autocorrelation function at the output, R()
3) Determine the energy of the signal at the output
i Output ESD
20
i o
f LTI
0.5
0 h(t)
-100 -50 50 100
H(f)
1
-50 0 50
Q5-A rectangular pulse of unit amplitude and unit duration is

passed through an ideal low-pass filter of bandwidth B, as
illustrated in Fig. (a). Part (b) of the figure depicts the waveform of
the rectangular pulse.
Q6: The noise level available at the output of a communication

receiver is -10 dBm. What is the noise level in the absolute scale?

Q7: An amplifier has an input SNR of 12 dB. Calculate the noise

power at the input if the signal power is −40 dBm.
Extra problem
Q8: A white noise voltage of power spectral density Sin(f) = N0/2 is

fed to the RL lowpass filter illustrated in Figure below. For the
output noise, determine the expression for (a) the power spectral
density, (b) the autocorrelation function, and (c) the total power.
Q9: Compute the equivalent noise bandwidth and the 3-dB bandwidth of the
lowpass filter of problem Q8 with R = 30 Ω and L = 25 mH. Then compute the
output noise power for Sin(f) = N0/2 = 20 × 10−3 W Hz−1.
Q10: A signal 6 cos(2πft) V with f = 200 Hz is fed to the input of the filter in
problem Q8. Taking the values of problem Q9 compute the signal-to-noise ratio
at output of the filter
Solved Problem
A rectangular pulse of unit amplitude and unit duration is passed
through an ideal low-pass filter of bandwidth B, as illustrated in
Fig. (a). Part (b) of the figure depicts the waveform of the

rectangular pulse. The amplitude response of the filter is defined by

(see Fig. 2.30(c))



Solved Trial Test

Q1: In Fig.1, if the signal, x(t) which has FT, X(f) is applied to a
system with channel response, h(t) and the output of the
system is y(t), given by


X(f)
1
x(t) = + cos 2000 +2 cos 2 3000
f
-500 0 500
h(t)
Fig.1
Determine and sketch the Fourier transform of the signal, y(t)
Y(f)?




 

Y(f)
2
2 2 2
1 1
1
1
-3500 -3000 -2500 -2000 -1500 -1000 -500 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Q3: A train of rectangular pulses making excursion from 0 to 50

mV has a duration of 50 ms and a duty cycle 0.1. Assuming that
the center of a pulse is located at t=0. Obtain the Fourier series
of the above signal. Plot the amplitude spectrum of the signal.

x (t )  C e
n 
n
jw 0 nt
 50m sec
Let A  50mv and duty Cycle   0.1, hence 0.1   T 0  500m sec
T0 T0
 
1 A A  1   jw 0nt 2 A  1    jw 0n 2 jw 0n 2 
  x (t )e  e  e    
 jw 0 nt  jw 0 nt
Cn  2
 2
dt    e e 
T0 
2 T0 
2 T 0   jw 0 n  
2 T 0   jw 0 n   
 j
2 
n j
2 
n   n 
e
T0 2
e T0 2
 sin  
A  T0    A  n   A n   T0   A sin c ( n )
   2 j  sin   
T 0  j 2 n  2j  n  T0   n T0 n T0 T0
T0
 5 103 sinc(0.1n )
At n=0
C0=5×10-3 =5mv

x(t )  5 103  sinc(0.1n) e jw0 nt
n 
Q5:for the signal x(t) shown at Fig.1 or Fig.2

1-Find the odd and even representation

2-Find Fourier transform of
3-Sketch ( )
x(t)
Fig.1
20
10
t
0 2 4 6
1-Find the odd and even representation

x(t)
Fig.1
20
10
t
0 2 4 6
x(-t)
Fig.1
20
10
t
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
0.5[x(t)+x(-t)] Fig.1
10
5
-6 -4 t
-2 0 2 4 6

x(t)
Fig.1
20
10
t
0 2 4 6
x(-t)
Fig.1
20
10
t
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
-x(-t)
Fig.1
-2 -4 -6
0 2 4 6
-10
-20
0.5[x(t)-x(-t)] Fig.1
10
-6 -4 -2 5
t
-5 2 4 6
-10
2-Find Fourier transform of

We look at the original figure, we can see that, it is rectangle and
triangle as shown below. So the x(t) can be expressed as
Fig.1
x(t)
20
10
t
-2 0 2
x(t)
Fig.1
20
10
t
0 2 4 6
Then FT is given by

3-Sketch ( )
Fig.1
x(t+3)
20
10
t
-1 0 1 3
x(0.5t+3)
20
10
-2 0 2 6 t

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Adjustable delay x(t-t)

Prof. Saied M. Abd EL-atty 1

Prof. Saied M. Abd EL-atty 2

Network is Communication System?

Prof. Saied M. Abd EL-atty 3

A signal is a function of one or more variables which transmits

Prof. Saied M. Abd EL-atty 4

Prof. Saied M. Abd EL-atty 5

 Even and Odd signals

 Periodic and aperiodic (Non-periodic) signals

 Deterministic and Random signals

Prof. Saied M. Abd EL-atty 6

 Energy and power signals

 Analog and Digital

How can you convert the signal from analog to digital?

By performing the following steps:

Prof. Saied M. Abd EL-atty 7

Prof. Saied M. Abd EL-atty 8

Condition for periodic signal

For continuous signal

where m is integer number, 1,2,3…

Prof. Saied M. Abd EL-atty 9

For discrete signal

x(t)=x(t+T), and hence x(t) is periodic signal

hence x(t) is aperiodic signal

( ) ( ) ( ) and test the periodicity.

Prof. Saied M. Abd EL-atty 10

The ratio of = it is rational, so the fundamental period is

Prof. Saied M. Abd EL-atty 11

Draw the odd and even components of

Prof. Saied M. Abd EL-atty 12

3) Energy-Type and Power-Type Signals.

The average power content is defined by

For real signals, |x(t)|2 is replaced by x2 (t) .

Prof. Saied M. Abd EL-atty 13

How can you know, the type of signal Energy or Power?

Energy-Type and Power-Type Signals. This classification deals with

A signal x (t) is an energy-type signal if and only if x is finite. A

For any signal x (t ) , the energy content of the signal is defined by

The power content is defined by

We note that there is no need to carry out the limiting operation.

Prof. Saied M. Abd EL-atty 14

Example: describe the type of the signal, x(t)=A cos(2f0t+)

Prof. Saied M. Abd EL-atty 15

Example: Test whether the given signal energy or power?

This signal is neither energy nor power.

Prof. Saied M. Abd EL-atty 16

Prof. Saied M. Abd EL-atty 17

Here are few basic signals:

Prof. Saied M. Abd EL-atty 18

Prof. Saied M. Abd EL-atty 19

Signals Basic Operations

Prof. Saied M. Abd EL-atty 20

Prof. Saied M. Abd EL-atty 21

Prof. Saied M. Abd EL-atty 22

Prof. Saied M. Abd EL-atty 23

Prof. Saied M. Abd EL-atty 24

Time Reversal or reflected signal