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Chapter 7: Quantum Theory and the Electronic

Structure of Atoms
Properties of Wave
Wave is compared to light, as it is both wave and particle.
Peak – highest point
Trough – lowest point
A wave can be thought of as a vibrating disturbance by which energy is transmitted.
Wavelength (λ) is the distance between identical points on successive waves. Peak-to-peak
distance is wavelength.
Amplitude is the vertical distance from the midline of a wave to the peak or trough.

Frequency (ν) is the number of waves that pass through a particular point in 1 second (Hz = 1
cycle/s).
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 (𝒖)𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆(𝑪) = 𝝀 𝒙 𝝂
𝟖𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝒉𝒛 = 𝟖𝟐𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑯𝒛

𝟖𝟗. 𝟕 𝑴𝒉𝒛 = 𝟖𝟗. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑯𝒛

𝑪
𝝀=
𝑽

Maxwell (1873), proposed that visible light consists of electromagnetic waves.

Electromagnetic radiation is the emission and transmission of energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves.
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 (𝒄) 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎⁸ 𝒎/𝒔(𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒌 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚)
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𝑨𝒍𝒍 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝝀 𝒙 𝝂 = 𝒄

A photon has a frequency of 6.0 x 104 Hz. Convert this frequency into wavelength (nm). Does
this frequency fall in the visible region?
𝛌𝐱𝛎= 𝐜
𝐜
𝛌=
𝐯
𝟑. 𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐦/𝐬
𝛌=
𝟔. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝐇𝐳
𝛌 = 𝟓. 𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝐦

𝛌 = 𝟓. 𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐 𝐧𝐦
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- Radio waves

Mystery #1, “Black Body Problem”

Solved by Planck in 1900
Energy (light) is emitted or absorbed in discrete units (quantum).
𝑬 = 𝒉𝒙𝝂

𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒌’𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (𝒉)

𝑯 = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟑𝟒 𝑱 • 𝒔

Mystery #2, “Photoelectric Effect”

Solved by Einstein in 1905
Light has both:
1. Wave nature
2. Particle nature

Photon is a “particle” of light

hv = KE + BE
KE = hv – BE

When copper is bombarded with high-energy electrons, X rays are emitted. Calculate the energy
(in joules) associated with the photons if the wavelength of the X rays is 0.154 nm.
𝐄=𝐡×𝐯
𝐜
𝐄=𝐡×
𝛌
𝐦
𝟔. 𝟔𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 (𝐉 • 𝐬) × 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 ( 𝐬 )
𝐄=
𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 (𝐦)
𝐄 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝐉
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Bohr’s Model of The Atom (1913)

1. e- can only have specific (quantized) energy values
2. light is emitted as e- moves from one energy level to a lower energy level
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𝟏
𝐄𝐧 = − 𝐑𝐡 ( )
𝐧𝟐
𝐧 (𝐩𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐢𝐩𝐚𝐥 𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐮𝐦 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫) = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, …

𝐑 𝐇 (𝐑𝐲𝐝𝐛𝐞𝐫𝐠’𝐬 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭) = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟖 𝐉

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𝑬𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏 = ∆𝑬 = 𝑬𝒇 − 𝑬𝒊

𝟏
𝑬𝒇 = −𝑹𝑯 ( 𝟐 )
𝒏𝒇

𝟏
𝑬𝒊 = 𝝀 − 𝑹 𝑯 ( 𝟐 )
𝒏𝒊

𝟏 𝟏
∆𝑬 = 𝑹𝑯 ( 𝟐
− 𝟐)
𝒏𝒊 𝒏𝒇

Calculate the wavelength (in nm) of a photon emitted by the hydrogen atom when its electron
drops from the n = 5 state to the n = 3 state
𝟏 𝟏
𝑬𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏 = ∆𝑬 = 𝑹𝑯 ( 𝟐 − 𝟐 )
𝒏𝒊 𝒏𝒇

𝟏 𝟏
𝑬𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏 = 𝑹𝑯 ( 𝟐 − 𝟐 )
𝒏𝒊 𝒏𝒇

𝟏 𝟏
𝑬𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟖 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟖 𝑱 ( − )
𝟐𝟓 𝟗
𝑬𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏 = ∆𝑬 = −𝟏. 𝟓𝟓 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑱
𝒄
𝑬𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏 = 𝒉 ∗
𝝀
𝒄
𝑬𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏 = 𝒉∗
𝝀
𝒄
𝝀 = 𝒉∗
𝑬𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏
𝒎
𝟑. 𝟎𝟎 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟖 ( 𝒔 )
𝝀 = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟑 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 (𝑱 • 𝒔) ∗
𝟏. 𝟓𝟓 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑱
𝝀 = 𝟏𝟐𝟖𝟎 𝒏𝒎
Why is e- quantized?
De Broglie (1924) reasoned that e- is both particle and wave.
𝟐𝝅𝒓 = 𝒏𝝀
𝒉
𝝀=
𝒎𝒖
𝒖 = 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒆−
𝒎 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒆−
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What is the de Broglie wavelength (in nm) associated with a 2.5 g Ping-Pong ball travelling at
15.6m/s?
𝒉
𝝀=
𝒎𝒖
𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝑱 • 𝒔
𝒎 𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒈
𝒎
𝒖 𝒊𝒏
𝒔
𝟔. 𝟔𝟑 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒
𝝀=
𝟐. 𝟓 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 ∗ 𝟏𝟓. 𝟔
𝝀 = 𝟏. 𝟕 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟐 𝒎

𝝀 = 𝟏. 𝟕 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟑 𝒏𝒎

Schrodinger Wave Equation

In 1926 Schrodinger wrote an equation that described both the particle and wave nature of the
e-
Wave function (Ψ) describes:
1. energy of e- with a given Ψ
2. probability of finding e- in a volume of space
Schrodinger’s equation can only be solved exactly for the hydrogen atom. Must approximate its
solution for multi-electron systems
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Schrodinger Wave Equation

Ψ = fn(n, l, ml, ms)
Existence (and energy) of electron in atom is described by its unique wave function Ψ.
Pauli exclusion principle - no two electrons in an atom can have the same four quantum
numbers.
Each seat is uniquely identified (E, R12, S8). Each seat can hold only one individual at a time
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Ψ = fn(n, l, ml, ms)

Shell – electrons with the same value of n
Subshell – electrons with the same values of n and l
Orbital – electrons with the same values of n, l, and ml

How many electrons can an orbital hold?

If n, l, and ml are fixed, then ms = ½ or - ½
Ψ = (n, l, ml, ½) or Ψ = (n, l, ml -½)
An orbital can hold 2 electrons
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Electron configuration is how the electrons are distributed among the various atomic orbitals in
an atom.
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Chapter 8: Periodic Relationships Among

Elements
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Electron Configurations of Cations and Anions of Representative Elements

Atoms lose electrons so that cation has a noble-gas outer electron configuration.

Atoms gain electrons so that anion has a noble-gas outer electron configuration.
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Electron Configurations of Cations of Transition Metals

When a cation is formed from an atom of a transition metal, electrons are always
removed first from the ns orbital and then from the (n – 1) d orbitals.

Effective nuclear charge (Zeff) is the “positive charge” felt by an electron.

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Atomic Radius
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Cation is always smaller than atom from which it is formed.

Anion is always larger than atom from which it is formed.
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Ionization energy is the minimum energy (kJ/mol) required to remove an electron from a
gaseous atom in its ground state.
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Electron affinity is the negative of the energy change that occurs when an electron is accepted
by an atom in the gaseous state to form an anion.
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Chapter 9: Chemical Bonding I: Basic Concepts

Valence electrons are the outer shell electrons of an atom. The valence electrons are the
electrons that participate in chemical bonding.
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Electrostatic (Lattice) Energy

Lattice energy (E) is the energy required to completely separate one mole of a solid ionic
compound into gaseous ions.
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A covalent bond is a chemical bond in which two or more electrons are shared by two atoms.
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Polar covalent bond or polar bond is a covalent bond with greater electron density around
one of the two atoms

Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract toward itself the electrons in a chemical
bond.
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Writing Lewis Structures

1. Draw skeletal structure of compound showing what atoms are bonded to each other.
Put least electronegative element in the center.
2. Count total number of valence e-. Add 1 for each negative charge. Subtract 1 for each
positive charge.
3. Complete an octet for all atoms except hydrogen
4. If structure contains too many electrons, form double and triple bonds on central atom as
needed.
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Two possible skeletal structures of formaldehyde (CH2O)

An atom’s formal charge is the difference between the number of valence electrons in an
isolated atom and the number of electrons assigned to that atom in a Lewis structure.

The sum of the formal charges of the atoms in a molecule or ion must equal the charge
on the molecule or ion.
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Formal Charge and Lewis Structures

1. For neutral molecules, a Lewis structure in which there are no formal charges is
preferable to one in which formal charges are present.
2. Lewis structures with large formal charges are less plausible than those with small
formal charges.
3. Among Lewis structures having similar distributions of formal charges, the most
plausible structure is the one in which negative formal charges are placed on the more
electronegative atoms.
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A resonance structure is one of two or more Lewis structures for a single molecule that cannot
be represented accurately by only one Lewis structure.
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The enthalpy change required to break a particular bond in one mole of gaseous molecules is
the bond energy.
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Bond Energies (BE) and Enthalpy changes in reactions

Imagine reaction proceeding by breaking all bonds in the reactants and then using the gaseous
atoms to form all the bonds in the products.
ΔHₒ= total energy input – total energy released
= ΣBE (reactants) – ΣBE (products)
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