Introduction to Aeronautical

Engineering
AERN 111

Airfoils, Wings, and Other

Aerodynamic Shapes
Mohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Ph.D.
Professor
Aerospace Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering
Cairo University
[email protected]

November 23, 2022

Outline
• Introduction
• Airfoil Nomenclature
• Lift, Drag and Moment Coefficients
• Airfoil Data
• Infinite Versus Finite Wings
• Pressure Coefficient
• Obtaining Lift From Pressure Coefficient
• Compressibility Correction for Lift Coefficient
• Critical Mach Number and Critical Pressure Coefficient
• Drag Divergence Mach Number
• Wave Drag at Supersonic Speeds
Outline
• Summary of Airfoil Drag
• Finite Wings
• Calculations of Induced Drag
• Change in the Lift Slope
• Swept Wings
• Flaps – a mechanism for high lift
• Aerodynamics of Cylinders and Spheres
• How Lift is Produced – Some Alternative Explanations
Introduction
1. How to calculate lift and drag on airfoil shapes.
2. How to calculate lift and drag on a whole wing of an airplane.
3. Why lift and drag for a wing are different values from that for the
airfoil shape that makes up the wing.
4. What happens to lift and drag when an airfoil or a wing flies near or
beyond the speed of sound.
5. Why some airplanes have swept wings and others have straight
wings.
6. Why some airplanes have thin airfoils and others have thick
airfoils.
7. Why optimum wing shapes for supersonic flight are different than
for subsonic flight.
Introduction
blunt bodies
Airfoil Nomenclature

The camber is the maximum distance between the mean camber line and the chord line
Lift, Drag and Moment Coefficients
The physical origin of moments on an airfoil
Lift, Drag, and Moment Coefficients
Lift, drag and moment depends on the following parameters:
1. Free-stream velocity V∞ .
2. Free-stream density ρ∞ (that is, altitude).
3. Size of the aerodynamic surface. For airplanes, we will use the wing
area S to indicate size.
4. Angle of attack α.
5. Shape of the airfoil.
6. Viscosity coefficient μ∞ (because the aerodynamic forces are generated
in part from skin friction distributions).
7. Compressibility of the airflow. Compressibility effects are governed by
the value of the free-stream Mach number M∞ = V∞ / a∞ . Because V∞ is
already listed, we can designate a∞ as our index for compressibility.
 Dimensional Analysis: The
Buckingham PI Theorem
• Question: What physical quantities determine the variation of
the aerodynamic forces and moments on a body?
• Answer
• Free stream velocity, V
• Free stream density, r
• Viscosity, m
• Size of the body, c
• The compressibility, a
Dimensional Analysis: The
Buckingham PI Theorem: Approach

The approaches to find this relation can be classified as

follows:
• Experimental approach
• Time consuming (Systematic)
• Expensive
• Analytical approach
• No closed form solution exist for arbitrary body shapes
• This usually leads to computational approach (CFD)
• Parameter reduction
• Important parameters (Dimensional Analysis)
 Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional Analysis is based on the obvious
fact that in an equation dealing with real physical
world, each term must have the same
dimensions, for example, if

Is a physical relation then y, h, z and f must

have the same dimension. The above equation
can be made dimensionless by dividing by one
terms say, f.
 Buckingham PI Theorem
Let K equal the number of fundamental dimensions required to describe the
physical variables (in mechanics, all physical variables can be expressed in
terms of the mass, length and time hence K = 3). Let P1, P2, P3, … PN
represent N physical variables in the physical relation

Then, the above physical relation my be reexpressed as a relation of (N-K)

dimensionless products (called P products)
Buckingham PI Theorem
Where each P product is a dimensionless product of a set of K physical
variables plus one other physical variable. Let P1, P2, P3, … PK be the
selected K physical variables then

The choice of the repeating variables P1, P2, P3, … PK should be such that
they include all the K dimension used in the problem. Also, the dependent
variable [Such as R in the above equation] should appear in only one of P
products.
Example
Consider the physical relation

The fundamental dimensions are:

• m = dimension of mass
• l = dimension of length
• t = dimension of time
Solution
•K=3
• The physical variable and tier dimensions
• [R] = mlt-2
• [r] = ml-3
• [V] = lt-1
• [c] = l
• [m] = ml-1t-1
• [a] = lt-1
Solution
•N=6
• Number of dimensionless P terms = N-K = 3
• These P products are
Solution: Computation of P1

In dimensional terms

= Resultant Force coefficient, CR

Solution: Computation of P2

In dimensional terms

= Reynolds Number, Re
Solution: Computation of P3

In dimensional terms

= Mach Number, M
Solution
The results of the dimensional analysis
Note (1/2)
• Generally
Airfoil Data
Airfoil Data

Flow mechanism associated with stalling

Airfoil Data

a = 4°, a = 11°, a = 24°,

Airfoil Data
Infinite Versus Finite Wings
• Aspect Ratio

Infinite (two-dimensional) wing Finite wing; plan view

cl, cd, and cm CL, CD, and CM
Pressure Coefficient
• Instead of plotting the actual pressure (say in units of newtons per square meter), we
define a new dimensionless quantity called the pressure coefficient Cp:
Compressibility Correction for Pressure
Coefficient
• The Prandtl–Glauert rule (Compressibility Correction)

• where cp,0 is the low-speed value (incompressible flow) of the pressure coefficient. Thus, the above
equation becomes
Obtaining Lift From Pressure Coefficient
• Letting pl denote the pressure on the
lower surface, we can write for the total
normal force acting on an airfoil of unit
span

• From the small triangle in the box in

Figure, we see the geometric relationship
ds cos θ = dx
• Thus the above equation becomes

• Adding and subtracting p∞ , we find that

the above equation becomes
Obtaining Lift From Pressure Coefficient
• We can define the normal and axial force coefficients for an airfoil, cn and ca , respectively,
in the same manner as the lift and drag coefficients

• Hence, the normal force coefficient cn can be calculated

• Note that
Obtaining Lift From Pressure Coefficient
• Hence the above equation becomes

• Recall

• Thus

• Or

• Consider the case of small angle of attack—say α ≤ 5°. Then, in The above equation, cos
α ≈ 1 and sin α ≈ 0, yields
Obtaining Lift From Pressure Coefficient
Compressibility Correction for Lift
Coefficient
• The pressure coefficients in previous equation can be replaced by the compressibility
correction given in Prandtl–Glauert rule , as follows:

• where again the subscript 0 denotes low-speed incompressible flow values. Thus

• where cl,0 is the low-speed value of the lift coefficient. Thus, the above equation becomes
Critical Mach Number and Critical
Pressure Coefficient

By definition, the free-stream Mach number at which sonic flow is first obtained somewhere on the airfoil surface is
called the critical Mach number of the airfoil.
Critical Mach Number and Critical
Pressure Coefficient
• the point on the airfoil where the local M is a peak value is also the point of minimum surface
pressure. From the definition of the pressure coefficient, Cp will correspondingly have its most
negative value at this point.
• The specific value of Cp that corresponds to sonic flow is defined as the critical pressure coefficient,
Cp,cr.
Critical Mach Number and Critical
Pressure Coefficient
Critical Mach Number and Critical
Pressure Coefficient
• Recall

• From the definition of dynamic pressure,

• Recall that a∞=2 γ p∞ /ρ . Thus

• For isentropic flow

• This relates the total pressure p0 at a point in the flow to the static pressure p and local
Mach number M at the same point. Also, from the same relation,
Critical Mach Number and Critical
Pressure Coefficient
• The total pressure remains constant throughout. Thus, if the two previous equations are divided, p0
will cancel, yielding

• Substitute in the above Cp equation

• Let us pick the particular point on the surface where M = 1. Then, by definition, Cp = Cp,cr.
Critical Mach Number and Critical
Pressure Coefficient
How to Estimate the Critical Mach Number for an Airfoil:
1. Obtain a plot of Cp,cr versus M∞. As discussed
previously, this curve is a fixed “universal” curve
that you can use for all such problems. (This is
illustrated by curve A)
2. For low-speed, essentially incompressible flow,
obtain the value of the minimum pressure
coefficient on the surface of the airfoil. The
minimum pressure coefficient corresponds to the
point of maximum velocity on the airfoil surface.
This minimum value of Cp must be given to you
from either experimental measurement or theory.
(This is illustrated by point B)
3. Using Prandtl–Glauert rule, Plot the variation of this
minimum coefficient versus M∞ . (This is illustrated
by curve C)
4. Where curve C intersects curve A , the minimum
pressure coefficient on the surface of the airfoil is
equal to the critical pressure coefficient. This
intersection point is denoted by point D. For the
conditions associated with this point, the maximum
velocity on the airfoil surface is exactly sonic. The
value of M ∞ at point D is then, by definition, the
critical Mach number.
Drag Divergence Mach Number
Wave Drag at Supersonic Speeds
Wave Drag at Supersonic Speeds

The origin of Mach waves and shock waves. The beeper is moving faster than the
speed of sound.
(m is the Mach Angle)
Wave Drag at Supersonic Speeds
Wave Drag at Supersonic Speeds
Summary of Airfoil Drag

Variation of drag coefficient with Mach number

for subsonic and supersonic speeds.
Finite Wings

Origin of wing-tip vortices on a finite wing.

Finite Wings

In the immediate vicinity of the wing, V ∞ and w add vectorally to produce a “local” relative wind that is
canted downward from the original direction of V ∞ . This has several consequences:
1. The angle of attack of the airfoil sections of the wing is effectively reduced in comparison to the angle of
attack of the wing referenced to V∞ .
2. There is an increase in the drag. The increase is called induced drag, which has at least three physical
interpretations. First, the wing-tip vortices simply alter the flow field about the wing to change the surface
pressure distributions in the direction of increased drag. An alternative explanation is that because the
local relative wind is canted downward, the lift vector itself is “tilted back.” Hence, it contributes a certain
component of force parallel to V∞ —that is, a drag force. A third physical explanation of the source of
induced drag is that the wing-tip vortices contain a certain amount of rotational kinetic energy. This
energy has to come from somewhere; it is supplied by the aircraft propulsion system, where extra power
has to be added to overcome the extra increment in drag due to induced drag. All three of these
outlooks of the physical mechanism of induced drag are synonymous.
Calculations of Induced Drag
• This drag is the induced drag Di,

• Values of αi are generally small; hence sin αi≈ αi .

Thus

• The lift per unit span may vary as a function of

distance along the wing because
1. The chord may vary in length along the wing.
2. The wing may be twisted so that each airfoil section of
the wing is at a different geometric angle of attack.
3. The shape of the airfoil section may change along the
span.

• For this case, incompressible flow theory predicts

that (For elliptic lift distribution)
Calculations of Induced Drag
• Then

• However, L = q∞ SCL ; hence

• Defining the induced drag coefficient as CD,i = Di /( q∞ S ), we can

write

• For all wings in general, a span efficiency factor e can be defined

such that

For elliptical planforms, e = 1; for all other planforms, e < 1. Thus, CD,i
and hence induced drag are a minimum for an elliptical planform .
Elliptic Wings Aircraft

Supermarine Spitfire, RAF, 1938

Calculations of Induced Drag
• we can now write the total drag coefficient for a finite wing at subsonic speeds as

Sketch of a drag polar—that is, a plot of

drag coefficient versus lift coefficient.
Change in the Lift Slope

• Where
• Geometric angle of attack, α
• Effective angle of attack αeff
• Induced angle of attack, αi

• Recall

• In degrees
Change in the Lift Slope
• From the figure

• Integrating we find

• Substituting about ai

• Solving for CL

• Differentiating

• by definition, dCL /dα = a .Then

Change in the Lift Slope
In summary, a finite wing introduces two major changes to the airfoil data:
1. Induced drag must be added to the finite wing:

2. The slope of the lift curve for a finite wing is less than that for an infinite wing; a < a0.
Swept Wings

Effect of a swept wing on critical Mach number.

By sweeping the wings of subsonic aircraft, we delay drag divergence to
higher Mach numbers.
Swept Wings
• There is an alternative explanation of how the critical Mach number is increased by sweeping the
wing

With a swept wing, a streamline effectively sees a thinner airfoil.

Swept Wings
Following the usual axiom that “we cannot get something for nothing,” for subsonic flight, increasing
the wing sweep reduces the lift. Although wing sweep is beneficial in terms of increasing the drag-
divergence Mach number, it decreases CL .
Swept Wings
For supersonic flight, swept wings are also advantageous, the advantage of sweeping the wings for
supersonic flight is in general to obtain a decrease in wave drag; and if the wing is swept inside the
Mach cone, a considerable decrease can be obtained.

Swept wings for supersonic flow. ( a ) Wing swept outside the Mach cone.
( b ) Wing swept inside the Mach cone.
Swept Wings
Flaps – a mechanism for high lift
• The stalling velocity is readily obtained in terms of the maximum lift coefficient. From the definition
of CL ,

• In steady, level flight, the lift is just sufficient to support the weight W of the aircraft; that is, L = W .
Thus

• Hence, stalling speed corresponds to the angle of attack that produces CL ,max :
Flaps – a mechanism for high lift

When a plain flap is deflected, the increase in lift is due to an effective increase in
camber and a virtual increase in angle of attack.
Flaps – a mechanism for high lift
Flaps – a mechanism for high lift
Aerodynamics of Cylinders and Spheres

Ideal frictionless flow over a sphere. ( a ) Flow field. ( b )

Pressure coefficient distribution.
Aerodynamics of Cylinders and Spheres

Real separated flow over a sphere; separation is due to friction.

( a ) Flow field. ( b ) Pressure coefficient distribution.
Aerodynamics of Cylinders and Spheres

Variation of drag coefficient with Reynolds

number for a sphere in low-speed flow.
Laminar and turbulent flow over a sphere.
How Lift is Produced – Some Alternative
Explanations
• Pressure distribution
How Lift is Produced – Some Alternative
Explanations

• Circulation

• The Kutta–Joukowsky theorem

How Lift is Produced – Some Alternative
Explanation

Addition of two elementary flows to synthesize a more complex flow. If one or

more of the elementary flows have circulation, then the synthesized flow also
has the same circulation. The lift is directly proportional to the circulation.