3310 Chapter 2

Chapter 2- Aerodynamics of the Airplane: The Drag Polar
2-D Source of Aerodynamic Force
Only 2 sources of resultant aerodynamic force (R):

Integral of Pressure
Newtons 2nd Law: Conservation of Momentum gives the relationship between pressure and velocity
Integral of Shear Stress

Friction (Viscous Forces) No slip condition at the surface creates shear stress
p0 = p1 + ( 1 ) V12 = p1 + ( 1 ) V12
2 2
Affected by:
airfoil shape angle of attack shocks vortices
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Affected by:
smoothness wetted area
Source of Aerodynamic Force
A body immersed in an airflow will experience an Aerodynamic Force due to:
Pressure
p=p(s)
S
Integrate around the surface of the body to get the total force:
acts perpendicular to the surface
R=
p n d S+ k d S
S S
Shear Stress
=(s)
S
n k
dS
acts parallel to the surface

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Aerodynamic Lift, Drag, and Moments

MOMENTS
AERODYNAMIC FORCES R
(not perpendicular to V )
(defined as perpendicular to V )
D V
(defined as parallel to V)
MLE
Mc
4
c By convention, a moment which rotates a body causing an increase in angle of attack is positive.
free stream velocity or relative wind
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Center of Pressure
Question: At what point on the body do the lift and drag (or R) act? Answer: The forces act at the centroid of the distributed load, called the
center of pressure
L L Mc
4
c.p. NO moment!
D
c 4
M LE
Same force, but move it to the quarter chord and add a moment
Same force, but now its at the leading edge, along with a moment about the leading edge
Question: So why dont we use center of pressure as reference point in aircraft dynamics? Answer: Because c.p. shifts when angle of attack is changed. Use quarter chord.
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Aerodynamic Coefficients
From intuition and basic knowledge, we know:

aerodynamic force = f (velocity, density, size of body, angle of attack, viscosity, compressibility)
L = L(, V , S, , , a ) D = D(, V , S, , , a ) M = M(, V , S, , , a )

To find out how the lift on a given body varies with the parameters, we could run a series of wind tunnel tests in which the velocity, say, is varied and everything else stays the same. From this we could extract the change in lift due to change in velocity. If we did this for each parameter, and each force (moment), we would have to conduct experiments that resulted in 19 stacks of data (one for each variation plus a baseline). This is bad: wind tunnel time is very expensive and the whole process is time consuming.
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D q S M q Sc
Instead, lets define lift, drag, and moment coefficients for a given body: CL = L q S CD = CM =
and q is defined as the dynamic pressure: q = 1 V 2

2
c is defined as a characteristic length of a body, usually the chord length Now define the following similarity parameters: Re = V c
Reynolds Number (based on chord length) AE 3310 Performance
M=
V a
Mach Number
Using dimensional analysis, we get the following results. For a given body shape: CL = f1( , Re, M ) CD = f2( , Re, M ) CM = f3( , Re, M )
If we conduct the same experiments, we can now get the equivalent data with 10 stacks of data. But more fundamentally, dimensional analysis tells us that, if the Reynolds Number and the Mach Number are the same for two different flows (different density, velocity, viscosity, speed of sound), the lift coefficient will be the same, given two geometrically similar bodies at the same angle of attack. This is the driving principle behind wind tunnels. Butbe careful. In real life, it is very difficult to match both Re and M.
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Reference Area, S
S is some sort of reference area used to calculate the aerodynamic coefficients. S as wetted area - not common, but is the surface upon which the pressure and shear distributions act, so it is a meaningful geometric quantity when discussing aerodynamic force. S as planform area - the projected area we see when looking down at the wing or aircraft (the shadow). Most common definition of S used when calculating aerodynamic coefficients. S as base area - mostly used when analyzing slender bodies, such as missiles. The Point: it is crucial to know how S was defined when you look at or use technical data!
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Variation of Coefficients with Parameters
How do the coefficients vary with , Re, and M? Answer: it depends on the flow regime and the shape of the body. Primarily, the effect of the three parameters is that they change the pressure distribution, and thus R.
Note linear shape of slope
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Generic Lift Curve Slope
cl vs.
First question: What is difference between CL and cl? CL is for the whole (3-D) aircraft. cl is for 2-D shape, usually just airfoil. Features of Typical Airfoils and Lift Curve Slope:
Slope is mostly linear over practical range of alpha For thin airfoils, theoretical maximum of lift curve slope is 2 per radian For most conventional airfoils, experimentally measured lift slopes are very close to theoretical values. All positively cambered airfoils have negative zero-lift angles of attack. A symmetric airfoil has a zero-lift angle of attack equal to zero ( L=0=0 deg) At high angles of attack, slope becomes non-linear and airfoil exhibits stall due to seperated flow.
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cl vs. Re
Features: Virtually no effect on lift curve slope in linear region (a0 is essentially insensitive to Reynolds number) However, at low Reynolds Numbers (Re < 100,000), there is a substantial Re effect. small model airplanes small UAVs Important Re effect on (cl)max due to viscous effects.
increasing Re
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cmc/4 vs. and Re
Essentially linear over practical range of angle of attack Slope is positive for some airfoils, negative for others. Variation becomes non-linear at high angles of attack, when flow separates Linear portion of curve is essentially independent of Re
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Airfoil Data-NACA 2415
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cd vs. cl
Remembering that the lift coefficient is a linear function of the angle of attack, cl could be effectively replaced by for trend. For a cambered airfoil, the minimum drag value does not necessarily occur at zero angle of attack, but rather at some finite but small .
primarily due to friction drag and pressure drag
primarily due to large pressure drag (separaed flow)
Generic Drag Curve

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cd vs. Re and cmc/4

1 Re 1 for turbulent flow for laminar flow
Viscous flow theory states that the local skin friction coefficient, cf, varies as cf cf
(Re)0.2
Therefore, conclude that cd IS sensitive to Re, and is larger at lower Re.
cmc/4 is essentially constant over the range of angle of attack
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Airfoil Data-NACA 2415
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cl vs. High Mach #s

Prandtl-Glauert for supersonic, thin airfoil
Prandtl-Glauert Rule (simple but least accurate)
due to compressibility effects (change in pressure)
Since the moment coefficient is mainly due to pressure distribution, the variation of cm with Mach will qualitatively resemble the cl vs. Mach curve. AE 3310 Performance
cd vs. High Mach #s
cd stays relatively constant, drag due to friction

presence of shocks, separation of boundary layer due to shocks, increase pressure drag
Mcrit - Mach number at which sonic flow is first encountered at some location on the airfoil Mdd - free stream Mach number at which drag rapidly diverges
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Calculating the Aerodynamic Center
Aerodynamic Center - point about which moments are independent of angle of attack L M c/4 a.c c/4 xac
Sum moments about a.c.: Mac = Mc/4 + Lxac
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Divide by q Sc: Mac = Mc/4 +

q Sc q Sc
L
q S
xac c
c ma.c. = cmc/4 + cl xac c Differentiate with respect to : d c ma.c. = d d cmc/4 + d cl d d xac c
Using definition of a.c., then
d c ma.c. =0 d
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d cmc/4 d
and
d cl d
are constant over linear portions of lift and moment curves
Solving for
xac d cmc/4 = c d d cl d
= -m0 a0
This proves that for a body with linear lift and moment curves, where m0 and ao are fixed values, the aerodynamic center does exist as a fixed point on the airfoil.
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NACA Airfoil Nomenclature
Todays aircraft airfoils are custom designed using CFD and Aero codes. Before all of this computing power, designers would use empirically designed airfoils. NACA- National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics 1920-1960 designed and tested airfoils Still used today for those who dont have time or money to design own airfoil Until 1930, airfoil design had no rhyme or reason. NACA used a systematic approach First, NACA defined airfoil nomenclature
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NACA Airfoil Nomenclature
Mean Camber Line Thickness Leading Edge Camber Trailing Edge
chord, c
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Designing an Airfoil
1. Pick a camber line
2. Choose a thickness distribution on a symmetric shape
3. Apply thickness distribution to camber line
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Four Digit Airfoils
#1 Digit #2 Digit #3,4 Digits
max camber in % of chord location of max camber in tenths of chord max thickness in % of chord
Ex: NACA 2412 Max camber of 2% of chord, located at 40% from leading edge. Max thickness 12%.
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Five Digit Airfoils

3 0 1 2 Thickness in % of chord
2 x 3/2
x 1/2 design cl in tenths location of max camber in tenths of chord
So, 23012 = cl of 0.3 at 15% chord with 12% thickness
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6 Digit Airfoils
Designed for laminar flow, creating a reduction in skin friction drag 64-212 6 4 is just series designation location of minimum pressure in tenths of chord (based on symmetric design section at = 0) design lift coefficient in tenths % max thickness
2 12
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Design Lift Coefficient
Replace airfoil with its camber line
There is only one angle of attack where flow is tangent to leading edge. Else,
The cl at this angle of attack is called the design lift coefficient

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Drag Bucket-6 Series Laminar Airfoil
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P-51 Mustang
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Used 6-Series NACA Airfoil
Lift and Drag Buildup
So far we have only considered lift and drag on an aircraft component (the airfoil). Now we look at the effects of lift and drag on the entire aircraft, which is a synthesis of various aerodynamic concepts. L R
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Finite Wing Geometry

ct
Planform area, S
cr
Wingspan, b
Aspect Ratio is defined as
AR = b2 S
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Wing Tip Vortices and Downwash
Question: Is the lift coefficient of the finite wing the same as that of the airfoil sections distributed along the span of the wing? Answer: NO, due to the downwash of a finite wing. Lift will be less.
Low Pressure High Pressure Front View of Wing V
Wing Tip Vortices
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Induced and Effective Angles of Attack
Because of the downwash, there will be a downward component of the velocity over the span of the wing.
se c tion
eff i V
local re
of t
lative w ind
he
w in
V
g
local rel
i
nd
downwash,
ative wi
The result is a smaller effective angle of attack, and thus a smaller lift component. How small? It depends on the wing geometry:
1) 2) 3) 4)
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High Aspect Ratio Straight Wing Low Aspect Ratio Straight Wing Swept Wing Delta Wing
High Aspect Ratio Straight Wing
Used primarily for relatively low speed subsonic airplanes. Classic theory for such wings, most straightforward engineering approach to estimate aerodynamic coefficients is Prandtls Lifting Line Theory To estimate the lift slope of finite wing:
a =
a0 1 + a0/(e1AR)
a0 e1
is section lift curve slope (per radian) is wing efficiency factor (usually about 0.95)
Equation good for high aspect ratio, straight wings in incompressible flow. Good for wings with aspect ratio 4 or higher.
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Effect of Aspect Ratio on Lift Curve
Lift curve slope decreases as aspect ratio decreases. As aspect ratio decreases, induced effects from wing tip vortices become stronger and lift is decreased for a given angle of attack.
Note that zero lift angle of attack is same for all wings, but lift curve slope varies with aspect ratio
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Compressibility Correction
Prandtls Lifting Line Theory may be corrected for compressibility effects at higher speeds. Prandtl-Glauer Rule a0, comp = a0
2 1 - M
Now replace a0 in Prandtls Lifting Line Theory with a0,comp to get corrected lift curve slope.
acomp
a0
2 + a /(e AR) 1 - M 0 1
For Supersonic High Aspect Ratio Wings, use this equation derived from supersonic lineary theory:
acomp =
4
2 1 - M
good for Mach numbers up to about 0.7

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Effect of Mach Number on Lift Slope
Subsonic correction equation
Supersonic correction equation
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For transonic region, use CFD
Low Aspect Ratio Straight Wings
Cannot use Prandtls Lifting Line Theory for low aspect ratio wings (AR < 4). It is based on lifting line theory, which models high aspect ratio wings well, but models low aspect ratio wings poorly. It is more appropriate to use lifting surface.
High Aspect Ratio Wing
Lifting Line Trailing Vortices

Low Aspect Ratio Wing Low Aspect Ratio Wing
Lifting Line
Lifting Surface
Lifting line produces bad model for low AR wings

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Lifting surface provides better model for low AR wings
Low AR Wing Lift Approximations

For incompressible flow based on lifting surface solution for elliptical wings, but used for straight wings For subsonic, compressible flow modified from above equation
Helmbolds Equation a0 a= 1 + [a0 / (AR)]2 + a0/AR)
a=
a0
2 + [a / (AR)]2 + a /AR) 1 - M 0 0
acomp =
4
2 1 - M
12AR
1 M 1
2-
For supersonic flow, low AR, straight wing
Valid as long as Mach cones from the two wing tips do not overlap
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When do we want a low AR wing?
Most aircraft do not use low AR wings At subsonic speeds, low AR wings have high induced drag At supersonice speeds, low AR wings have low supersonic wave drag
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Lockheed F-104 AR = 2.97
Swept Wings
Purpose of using a swept wing is to reduce wave drag at transonic and supersonic speeds
u = V w= 0
u w
Here, u = V cos Since u for swept wing is less than u for straight wing, the difference in pressure between top and bottom surfaces of the swept wing will be less than the difference in pressures on the straight wing. Result: swept wing has less lift.
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Swept Wing Geometry and Approximations AR = b2 S cr ct b Lift curve slope approximation based on lifting surface theory incompressible flow
Taper Ratio =
ct cr
Half-chord line
a=
a0 cos 1 + [a0 cos / (AR)]2 + a0 cos /AR)
Note: this equation is same as for low aspect ratio wings, with new a0
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Swept Wing, Compressibility Corrections
Let M,n be the component of the free stream Mach number perpendicular to the half chord line (equivalent to M ,n = M cos ). The lift curve slope becomes: a0 1 - M,n Let = 1 - M 2 cos2
Replace a0 with a0/ in incompressible swept wing equation to get a0 cos 1 - M 2 cos2 + [a0 cos / (AR)]2 + a0 cos /AR) for subsonic, compressible flow over a swept wing
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acomp =
Supersonic Swept Wings

Mach Angle: =arcsin (1/M) Leading Edge Sweep:
Compare: M
Wing is inside Mach cone. Component of M perpendicular to leading edge is subsonic subsonic leading edge Weak shock at apex, NO shock on leading edge Behaves as subsonic wing even though M >1
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Wing leading edge is outside of Mach cone supersonic leading edge Shock wave attached along entire leading edge Behaves as supersonic flat plate at angle of attack
Estimating Lifting Properties of Supersonic Wings
No quick way to estimate lifting properties. Normally use CFD techniques to get pressure distribution and then integrate. Or use charts...
CN, , the normal lift coefficient, can be made analogous to CL CL = CN,

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Swept Wings Overview
Used to reduce transonic and supersonic wave drag (used on high speed airplanes) However, wing sweep is usually a detriment at low speeds: low speed lift coefficient is reduced by sweeping the wings degraded takeoff and landing performance Therefore, swept wings must often be designed with elaborate high lift devices expensive complicated
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Delta Wings
Delta Wings- triangular shaped, highly swept wings
Simple Delta
Cropped Delta
Notched Delta
Double Delta
First explored in 1930s in Germany by Lisspisch Used primarily for supersonic flight
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F-102
Concorde
Delta Wings-Subsonic Flow
due to sharp edge
Dominant flow is the two vortices that develop along the highly swept leading edges:
the pressure on the upper surface is lower than the pressure on the bottom. This induces a flow that curls around the leading edge. If this edge is sharp, the flow separates and curls into a primary vortex. A secondary vortex forms beneath the primary one.
This vortex flow is good: stable vortices, high energy

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Vortex Lift
Vortex Lift
The vortices on a delta wing in subsonic flow create a lower pressure region on the top of the wing that would not normally exist. This creates more lift, called Vortex Lift. In Figure: data for an AR=1.46 wing Potential Flow lift is the theoretical calculation of lift without the leading edge vortices. Actual lift was obtained experimentally.
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Features of Vortex Lift
The lift slope is small, on the order of 0.05 per degree The lift continues to increase over a large range of angle of attack. A reasonable CLmax would be on the order of 1.35 with a stalling angle of 35 deg. The lift curve is non-linear, due to the effects of vortex lift.
Note: large angles of attack are used for takeoff and landing for vehicles with delta wings (Space Shuttle, Concorde). Realize that this high angle of attack makes visibility for the pilot very difficult, leading to such solutions as the droop nose on the Concorde.
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Approximate Calculation of Lift-Delta Wings
Calculation for Normal Force, N, for slender delta wings at low speeds
similarity parameter
CN (s/l)2
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s/l
+ 4.9
s/l
1.7
low speed delta wings (theoretical approx.)
Wing Body Combinations
Liftwing + Liftbody = Liftwing/body combination No accurate analytical way to predict lift of wing-body interaction Wind tunnel tests CFD analysis Cant even say if it will be more or less However, work by Hoerner and Borst shows that the lift of the wing-body combination can be treated as simply the lift on the complete wing by itself, including that portion which is covered by the fuselage.
reasonable approximation for preliminary design and performance at subsonic speeds

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Drag
Performance Goal - Design for minimum drag (or maximum L/D) Remember 2 sources of aerodynamic force:
Pressure Pressure Drag
Shear Stress Friction Drag
Just like the two aerodynamic forces, there are two corresponding types of drag. All drag types can be classified under one of these two headings. In general, drag is difficult to predict analytically. Often must rely on empirical relationships.
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Subsonic Drag-Airfoils
Section drag, also called profile drag, is what you see in typical airfoil cl vs cd data, like the NACA airfoil data.
cd
profile drag
cf
cd,p
= skin-friction + pressure drag drag due to separation due to frictional shear stress acting on the surface of the airfoil
Skin friction drag
For thin airfoils and wings, cl can be estimated by using formulas for a flat plate
cf
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= 1.328 Re
laminar
Exact theoretical for laminar incompressible flow over a flat plate, but we use it as an approximation of an airfoil
Skin Friction Drag

Vc Df friction on one side of plate c length of plate in flow direction S planform area of plate
cf
Df qS
Re =
For turbulent flow, must use approximations
cf
or
-1/2
4.13 log (Re cf)
turbulent (solve implicitly)
Karman-Schoenherr
cf
0.42 ln2(0.056 Re)
accurate within +/- 4% for 105 < Re < 109
Now, when do you apply these equations? Assumption: for high Re normally encountered in flight, laminar flow region is very small, so assume entire surface is turbulent.
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Pressure Drag (Form Drag)

caused by the imbalance of the pressure distribution in the drag direction when the boundary layer separates from the surface
Pressure drag due to flow separation (form drag)
cd,p is usually found

experimentally. In general, at subsonic speeds below MDD, the variation of cd with Mach number is small, so we can assume cd is relatively constant across subsonic Mach number range. cd
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Subsonic Drag-Finite Wings
Now we need to add in induced drag, which is a form of pressure drag. For a high aspect ratio straight wing, use Prandtls Lifting Line Theory to get: CDi = C L2 e AR CDi = Di qS e is efficiency factor 0 < e < 1 function of aspect ratio and taper Realize that induced drag and lift are caused by the same mechanism: change in pressure distribution between top and bottom surfaces. So, it makes sense that CDi and CL are strongly coupled. Induced drag is the cost of lift.
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C L2 e AR
To reduce drag: CDi =
Want e to be as close to unity as possible. e = 1 is a wing with an elliptical spanwise lift distribution. But for modern aircraft, e ~ 0.95 - 1.0, so its not as critical to have an elliptical wing. Aspect ratio has a very strong effect: doubling AR reduces induced drag by a factor of 2. AR = b2 S increasing AR moves the wingtip vortices further apart, which reduces their effect.
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Although high aspect ratios are aerodynamically best, they are structurally expensive. Most subsonic aircraft today: 6 < AR < 9 Modern sailplanes: 10 < AR < 30
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Subsonic Drag- Fuselages
Fuselages experience substantial drag:

skin-friction - function of wetted area However, most drag coefficients for fuselages do NOT use wetted area as the reference area pressure drag due to flow separation Interference drag - interaction that occurs at the junction of the wing and fuselage
region of interference drag
No analytical way to predict interference drag. Use experimental data.

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Summary of Subsonic Drag
skin friction drag - due to frictional shear stress over the surface pressure drag due to flow separation (form drag) - due to pressure imbalance caused by flow separation profile drag (section drag) - sum of skin friction drag and form drag interference drag - additional pressure drag that is caused when two surfaces (components) meet. parasite drag - term used for the profile drag of the complete aircraft, including interference drag. induced drag - pressure drag caused by the creation of wing tip vortices (induced lift) of finite wings zero-lift drag - parasite drag of complete aircraft that exists at its zero-lift angle of attack drag due to lift - total aircraft drag minus zero lift drag. It measures the change in parasite drag as changes from L=0
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Other Types of Drag
The previous drags were the main categories of drag. Sometimes they are broken into more detailed categories. Ex: External Store Drag Landing Gear Drag Protuberance Drag Leakage Drag Engine Cooling Drag (reciprocating engines) Flap Drag Trim Drag Tail Wing
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Transonic Drag
The distinguishing feature between the subsonic region and the transonic region is shock waves. In transonic, M< 1 but local pockets of supersonic flow on the aircraft are usually terminated by shock waves. Transonic drag is exclusively a pressure drag effect - strong adverse pressure gradient across shock causes separation, therefore, it is a pressure drag due to flow separation - total loss of pressure across shock wave No closed form analytical formulas to predict transonic drag rise - CFD often misses the calculation of the shock induced separated flow - Empirical data best bet
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Reduction of Transonic Drag
2 ways to reduce transonic drag rise

Area Rule Kinks in cross sectional area distribution cause large transonic drag rise, so design fuselage/wing to smooth out distribution. Richard Whitcomb, using empirical information and intuition, developed idea of area rule in the 1950s.
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Area Rule
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Supercritical Airfoil
After WWII, it was thought the only way to increase MDD was to increase Mcrit. Although the NACA 6series airfoils were designed for laminar flow, they had a higher Mcrit, so they were used on higher Mach aircraft.
cd
Mcrit MDD
Whitcomb, in 1965, took a different approach. He wanted to increase the increment between Mcrit and MDD. The supercritical airfoil design came out of this pursuit. flat top encourages a region of supersonic flow with lower local values of M than the 6-series Higher MDD terminating shock is weaker, causing less drag. extent of supersonic flow is closer to the airfoil
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Supercritical Airfoil
Because top of airfoil is flat, it actually has a negative camber in the first 60% of the airfoil. To compensate for this loss of lift, the aft 30% of the airfoil has extreme positive camber, giving the airfoil its distinctive look.
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Supersonic Drag
Shock waves are the dominant feature of the flow field around an aircraft at supersonic speeds. Wave drag caused by pressure pattern around aircraft, so it is a pressure drag.
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Supersonic Drag
supersonic, small s high AR straight wing
Recall, in slightly different format, cl = 4 M2 - 1
corresponding for drag: 42 M2 - 1 also called wave drag due to lift Note: Cd,w = 0 at = 0
cd =
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Zero Lift Wave Drag
Wave drag due to lift was illustrated by a flat plate. Now look at a body with thickness
This is zero lift wave drag Wave drag = zero lift wave drag + wave drag due to lift
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Calculating Supersonic Drag
Most analysis is done using codes based on small-perturbation linearized supersonic theory Simple Versatile Limited to slender configurations at low lift coefficients Okay for preliminary design and performance
Unlike subsonic and transonic regimes, in which we ignore the effect of M on skin friction coefficient, at supersonic speeds we should take into account compressibility effects and heat transfer. This is area of classical compressible boundary layer theory. Some results for flat plate presented in text.
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Calculating Supersonic Drag
Figure 2.51
Figure 2.52
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The Drag Polar
We now focus on the drag of the complete aircraft, which is presented in the form of a drag polar Drag Breakdown
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Drag Breakdown
For subsonic: Most drag at cruise is parasite drag Most drag at takeoff is lift-dependent drag For supersonic: Most drag at cruise is wave drag (both kinds) Most drag at takeoff is lift-dependent drag About 2/3 of total parasite drag in cruise is due to skin friction, the rest is interference and form drag. Recall friction drag is a function of total wetted surface area, so to estimate friction drag, we should get an estimate of wetted area. Wetted surface area, Swet, is usually 2 to 8 times the reference planform area of the wing, S.
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Wetted Area Estimation
The zero-lift parasite drag, D0, can be written D0 = q Swet Cfe The zero-lift drag coefficient, CD,0, is defined as CD,0 = D0 q S
Substituting, we get CD,0 = q Swet Cfe q S = Swet S Cfe
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Wetted Area Estimation
Now use the figures below to estimate zero lift drag
Figure 2.54 Figure 2.55

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The Drag Polar
For every aerodynamic body, there exists a relationship between CL and CD. This relationship can be expressed as either an equation or a graph. Both are called drag polar. Virtually all information necessary for a performance analysis is contained in the drag polar.
Recall Total Drag = parasite drag + wave drag + induced drag CD = CD,e + CD,w + CL 2 e AR
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Parasite Drag
+ CD,e increment in parasite drag due to lift
First, look at CD,e CD,e = CD,e,0 parasite drag at zero lift Now realize
CD,e is a function of and cd varies as cl2 This implies that CD,e varies w/ CL2 So, CD,e = CD,e,0 +
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CD,e = CD,e,0 + k1 CL2
Wave Drag
Similar arguments can be made for wave drag, CD,w CD,w = CD,w,0 + CD,w
From our supersonic discussion, we can combine equations to get cd,w = cl2 M2 - 1 4 so CD,w does vary with CL2
So, CD,w = CD,w,0 + CD,w = CD,w,0 + k2 CL2
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Drag Polar
+ CD,w + CL2 e AR
Putting it all together, = CD,e CD
CD
CD,e,0 + CD,w,0 1 e AR
+ k1CL2 + k2CL2 +
CL2 e AR
Define k3 = CD =
then,
CD,e,0 + CD,w,0 + (k1 + k2 + k3) CL2 defines CD,0

zero lift drag coeff.
define as K
So, complete drag polar can be written as CD =

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CD,0 + K CL2
Drag Polar
CD,0 + K CL2
CD = CD CD,0
total drag coefficient zero lift parasite drag coefficient or zero lift drag coefficient
K CL2 drag due to lift Equation is valid for both subsonic and supersonic At supersonic, CD,0 contains wave drag at zero lift, friction drag, form drag. The value for wave drag due to lift is part of K CL
zero lift drag coefficient
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drag polar
CD
Graphic Drag Polar
CL
0 CD The slope of the line from the origin to any point on the drag polar is the L/D at that point. It will have a corresponding . A line drawn from the origin tangent to the drag polar identifies the (L/D)max of the aircraft. Sometimes called the design point Corresponding CL is called design lift coefficient Note (L/D)max does NOT occur at point of minimum drag
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Graphic Drag Polar
Note: for most real aircraft, minimum drag point is NOT the same as zero lift point, although we have been drawing it that way. CL CL
CD
CD
But for airplanes with wings of moderate camber, the difference between CD,0 and Cdmin are small and can be ignored.
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Information from Polar

CL
CL
0 Min drag coeff at zero lift symmetric fuselage wing with symmetric airfoil zero incidence angle of attack
CD
CD Zero lift drag coeff not same as minimum lift some effective camber zero lift drag coefficient obtained at some not equal to zero
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General Drag Polar Notes
The same aircraft will have different drag polars for different Mach numbers. At low M, this can be effectively ignored At high M, differences are significant Subsonic As M increases, curve shifts to the right minimum drag coefficient increases due to drag divergence effects Supersonic As M increases, curve shifts to the left and squashes minimum drag coefficient decreases CL decreases cl cd
M
AE 3310 Performance
General Drag Polar Notes
AE 3310 Performance
References for Chapter 2
S.F. Hoerner, Fluid Dynamic Drag, Hoerner Fluid Dynamics, Brick Town, NJ 1965 S.F. Hoerner and H.V. Borst, Fluid Dynamic Lift, Hoerner Fluid Dynamics, Brick Town, NJ 1975 Ira H. Abbott and Albert E. Von Doenhoff, Theory of Wing Sections, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1991. John D. Anderson, Jr. Introduction to Flight, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1989 John D. Anderson, Jr. Fundamentals of Aerodynamics, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1991 Joseph Katz and Allen Plotkin, Low-Speed Aerodynamics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1991 Deitrich Kuchemann, The Aerodynamic Design of Aircraft, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1978 Daniel P. Raymer, Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach, 2nd Edition, AIAA Education Series, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Washinton, 1992.
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What are the two main sources of aerodynamic force on an airfoil?

What are the two main sources of aerodynamic force on an airfoil?

How are aerodynamic forces defined in terms of coefficients?

How are aerodynamic forces defined in terms of coefficients?

Chapter 2- Aerodynamics of the Airplane: The Drag Polar

2-D Source of Aerodynamic Force

Only 2 sources of resultant aerodynamic force (R):

Integral of Shear Stress

Chapter 2- Aerodynamics of the Airplane: The Drag Polar

Source of Aerodynamic Force

A body immersed in an airflow will experience an Aerodynamic Force due to:

acts perpendicular to the surface

acts parallel to the surface

Chapter 2- Aerodynamics of the Airplane: The Drag Polar

Aerodynamic Lift, Drag, and Moments

free stream velocity or relative wind

Chapter 2- Aerodynamics of the Airplane: The Drag Polar

Chapter 2- Aerodynamics of the Airplane: The Drag Polar

From intuition and basic knowledge, we know:

L = L(, V , S, , , a ) D = D(, V , S, , , a ) M = M(, V , S, , , a )

Chapter 2- Aerodynamics of the Airplane: The Drag Polar

and q is defined as the dynamic pressure: q = 1 V 2

Chapter 2- Aerodynamics of the Airplane: The Drag Polar

Chapter 2- Aerodynamics of the Airplane: The Drag Polar

Chapter 2- Aerodynamics of the Airplane: The Drag Polar

Variation of Coefficients with Parameters

Note linear shape of slope

Generic Lift Curve Slope

Chapter 2- Aerodynamics of the Airplane: The Drag Polar

Chapter 2- Aerodynamics of the Airplane: The Drag Polar

Chapter 2- Aerodynamics of the Airplane: The Drag Polar

cmc/4 vs. and Re

Chapter 2- Aerodynamics of the Airplane: The Drag Polar

Airfoil Data-NACA 2415

Chapter 2- Aerodynamics of the Airplane: The Drag Polar

primarily due to friction drag and pressure drag

primarily due to large pressure drag (separaed flow)

Generic Drag Curve

Chapter 2- Aerodynamics of the Airplane: The Drag Polar

cd vs. Re and cmc/4

Therefore, conclude that cd IS sensitive to Re, and is larger at lower Re.

cmc/4 is essentially constant over the range of angle of attack

Chapter 2- Aerodynamics of the Airplane: The Drag Polar

Airfoil Data-NACA 2415

Chapter 2- Aerodynamics of the Airplane: The Drag Polar

cl vs. High Mach #s

Prandtl-Glauert Rule (simple but least accurate)

due to compressibility effects (change in pressure)

Chapter 2- Aerodynamics of the Airplane: The Drag Polar

cd vs. High Mach #s

cd stays relatively constant, drag due to friction

Chapter 2- Aerodynamics of the Airplane: The Drag Polar

Calculating the Aerodynamic Center

Sum moments about a.c.: Mac = Mc/4 + Lxac

Chapter 2- Aerodynamics of the Airplane: The Drag Polar

Calculating the Aerodynamic Center

Divide by q Sc: Mac = Mc/4 +

c ma.c. = cmc/4 + cl xac c Differentiate with respect to : d c ma.c. = d d cmc/4 + d cl d d xac c

Using definition of a.c., then