BASIC MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION

Mechanisms: The processes of evolution

Biological evolution, simply put, is descent with modification. This definition encompasses small-scale
evolution (changes in gene — or more precisely and technically, allele — frequency in a population from
one generation to the next) and large-scale evolution (the descent of different species from a common
ancestor over many generations). Evolution helps us to understand the history of life. Biological
evolution is not simply a matter of change over time. Lots of things change over time: trees lose their
leaves, mountain ranges rise and erode, but they aren't examples of biological evolution because they
don't involve descent through genetic inheritance.
(https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evo_02)

Evolution is the process by which modern organisms have descended from ancient ancestors. Evolution
is responsible for both the remarkable similarities we see across all life and the amazing diversity of that
life — but exactly how does it work? Fundamental to the process is genetic variation upon which
selective forces can act in order for evolution to occur. This section examines the mechanisms of
evolution focusing on:

• Descent and the genetic differences that are heritable and passed on to the next generation;

• Mutation, migration (gene flow), genetic drift, and natural selection as mechanisms of change;

• The importance of genetic variation;

• The random nature of genetic drift and the effects of a reduction in genetic variation; • How variation,
differential reproduction, and heredity result in evolution by natural selection; and

• How different species can affect each other's evolution through coevolution.
(https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/evo_14)

Populations evolve, but individual organisms do not. A population is an interbreeding group of

(https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/biology/biology/principles-of evolution/mechanisms of-

Mechanisms of change Each of these four processes is a basic mechanism of evolutionary change.

1. Mutation is a change in DNA, the hereditary material of life. An organism's DNA affects how it
looks, how it behaves, and its physiology — all aspects of its life. So a change in an organism's
DNA can cause changes in all aspects of its life. A mutation could cause parents with genes for
bright green coloration to have offspring with a gene for brown coloration. That would make
genes for brown coloration more frequent in the population than they were before the
mutation. Mutation is a change in a DNA sequence, usually occurring because of errors in
replication or repair. Mutation is the ultimate source of genetic variation. Changes in the
composition of a genome due to recombination alone are not considered mutations since
recombination alone just changes which genes are united in the same genome but does not
alter the sequence of those genes.
(https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/evo_1)

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 2. Sources of Genetic Variation
Without genetic variation, some of the basic mechanisms of evolutionary change cannot
operate. There are three primary sources of genetic variation, which we will learn more about:
1. Mutations are changes in the DNA. A single mutation can have a large effect, but in many
cases, evolutionary change is based on the accumulation of many mutations.
2. Gene flow is any movement of genes from one population to another and is an important
source of genetic variation.
3. Sex can introduce new gene combinations into a population. This genetic shuffling is another
important source of genetic variation.
(https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/evo_17)

Mutations are random. Mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful for the organism, but
mutations do not "try" to supply what the organism "needs." In this respect, mutations are random —
whether a particular mutation happens or not is unrelated to how useful that mutation would be.

Mutations happen for several reasons.

1. DNA fails to copy accurately Most of the mutations that we think matter to evolution are
"naturally occurring." For example, when a cell divides, it makes a copy of its DNA — and
sometimes the copy is not quite perfect. That small difference from the original DNA sequence
is a mutation.
2. External influences can create mutations Mutations can also be caused by exposure to specific
chemicals or radiation. These agents cause the DNA to break down. This is not necessarily
unnatural — even in the most isolated and pristine environments, DNA breaks down.
Nevertheless, when the cell repairs the DNA, it might not do a perfect job of the repair. So the
cell would end up with DNA slightly different than the original DNA and hence, a mutation.

Sex and genetic shuffling

1.Sex can introduce new gene combinations into a population and is an important source of genetic
variation. You probably know from experience that siblings are not genetically identical to their parents
or to each other (except, of course, for identical twins). That's because when organisms reproduce
sexually, some genetic "shuffling" occurs, bringing together new combinations of genes. For example,
you might have bushy eyebrows and a big nose since your mom had genes associated with bushy
eyebrows and your dad had genes associated with a big nose. These combinations can be good, bad, or
neutral. If your spouse is wild about the bushy eyebrows/big nose combination, you were lucky and hit
on a winning combination! This shuffling is important for evolution because it can introduce new
combinations of genes every generation. However, it can also break up "good" combinations of genes.
Source (https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/evo_22)

2.Migration/ Gene flow — also called migration — is any movement of individuals, and/or the genetic
material they carry, from one population to another. Gene flow includes lots of different kinds of events,
such as pollen being blown to a new destination or people moving to new cities or countries. If gene
versions are carried to a population where those gene versions previously did not exist, gene flow can
be a very important source of genetic variation. In the graphic below, the gene version for brown
coloration moves from one population to another. Gene flow is the movement of genes between
populations. This may happen through the migration of organisms or the movement of gametes (such as
pollen blown to a new location)

3. Genetic drift. Another mechanism for evolution is genetic drift, which can occur when a small group
of individuals leaves a population and establishes a new one in a geographically isolated region. Fitness
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of a population is not considered in genetic drift, nor does genetic drift occur in a very large population.
Source (https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/biology/biology/principles-of
evolution/mechanisms-of-evolution) Imagine that in one generation, two brown beetles happened to
have four offspring survive to reproduce. Several green beetles were killed when someone stepped on
them and had no offspring. The next generation would have a few more brown beetles than the
previous generation — but just by chance. These chance changes from generation to generation are
known as genetic drift. https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/evo_16 Genetic drift —
along with natural selection, mutation, and migration — is one of the basic mechanisms of evolution.

In each generation, some individuals may, just by chance, leave behind a few more descendent (and
genes, of course!) than other individuals. The genes of the next generation will be the genes of the
"lucky" individuals, not necessarily the healthier or "better" individuals. That, in a nutshell, is genetic
drift. It happens to ALL populations — there's no avoiding the vagaries of chance

Random Drift consists of random fluctuations in the frequency of appearance of a gene, usually, in a
small population. The process may cause gene variants to disappear completely, thereby reducing
genetic variability. In contrast to natural selection, environmental or adaptive pressures do not drive
changes due to genetic drift. The effect of genetic drift is larger in small populations and smaller in large
populations. Genetic drift is a stochastic process, a random event that happens by chance in nature that
influences or changes allele frequency within a population as a result of sampling error from generation
to generation. It may happen that some alleles are completely lost within a generation due to genetic
drift, even if they are beneficial traits that conduct to evolutionary and reproductive success. Allele is
defined as any one of two or more genes that may occur alternatively at a given site (locus) on a
chromosome. Alleles are responsible for variations in a trait. The population bottleneck and a founder
effect are two examples of random drift that can have significant effects in small populations. Genetic
drift works on all mutations and can eventually contribute to the creation of a new species by means of
the accumulation of non-adaptive mutations that can facilitate population subdivision.
Source(https://nectunt.bifi.es/to-learn-more-overview/mechanisms-of-evolutionary change/)

Bottleneck effect occurs when there is a sudden sharp decline in a population’s size typically due to
environmental factors (natural disasters such as: earthquakes or tsunamis, epidemics that can decimate
the number of individuals in the population, predation or habitat destruction, etc.). It is a random event,
in which some genes (there is not any distinction) are extinguished from the population. This results in a
drastic reduction of the total genetic diversity of the original gene pool. The small surviving population is
considerably be farther from the original one in its genetic makeup. Source(https://nectunt.bifi.es/to-
learn-more-overview/mechanisms-of-evolutionary change/)

Founder effect is the loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new population is established by a
small number of individuals that are cleaved from a larger population. This new population does not
have the genetic diversity of the previous one. Because the community is very small and also
geographical or socially isolated, some genetic traits are becoming more prevalent in the population.
This leads to the presence of certain genetic diseases in the next generations. In some cases, founder
effect plays a fundamental role in the emergence of new species. Source (https://nectunt.bifi.es/to-
learn-more-overview/mechanisms-of-evolutionary-change/)

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predominance of orange circles in the newly founded population. These orange circles may correspond
to a given allele responsible for the variation in a trait (for example, specific eyes color). In extreme
cases, founder effect also plays a fundamental role in the emergence of new species.
https://nectunt.bifi.es/to-learn-more-overview/mechanisms-of-evolutionary-change/

3. Natural selection Another mechanism for evolution is natural selection, which occurs when
populations of organisms are subjected to the environment. The fittest creatures are more likely
to survive and pass their genes to their offspring, producing a population that is better adapted
to the environment. The genes of less-fit individuals are less likely to be passed on to the next
generation. The important selective force in natural selection is the environment. Imagine that
green beetles are easier for birds to spot (and hence, eat). Brown beetles are a little more likely
to survive to produce offspring. They pass their genes for brown coloration on to their offspring.
So, in the next generation, brown beetles are more common than in the previous generation. All

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 of these mechanisms can cause changes in the frequencies of genes in populations, and so all of
them are mechanisms of evolutionary change. However, natural selection and genetic drift
cannot operate unless there is genetic variation — that is, unless some individuals are
genetically different from others. If the population of beetles were 100% green, selection and
drift would not have any effect because their genetic mke-up could not change.
https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/evo_16
Natural selection is one of the basic mechanisms of evolution, along with mutation, migration,
and genetic drift. Darwin's grand idea of evolution by natural selection is relatively simple but
often misunderstood. To find out how it works, imagine a population of beetles:
1. There is variation in traits. For example, some beetles are green and some are brown.
2. There is differential reproduction. Since the environment can't support unlimited population
growth, not all individuals get to reproduce to their full potential. In this example, green beetles
tend to get eaten by birds and survive to reproduce less often than brown beetles do.
3. There is heredity. The surviving brown beetles have brown baby beetles because this trait has
a genetic basis.
4. End result: The more advantageous trait, brown coloration, which allows the beetle to have
more offspring, becomes more common in the population. If this process continues, eventually,
all individuals in the population will be brown. If you have variation, differential reproduction,
and heredity, you will have evolution by natural selection as an outcome. It is as simple as that.

Natural Selection leads to an evolutionary change when some individuals with certain traits in a
population have a higher survival and reproductive rate than others and pass on these
inheritable genetic features to their offspring. Evolution acts through natural selection whereby
reproductive and genetic qualities that prove advantageous to survival prevail into future
generations. The cumulative effects of natural selection process have giving rise to populations
that have evolved to succeed in specific environments. Natural selection operates by differential
reproductive success (fitness) of individuals. https://nectunt.bifi.es/to-learn-more-
overview/mechanisms-of-evolutionary-change

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 The Darwin’s Finches diagram illustrates the way the finch has adapted to take advantage of
feeding in different ecological niches:

REFERENCES
Basic Mechanisms of Evolution. Retrieved February 3,2021 from
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General Biology 2 Textbook for Senior High School. 1253 G. Araneta Avenue, Quezon City:
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Mechanisms of Evolution. Retrieved February 1, 2021 from https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-
guides/biology/biology/principles-of evolution/mechanisms-of-evolution
Understanding evolution. Retrieved February 2, 2021 from
https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/evo_16

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