KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC

ENGINEERING

BACHELOR OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

REGULATED POWER SUPPLY

APPLIED ELECTRONICS ASSIGNMENT

NAME: WASSWA HALID

REG. NO: 20/U/BEL/11803/PD

SIGNATURE……………………………

LECTURER: MR. KIBUUKA JULIUS

Question

Write notes on the following regulated power supply

 Open loop voltage regulation

 Closed loop voltage regulation
 Current and voltage limiting

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VOLTAGE REGULATION

INTRODUCTION.

Voltage regulation is the process of holding a voltage steady under conditions of changing
applied voltage and changing load current. Many electronic systems require a stable power
supply voltage and use voltage regulators to accomplish that.

There are two types of voltage regulators, shunt and series. The name comes from where the
control element (typically a transistor) is placed. Except for the special case of a Zener diode
shunt regulator which is open-loop, virtually all voltage regulators are

closed-loop high-gain proportional control systems.

CLOSED LOOP VOLTAGE REGULATION

The main components used in the closed loop voltage regulator are; -

 Feedback Circuit; Used to detect the changes within the DC voltage output.
 Stable Reference Voltage; based on the reference voltage as well as feedback, a control
signal can be generated and drives the Pass Element to pay off the changes.
 Pass Element Control Circuit; Pass element is one kind of solid-state semiconductor
device similar to a BJT transistor, PN-Junction Diode otherwise a MOSFET

Linear Voltage Regulators

The Linear regulator acts as a voltage divider. In the Ohmic region, it uses FET. The resistance
of the voltage regulator varies with load resulting in constant output voltage. Linear voltage
regulators are the original type of regulators use to regulate the power supplies with low
efficiency. In this kind of regulator, the variable conductivity of the active pass element like a
MOSFET or a BJT is accountable to change the output voltage.

Advantages

 Gives a low output ripple voltage

 Fast response time to load or line changes

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  Low electromagnetic interference and less noise

Disadvantages

 Efficiency is very low

 Requires large space – heat sink is needed
 Voltage above the input cannot be increased

Series Voltage Regulators.

In series regulation the control element is placed between the unregulated voltage source and
the load and the current through the element is controlled so that the voltage across the load is
held constant. A feedback control system is used where the difference

between the output voltage and a reference voltage is applied to a high gain amplifier that
drives the current control element such as to maintain the setpoint output voltage. The
majority of voltage regulators are of the series type.

The basic connection of a series regulator circuit is shown in the block diagram of Fig.1. The
series element controls the amount of the input voltage that gets to the output. The output voltage
is sampled by a circuit that provides a feedback voltage to be compared to a reference voltage.

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Figure 1. series regulator block diagram

If the output voltage increases, the comparator circuit provides a control signal to cause the series
control element to decrease the amount of the output voltage— thereby maintaining the output
voltage.

If the output voltage decreases, the comparator circuit provides a control signal to cause the
series control element to increase the amount of the output voltage.

Series Regulator Circuit

A simple series regulator circuit is shown in Fig.2. Transistor Q1 is the series control element,
and Zener diode DZ provides the reference voltage. The regulating operation can be described as
follows:

 If the output voltage decreases, the increased base-emitter voltage causes transistor Q1 to
conduct more, thereby raising the output voltage—maintaining the output constant.
 If the output voltage increases, the decreased base-emitter voltage causes transistor Q1 to
conduct less, thereby reducing the output voltage—maintaining the output constant.

Figure 2. series regulator circuit

Op-amp series regulator.

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Another version of series regulator is that shown in Fig.4. The op-amp compares the Zener diode
reference voltage with the feedback voltage from sensing resistors R1 and R2. If the output
voltage varies, the conduction of transistor Q1 is controlled to maintain the output voltage
constant. The output voltage will be maintained at a value of

( )
V O = 1+
R1
V
R2 Z

Figure 4 Op-amp series regulator

Shunt Voltage Regulation.

In shunt regulation a resistor is typically placed in series with the load and the unregulated
voltage. The resistor is small enough so that the load could always receive somewhat more
than the maximum current it would ever need. The shunt regulator is placed across the load
and conducts excess current around the load such that the voltage across the load remains a
constant as the load draws the actual current at any given time. A common shunt regulator is a
Zener diode which is an example of an open loop system. Feedback control can also be used
to drive the current through the control element (a transistor) across the load. Shunt regulators
are generally only used for low power applications because they can be very inefficient.
However, shunt regulators have an inherent fault current limiting feature and also can regulate

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 even if the load is forcing current into the regulator rather than drawing current from it. Shunt
regulators also have an interesting feature that the input current is constant – independent of
load current (except if a load fault occurs – but that is a special case not in normal operation).
Thus, shunt regulators are very good at isolating a load with rapid and large current
fluctuations.

Figure 5.2 block diagram for shunt voltage regulator

Transistor Shunt Regulator

A simple shunt regulator circuit is shown in Fig.6. Resistor R S drops the unregulated voltage by
an amount that depends on the current supplied to the load, RL. The voltage across the load is set
by the Zener diode and transistor base-emitter voltage. If the load resistance decreases, a reduced
drive current to the base of Q1 results, shunting less collector current. The load current is thus
larger, thereby maintaining the regulated voltage across the load. The output voltage to the load
is

V L=V Z +V BE

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Figure 3. Transistor shunt regulator.

Shunt Voltage Regulator Using OP-AMP

Figure 7, shows another version of a shunt voltage regulator using an op-amp as voltage
comparator. The Zener voltage is compared to the feedback voltage obtained from voltage
divider R1 and R2 to provide the control drive current to shunt element Q1. The current through
resistor RS is thus controlled to drop a voltage across RS so that the output voltage is maintained

Figure 4: Op-amp shunt voltage regulator

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OPEN LOOP VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Open-loop voltage regulators are regulator circuits that have no feedback. One of the most
important characteristics of a power supply is its voltage regulation. As was pointed out in the
last chapter, voltage regulation relates to how the output voltage of a power supply changes with
variations in the load current. A power supply that has good voltage regulation maintains an
essentially constant output voltage with reasonable changes in its load current.

Thus, if a power supply has a no-load output voltage of 275 volts and a full-load output voltage
of 250 volts, its percentage of regulation is: = 10%

Ideally, a power supply should have perfect voltage regulation, the output voltage remaining
constant for changes in the output (load) current. Practical power supplies never reach perfection,
although laboratory-type power supplies have been produced with voltage regulation of .001 %
or better.

The voltage regulation of a conventional power supply, such as the one shown in FIG. 1, will be
relatively poor for several reasons.

First, any variations in the a-c line input voltage will be reflected in changes of the output
voltage. If the line voltage should increase, the output voltage will increase proportionally, and
vice versa.

Secondly, as the load increases, the output of the power supply will drop. One cause of this is the
filter (mentioned in the last chapter). In the case of the capacitor-input filter, such as the one
shown in FIG. 8, light loading will result in the output voltage of the supply nearly equaling the
peak value of the output voltage from the rectifier. The output voltage drops as the loading is
increased. The regulation can be improved by the use of a choke-input filter which will cause the
supply output to remain near the average output voltage of the rectifier under varying load
conditions. However, the output voltage will still change as the load current is varied.

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Figure 8: Shunt regulator circuit based on zener approach

Shunt voltage regulation

While the voltage regulation of the standard power-supply configuration of rectifier and filter is
generally more than adequate for most applications, there are instances when better regulation is
required.

There are a number of methods of improving the power-supply voltage regulation. Perhaps the
simplest involves the use of a gas-filled shunt voltage-regulator tube.

Figure 9: Shunt voltage regulator

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Shunt voltage-regulation element R1 and series resistor R2 form a voltage divider, with the
external load of the power supply connected to the junction of R1 and R2. When the load current
increases, the voltage across the load drops because of the increased voltage drop across R2.
Assuming for a moment that the value of R1 can be manually changed, then the voltage across
the load can be returned to normal by increasing the value of R1 since this will decrease the
current through R2 and, hence, the voltage drop across it. Conversely, a decrease in load current
will increase the voltage across the load. This can be compensated for by decreasing the value of
R1. There will be more current through R2, resulting in a greater voltage drop across it and less
voltage applied to the load.

All that is needed is to replace the variable shunt resistor, R1, with a device that will
automatically adjust its resistance in accordance with load changes so as to maintain a constant
voltage across the load.

Such a device is the gas-filled voltage-regulator tube. It has the property of acting like a self-
adjusting resistor that automatically changes value in order to maintain a constant voltage across
itself.

CURRENT AND VOLTAGE LIMITING

Introduction

A current limiting circuit aids in power supplies by ensuring overall protection where there may
be an overload or short circuits. 

Generally, you will find current limiters fitted in electronic components to prevent future
damages during power supply. They are among the standard features needed in regulating power
supplies Integrated Circuits (ICs). 

In simple terms, current limiters prevent damage to circuits by limiting currents from a regulated
power supply. In this way, the only maximum level of current an electronic circuit can determine
will be applicable in the long run. 

Because you can use the current limiters in several applications, it is best to ensure the electronic
components’ longevity and safety. Eventually, you will have current protection on the devices. 

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CURRENT LIMITING

Current limiting in power regulated supplies.

All power supplies have some form of current limiting and most of the time its controlled and
non-destructive. Input current limiting is often implemented in power supplies in the form of a
fuse in series with one or both input conductors. This current limiting is to protect the upstream
power source and conductors; it is assumed the power supply with the input fuse(s) is already
damaged if the input current drawn is high enough to blow the input fuse(s). Some applications
require a tightly controlled current limit in order to operate properly, i.e. charging batteries.
Some common methods of limiting the output current from a power supply include;

 constant current limiting

 hiccup current limiting.
 fuse current limiting
 fold-back current limiting

Constant current limiting

A common method that has been implemented to limit the output current from power supplies is
to monitor the output current and reduce the output voltage when the current limit is reached
while maintaining the maximum output current (Fig.9). In this implementation, the output
voltage during current limiting is dependent upon the impedance presented by the load during the
current limit operation. This current limit method is relatively simple to implement but stresses
components in the output current path as the power supply operates at its maximum current
during current limit operation. This version of current limiting may be the best choice when the
load draws a short burst of excessive current, such as during motor start-up or bypass capacitor
charging.

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Figure 9

Similarly, if an excessive amount of load current is drawn, the series-pass transistor can be
quickly damaged or destroyed

Operation

The current-limiting circuit consists of transistor and resistor R4. The load current through R4
produces a voltage from base to emitter of Q2. When IL reaches a predetermined maximum
value, the voltage drop across R4 is sufficient to forward-bias the base-emitter junction of Q2
thus causing it to conduct. Enough op-amp output current is diverted through Q2 to reduce the
Q1 base current, so that IL is limited to its maximum value IL (max) , Since the base-to-emitter
voltage of Q2 cannot exceed approximately 0.7 V, the voltage across R4 is held to this value, and
the load current is limited to

0.7
I L ( max )=
R4

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Figure 101 constant current limiting

Fuse current limiting

Perhaps the simplest form of power supply output current limiting is to place a fuse in series with
the output terminal of the power supply (Fig.1). This method would be effective but is not often
employed in power supplies because it is relatively easy to draw excessive load current (i.e.,
shorting the output terminals or plug of the power supply) and accidentally blow the fuse.

In addition, the output current limiting function in the power supply protects the internal
semiconductor components from being damaged due to excessive load current. It may be
difficult to select a fuse which will blow fast enough to protect the internal semiconductors but
not blow when a motor starts up or load capacitors are being charged. Fuses work well to protect
conductors and not as well to protect semiconductors.

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Figure 15 Fuse limiting

Fold-back current limiting.

In the previous current-limiting technique, the current is restricted to a maximum constant value.
Fold-back current limiting is a method used particularly in high-current regulators whereby the
output current under overload conditions drops to a value well below the peak load current
capability to prevent excessive power dissipation.

The basic concept of fold-back current limiting is as follows, with reference to Figure 12. The
circuit in the green-shaded area is similar to the constant current-limiting arrangement in
Figure.3, with the exception of resistors R5 and R6. The voltage drop developed across R4 by
the load current must not only overcome the base-emitter voltage required to turn on Q2 but it
must also overcome the voltage across R5. That is, the voltage across must be

V R 4 =V R 5 +V BE

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Figure 12 Series regulator with Fold back current limiting

In an overload or short-circuit condition, the load current increases to a value I L(max), that is
sufficient to cause Q2 to conduct. At this point the current can increase no further. The decrease
in output voltage results in a proportional decrease in the voltage across R5 thus, less current
through R4 is required to maintain the forward-biased condition of Q1. So, as V OUT decreases, IL
decreases, as shown in the graph.

Figure 12

The advantage of this technique is that the regulator is allowed to operate with peak load current
up to but when the output becomes shorted, the current drops to a lower value to prevent
overheating of the device.

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Hiccup mode current limiting

Perhaps the most common implementation for current limiting now employed in power supplies
is known as hiccup mode. This mode of over-current protection can be thought of as an active
version of fuse protection mentioned earlier in this discussion. With hiccup mode current
limiting p2rotection, the output voltage of the power supply is shut down when an over-current
situation is detected. After a specified waiting time, the output voltage of the power supply is re-
established. If the over-current situation still exists, then the supply repeats the shut-down and
wait process. If the over-current situation no longer exists, then the power supply continues
operating in the normal mode.

Figure 13 Hiccup mode over-current limiting

The hiccup mode of over-current protection is easy to implement in the voltage regulator
controller chip and minimizes over-current stress on the components in the power supply output
power path.

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VOLTAGE LIMITING

Voltage Limiters

Another name which we often come across while going through these clippers and clampers is
the limiter circuit. A limiter circuit can be understood as the one which limits the output voltage
from exceeding a pre-determined value.

This is more or less a clipper circuit which does not allow the specified value of the signal to
exceed. Actually, clipping can be termed as an extreme extent of limiting. Hence limiting can be
understood as a smooth clipping.

The following image shows some examples of limiter circuits −

Figure 13

The performance of a limiter circuit can be understood from its transfer characteristic curve. An
example for such a curve is as follows.

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Figure 14

Types of Limiters

 Unipolar Limiter − This circuit limits the signal in one way.

 Bipolar Limiter − This circuit limits the signal in two way.
 Soft Limiter − The output may change in this circuit for even a slight change in the
input.
 Hard Limiter − The output will not easily change with the change in input signal.
 Single Limiter − This circuit employs one diode for limiting.
 Double Limiter − This circuit employs two diodes for limiting.

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Zener voltage regulator

The Zener diode offers a much higher stabilization level (power supply) than can be achieved
with a bridge rectifier circuit and filter capacitor. In particular, by means of a suitable
semiconductor doping, it is possible to achieve a slope for the Zener breakdown curve of Figure
1 practically vertical, obtaining a stabilized voltage with negligible and constant ripple as the
input voltage changes. Figure 2 shows the schematics of the simplest Zener-based voltage
regulator. A Zener diode with VZ = 12 V has been used, whereas the value for the series
resistor R can be determined as shown in the figure, where Vi is the input voltage, Vo is the
stabilized output voltage (12 V), and IL is the current absorbed by the load.

Figure 15: Voltage regulator with Zener diode

With no load, IL = 0 and all the current of the circuit will pass through the Zener diode, which, in
turn, will dissipate its maximum power. It is therefore necessary to carefully select, as indicated,
the value of the series resistance, so as not to exceed the maximum power that the Zener can
withstand when no load is connected. This circuit, capable of generating a current of a few tens
of milliamps, is often used to polarize the base of a transistor or as an input to an operational
amplifier, thus obtaining a higher current value. Figure 3 shows a transistor shunt regulator
capable of extending the power absorbed by the load. The output voltage VO is given by:

 VO = VZ + VBE.

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Figure 166 Shunt regulator with Zener diode and transistor

Series voltage regulator with Zener diode

Figure 15 shows the simplest example of a series regulator with a Zener diode. The transistor is
connected as a voltage follower and the output voltage is approximately 0.6 to 0.7 V lower than
the Zener voltage. Vout = Vz – Vbe = Vz – 0.7 V.

The resistor R must be sized in such a way that the Zener diode is correctly polarized and the
base current of Q1 is sufficient to bring it into conduction. To prevent the current on the Zener
from falling to a value not compatible with the Zener effect, the low-power transistor 2N2222
can be replaced with a Darlington transistor.

Therefore; When the unregulated voltage goes up, the zener diode current will also go up. The
voltage across the zener diode has no variation or very little variation, so that the output voltage
of the voltage regulator is stable.

When the unregulated voltage goes down, the zener diode current will also go down. The voltage
across the zener diode has no variation or very little variation, so that the output voltage of the
voltage regulator is stable.

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Figure 16. Series regulator with Zener diode and transistor

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 REFERENCES

 Thomas Floyd, Electronic Devices, 9th ed. Boston, USA: Prentice Hall, 1999
 Robert Boylestad and Louis Nashlesky, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 7th ed.
New Jersey , USA: Prentice Hall, 2007
 https://www.powerelectronicsnews.com/power-supply-design-notes-zener-diode-voltage-
regulator/
 https://www.tutorialspoint.com/electronic_circuits/
electronic_circuits_limiter_voltage_multiplier.htm

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