SATELLITE BASED SURVEYING  Field crews can be much smaller; often an individual can run a

GPS survey alone.

This section provides guidance for high accuracy carrier phase GPS  Data points are independent and survey error is not cumulative
surveying for engineering projects within NRCS. Real-time Kinematic
(RTK) and Post Processed methods are covered with a greater emphasis Disadvantages of GPS versus traditional surveying:
placed on RTK since a majority of GPS surveying in NRCS for
 GPS produces substantial data files and data management can
engineering projects uses this method. GPS surveying is not an all-
become overwhelming if not managed properly.
encompassing method for all projects and at times will require the user
to combine this with more traditional surveying methods (i.e., with total  GPS requires a fairly open sky above the receiver and is affected
stations). This is covered later in this section. Although briefly by overhanging obstacles.
mentioned, lower accuracy code phase GPS surveying methods used by  GPS is a power-hungry technology and power management is an
NRCS for GIS mapping are not covered in this section. issue of concern.
 GPS requires new knowledge and skills combined with those of
GPS overview traditional surveying.
 Data points are independent and traverse closure is not easily
Global positioning system (GPS) is a highly accurate satellite-based accomplished.
alternative to traditional surveying practices. The system uses advances
in satellite technology combined with traditional ground-based GPS is a generic term for satellite-based navigation systems based on
measurement systems to provide highly accurate ground positions in the concepts of the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). The
three dimensions. The system uses the World Geodetic reference system GNSS provides independent (autonomous) three-dimensional
(WGS84) as the basis for all coordinates. The intent of this section is to coordinates to fixed or mobile receivers on the ground. A number of
help the user understand the basics of the system with as little of the systems have and are currently being developed worldwide including
theory as possible. As with any technology, there are advantages and the initial NAVSTAR (United States), GLONASS (Russia), GALILEO
disadvantages to using GPS over traditional methods. ( European Union), IRNSS (India) and other regional systems.

Advantages of GPS versus traditional surveying: GPS segments

 GPS allows the user to establish control onsite. The GPS consists of three major segments: space segment, control
 GPS does not require intervisibility between stations. segment, and user segment.
 GPS is generally (not always) unaffected by weather conditions.
 GPS can be more flexible and used around the clock. The space segment consists of the currently operational satellites for
 High accuracies can be achieved with less effort. each of the systems described above. The system of satellites and their
orbit paths around the Earth is called the GPS constellation. The
 Data can be directly tied to GIS more easily.
constellation refers to the series of orbital planes and their respect to the The concept behind differential GPS is to correct bias at one location
globe and to each other. Each orbital plane has a number of satellites (rover) with measured bias errors at a known location reference station,
with the combined effect being a global “net” of coverage where a for example CORS, or a local base station (fig. 1–69). This is also
greater than minimum required number of satellites may be viewed at referred to as “baseline reference data.” Calculated errors are then
any one time by Earth-bound receivers, typically a minimum of four passed to the rover unit to recalculate more precise positions either on-
satellites. the-fly (i.e., RTK) or later in postprocessing. DGPS utilizes the concept
of a stationary receiver (base station), tied into an accurate known
The control segment for Navigation Satellite Timing and Ranging, position (x,y,z), that is in cooperation with the user’s unit (rover).
NAVSTAR consists of a series of global tracking stations and one
master control station in Colorado Springs, Colorado. The primary The base station is able to compute the errors inherent in the GPS signal
function of the control segment is to monitor the satellites and update by comparing the computed position (x,y,z) to the known position. The
navigation messages to provide necessary accuracy of positioning of the computed errors for the base station position will be the same as those
satellite. for the signals received by the rover unit for the desired position and the
corrections can then be applied to that rover position.
The user segment consists of a receiver(s) on the ground, processors,
and antennas. The user segment also includes the ground reference Conceptual diagram of the differential baseline setup to an unknown
stations. These may be the user base station at a local project site or a (rover) position. Note that both positions are receiving the same
remote reference station (i.e., a continuosly operating reference station satellite signals
(CORS)). The primary function of the user segment is to receive the
satellite signals and produce information for geographic position, time,
and velocity of movement.

Conceptual diagram of a large area reference base utilizing multiple

available CORS or the High Accuracy Network Service, HARN network
reference base positions
Differential GPS
 (UERE).” As noted, carrier phase receivers are more accurate due to
their ability to resolve the satellite clock bias.

The primary effects the user should be aware of include:

 Position dilution of precision (PDOP)

 Signal to noise ration (SNR)
 Elevation mask
 Introduced error-human caused
 Multipath

Position dilution of precision (PDOP)—Dilution of precision, or DOP,

is a measure of the satellite geometry (fg. 1–71) and is analogous to the
strength of fgure mentioned previously that surveyors use to control
Controlling Error in GPS Measurements ground surveys. This is more commonly called PDOP. The lower the
Definitions and differences of precision and accuracy PDOP values, the better the solution. It is important for users to know
that the PDOP changes exponentially. In other words, the decrease in
The goal of any measurement is to be as close to the actual truth as accuracy when going from a PDOP of 7 to 8 is exponentially worse than
possible. Because of the errors present in all measurement, we are going from a PDOP of 6 to 7
interested in how close our measurements can be, and we determine this
by the terms “precision” and “accuracy.” Precision refers to the Signal to noise ratio (SNR)—The second potential source of error is
repeatability of measurements and can be thought of as the degree of called the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). SNR is a measure of the
tolerance applied in instruments, methods, and observations. An background noise infiltrating the incoming signal. Examples of source
instrument or method with a very high tolerance will generally have points for SNR include, but are not limited to, popular ultrawideband
measurements tightly clustered, while an instrument or method with a radio signals (UWB), conventional transmission signals, both
low tolerance will have a wider spread intentional (jamming) and unintentional, and high-power television
transmissions.
Sources of errors in GPS measurements
Elevation mask—The elevation mask refers to the angle of the satellite
The accuracy of GPS determined positions is affected by a number of with respect to the horizon. The closer the satellite is to the horizon, the
variables, most of which are not in the control of the user. The accuracy longer the signal has to travel decreasing the reliability of the position
of the position is referred to as the “User Equivalent Range Error calculated. In addition, satellites close to the horizon are affected more
by multipath.
Introduced error-human caused—Most human-introduced error in GPS  Geoid model
will be similar to those errors introduced in traditional surveying
There are four coordinate systems commonly used in the surveying
including poor practice, blunders, and others. The user should review
community. They are Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate
these in the relevant section of the handbook. Two introduced errors are
unique to GPS surveying and can be affected by the user. system, State Plane Coordinate System (SPC), latitude and longitude
coordinate systems, and Cartesian coordinate system.
These are controlled by settings in the receiver that allow only the
stronger signal values to be collected. Universal Transverse Mercator—Universal Transverse Mercator
(UTM) is a two-dimensional horizontal system that divides the Earth
Multipath—Multipath is generally not controlled by the user except in sphere in to series of 60 UTM zones. UTM zone numbers designate
the case of the elevation mask. However, the user should be aware of it. individual longitudinal strips.
Some of the largest errors in multipath delay can be mitigated by
software rejection of signals that delay by too long a period of time. State Plane Coordinate System—Each State has at least one State plane
However, the shorter multipath errors will still be accepted. Most of system that typically follows county lines. The biggest advantage to the
these are mitigated by taking a larger number of observables. Multipath SPC is that it is not influenced by the Earth curvature and works
delay is caused by the signal bouncing off of nearby reflective objects extremely well within the State plane zone. However, its disadvantage is
prior to hitting the receiver (fig. 1–72). The error in position is attributed that each zone uses its own coordinate system, and it becomes
to the longer apparent range path of the signal. cumbersome to work between zones. Thus, outside of a specific State
plane zone the system is not useful for regional or national mapping
GPS reference systems work.

GPS surveying makes it easy to collect positional data using different Latitude and longitude coordinate systems—The latitude and longitude
positional references. This section explains the information needed to coordinate systems are Earth centered systems or geocentric coordinate
properly define a survey point using GPS. In order for the user to collect systems. The sphere of the Earth is divided into a series of circular
positional data, they must first specify the following reference planes north and south of the Equator called latitudes. The latitudes are
information: actually angular measures from the line of origin at the Equator (= 0
degrees) to the poles (= 90 degrees). The east-west divisions called
 Coordinate system and projection (UTM, State plane, longitude begin from an arbitrary reference line running north-south
latitude/longitude, or local/assumed) (Greenwich meridian)
 Horizontal datum (typically NAD83)
 Vertical datum (typically NAVD88)
 Elevation reference (mean sea level (MSL) or height above
ellipse (HAE) (typically MSL)
 of GPS. The newly created datums more accurately account for the
Earth’s curvature. The most important thing to know about horizontal
datums is that there is a horizontal shift between different datums.

The following are the most common horizontal datums encountered

within NRCS.

 North American Datum of 1983 (NAD83)

 World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS84)
 North American Datum of 1927 (NAD27)

Vertical datums

Cartesian coordinate system—In geometry or plane surveying, a A vertical datum is a point of reference to which elevations or heights
Cartesian coordinate system (or commonly known as the rectangular are determined. This point of reference can be a local vertical datum
system) is used to define the horizontal position of a point (P). (assumed elevation) or a geodetic vertical datum such as NGVD29,
Typically, x is used for the east-west dimension of P and y for the north- NAVD88, or a High Accuracy Reference Network (HARN). A geodetic
south dimension of P. In addition, the angular position of P to any other vertical datum is used to obtain an elevation that is referenced to mean
point may also be determined by the coordinate values sea level. It is important to understand that the zero mean sea level
surface does not have a constant curvature. Instead it undulates based
on gravitational anomalies. Examples of the vertical datums include the
following

 Local vertical datum

 National Geodetic Vertical Datum reference datum
 North American Vertical Datum of 1988
 High Accuracy Reference Network

Horizontal datums Reference ellipsoid and geoid models

A horizontal datum can be described as a base reference for a coordinate Geodetic coordinate systems use sophisticated models of the Earth’s
system. Multiple horizontal datums have been created over time to surface called ellipsoid models and geoid models to account for the
account for the Earth’s curvature. The methods used to create new irregular shape of the Earth. The geoid is a modeled surface of the Earth
horizontal datums have developed over time, especially since the advent that coincides with the mean sea level elevation. However, because the
geoid is affected by the uneven mass of the Earth, its surface is also be used. Kinematic (also called DGPS) or RTK techniques should be
uneven and is unable to be used as a horizontal reference. Therefore, a used for all construction and topographic purposes.
separate surface known as an ellipsoid (also called the reference
Carrier phase survey techniques
ellipsoid) is used for the horizontal reference surface. The ellipsoid
models account for curvature of the Earth by defining the Earth as an Real-time kinematic positioning—RTK is currently the most common
ellipse. It is important for the user to understand that an ellipsoid model carrier-phase GPS surveying method used on NRCS projects. It is a
is used to define the horizontal datum (NAD27 or NAD83); therefore, by later adaptation to kinematic positioning that uses the advantage of low
choosing a frequency radio technology to transfer data from the base station
horizontal datum, they are choosing an ellipsoid model. Regardless of receiver to the rover, where the rover processes the GPS data in real-
the vertical datum chosen, a geoid model must also be specified. time outputting a corrected position.
 Mean sea level verses height above ellipse Kinematic surveys use two receivers, one a stationary base receiver, and
Grid versus ground coordinates the other as a rover. The base station does not need to be set over a
known control; although, this is an optimal situation. In static mode
GPS surveying equipment collects all data in ground coordinates. In with long enough occupation times (table 7), the base station point can
other words, it follows the curved shape of the Earth. It does this by become an adequate control point. The rover has the option of on-the-
using the WGS84 ellipsoid for initial data collection. Grid coordinates fly data collection or may be used in a point-to-point manner with
are horizontal coordinates that are referenced using a planar or flat grid multiple observables at each point.
surface. Traditional surveying equipment such as a total station
measures the level planer distance between two coordinate points. RTK site calibration—The calibration is the most important part of an
Because GPS coordinates (ground coordinates) are geodetic in nature, RTK survey. A calibration is no more than tying into a Cartesian control
small refinements must be made when using these coordinates against a for a project. The first thing considered is to find out whether the control
planar, or flat, grid. is either State plane or site specific and then whether there are grid or
ground coordinates. When using State plane grid, set up the project or
GPS surveying concepts and techniques data collector file to State plane. In using any other coordinates, set up
the project to default and the data collector file to “no projection-no
GPS positioning techniques are dependant upon the purpose of the datum.” If there is a good latitude and longitude in either NAD83 or
survey and its intended use. In general, positioning may be divided into WGS84, one may use this position to start the base.
point positioning for high-order control purposes or topographic and
construction surveying of unknown positions utilizing the control  In choosing the control for the calibration, a few things have to
points. For control purposes, the techniques of static positioning should be kept in mind:
  Does the control constrain the site both horizontally and Cellular network real-time kinematic positioning (eRTK/VRS)—Cellular
vertically? network RTK is also known as extended RTK or eRTK. The concept
 Is there at least 3 horizontal points and 4 vertical points to derive behind eRTK is an expansion of the network of baseline coverage by
a residual for the control? use of an Internet connection over cellular phone technology.
 For vertical, have available either 1 point with a Geoid Model or
5 points surrounding the project. A Geoid Model is strongly GPS quality control
recommended for any calibration even if the user does not care A key ingredient in any quality control process is reporting and
about the vertical documentation. All data should be downloaded and archived, and proper
 If the user does not have enough control to constrain the site, is and complete documentation of all GPS projects should be reported:
it enough to fulfill the project objective?
 If the user has the minimum number of points to constrain a site,  Provide a description of the project in narrative form that
is all of the control there? includes the project conditions, objectives, methodologies,
 Is there additional control available or is it necessary to add QC/QA procedures, and conclusions.
control to a site?  Provide a listing of the observation plan, equipment used,
satellite constellation status, and observables recorded.
If a calibration is done in the office, one will not need to be done in the  Provide a listing of the data processing performed including
field. Make sure the base station is set up on a known calibration software used (version number, etc.) and the techniques
control station. employed (including ambiguity resolution), and any error
Kinematic positioning—Kinematic positioning is an earlier generation modeling used.
technology to RTK for survey grade GPS. Standard kinematic surveying  Provide a summary and detailed analysis of the minimally
constrained and the constrained Least Squares network
methods use a set of receivers. However, only one of the receivers is set
adjustments performed. This includes listing of the baseline
in a stationary position collecting data in a static mode while the rover
can be mobile and collecting data in a kinematic mode observations and parameters included in the adjustment. List the
absolute and standardized residuals, the variance factor, and the
Static positioning—Static surveying methods utilize a set of receivers in relative error ellipse/ellipsoid information.
stationary positions. Establishment of baseline vectors is a routine  Identify data or baseline solutions excluded from the network
purpose for static methods. with an explanation as to why it was rejected.
 Provide details of the transformation model used, or derived, and
Rapid static positioning—Generally, the only difference between rapid any GPS/geoid height information that was determined.
static and static GPS techniques is the occupation time.
  Include a diagram of the project stations and control points at an
appropriate scale. Descriptions for each of the monuments
should be included, perhaps accompanied by photographs.

Validation of the survey itself can be made by:

 Equipment and crew testing on a standardized test network

established on the premises
 Multiple occupations of GPS points and baselines; without
redundant measurements, errors may not be detectable
 Relative accuracy checks against standards for survey order
 Study of measurement residuals following adjustments

GPS survey procedure

Prior to the start of any GPS session, all data logs or data sheets should
be set up. If specific data forms are used, all field reference data should
be entered including typical information as:

 Project name
 Session date and time
 Operator(s) name
 Weather conditions
 Equipment type used
 Height of instrument
 Antenna(s) height
 Field sketch