Total Station above a known point or datum—or related to a

series of known points—to fix the instrument’s

current position within a coordinate grid, and
JOHN W. RICK
Stanford University, USA
the directional orientation in that plane (e.g., the
direction of north) and the instrument’s height
above that plane are determined. Once this setup
is verified, the total station can sight, measure,
Total stations are electronic surveying instru- and record target points within coordinate space
ments that incorporate electronic distance
at high levels of accuracy and precision. In
measurement (EDM) to allow measurement of
practice, artifact locations, dimensions of archi-
three-dimensional locations with a high degree
tecture, site topography, and any other spatial
of accuracy and precision (Figure 1). They
features of a site can be recorded, usually to
are closely related to theodolites, electronic or
internal memory or a variety of memory devices
otherwise, that do not have in-built abilities
of varied capacity. Two principal types of targets
to precisely measure target distance from the
are used. Older instruments depend on targeting
instrument. Total stations measure horizontal
a mirror-like retroprism reflector mounted on
and vertical angles to impressively low errors
a vertical, usually manually held and leveled
of about 0.00028–0.00139 degrees, sufficient to
rod which returns the laser pulses. More recent
allow locating exact points up to a few kilometers
away from the instrument. The EDM compo- instruments add the possibility of reflectorless
nent of total stations emits infrared laser pulses function, in which the laser pulses are reflected
that are reflected back to the instrument from off the actual object of archaeological or topo-
the target of measurement. The amount of time graphic interest. In general, reflectorless function
elapsed (time-of-flight) in this rebound is used has a more limited measuring distance (originally
to precisely determine the distance between the under 100 m, but now closing in on the practical
instrument and the target. The resulting spher- single reflector limitation of around 1 km), but
ical coordinates (horizontal and vertical angles, offers the possibility of measuring locations in
and the measured radial distance out from the which a reflector cannot be easily placed, and also
total station) that unambiguously determine the faster single-user operation.
position of the target can be trigonometrically Most total stations incorporate a number of
transformed into cartesian coordinates, typically programs that are useful in archaeology. Impor-
measures of easting, northing, and height in tant among these is the “setting out” or “stake out”
relation to either the total station or an absolute routine in which the coordinates of a point are
datum. The electronics of the total station usu- entered, allowing the instrument to aid the user in
ally do all calculations, to deliver to the user finding the point, by indicating either the radial
the target’s location in such XYZ site or global line and distance from the total station where the
coordinates (Rick 1996). point should lie, or the necessary displacement
Physically, a total station consists of a telescope north–south or east–west from a given position.
capable of sighting the target, a keyboard to This is particularly advantageous for laying out
input the specifications of the user (coordinates, excavation units on highly irregular or sloping
program commands, target codes, etc.), a display surfaces, where determining leveled horizontal
to deliver visual/numeric information to the distances is difficult with lesser instruments or
user, the EDM (now usually incorporated within by hand. Another useful program is free-station,
the rotating head containing the telescope), or resection, in which the instrument’s setup
and a leveling base that usually sits on top of a location is determined by measuring a series of
strong tripod. In use, the total station is placed known points, and calculating a least-squares

The Encyclopedia of Archaeological Sciences. Edited by Sandra L. López Varela.

© 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2018 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
DOI: 10.1002/9781119188230.saseas0205
2 T O TA L S TAT I O N

while moving a reflective target to the points of

interest (Kvamme, Ernenwein, and Markussen
2006). There is also a certain degree of unattended
operation, in which advanced total stations can
take reflectorless measurements within a defined
field of view on an automatic basis.
The use of total stations articulates closely
with other spatial technologies in archaeology
(see field survey). Global positioning sys-
tem (GPS) instruments that determine target
locations based on signals from satellites can
provide worldwide coordinates, useful to posi-
tion more local total station measurements (see
gps (global positioning system)). Some total
stations include GPS measure capabilities. Laser
scanners and photogrammetry quickly gather
masses of three-dimensional data at the inter-site
level, but require accurate base measurements to
fix their collected data within the site’s context
(see laser scanning and photogrammetry
and stereophotogrammetry). Total stations
are the most common option for this, because
Figure 1 Total station in use at Chavin de their millimeter accuracy is difficult to achieve by
Huantar, Peru. other methods, and because they do not require
Source: Photo by author. the satellite lines-of-sight of GPS instruments. At
the same time, total stations require line-of-sight
from the instrument to either the reflector or
solution, complete with error terms for distances object target, sometimes an inconvenience in
and angles to each point. This allows great free- topographically or architecturally complex sit-
dom in setup locations, and assures that any new uations. Total stations have traditionally been
instrument location is corroborated by a series of somewhat difficult to comprehend and use, but
reliable points. increasingly well-programmed software, together
Obtaining or renting total stations may repre- with relatively large display screens allows a more
sent a significant expenditure for modest projects, user-friendly interaction between operator and
and these sensitive instruments must be main- device. Overall, most substantial excavation or
tained conscientiously to be reliable. Cost can mapping projects will benefit greatly from the
range from under US $5,000 to well over $30,000, competent use of total stations.
depending on accuracy and features. Accuracy of
course decreases at greater measurement distance SEE ALSO: Image-Based 3D Modeling;
from the instrument due to the diverging radial Terrestrial Lidar
lines of potential readings. Most instruments
range from 1 to 5 seconds of angular accuracy,
REFERENCES
meaning that at a typical long measurement
distance of 100 m, expectable intrinsic errors of Kvamme, K. L., E. G. Ernenwein, and C. J. Markussen.
around 1–3 mm can be expected. No common 2006. “Robotic Total Stations for Microtopographic
spatial point location method currently competes Mapping: An Example from the Northern Great
with this accuracy, in the range of 0.001–0.003 Plains.” Archaeological Prospection 13 (2): 91–102.
percent error over a given distance. Advanced DOI:10.1002/arp.270.
total stations have robotic features for tracking a Rick, J. W. 1996. “Total Stations in Archaeology.” Society
reflector automatically, allowing a single operator for American Archaeology Bulletin 14 (4): 24–27.
with radio control to command point registration
 T O TA L S TAT I O N 3

FURTHER READINGS McPherron, S. J. P. 2005. “Artifact Orientations and

Site Formation Processes from Total Station Prove-
Dibble, H. L. 1988. “Measurement of Artifact Prove- niences.” Journal of Archaeological Science 32:
nience with an Electronic Theodolite.” Journal of 1003–14. DOI:10.1016/j.jas.2005.01.015.
Field Archaeology 14 (2): 249–54.