- Nutrients that food must supply

o necessary; “needed from outside the

body”
THE NEED FOR ENERGY - Body can only make limited number of nutrients
ENERGY
ENERGY YIELDING NUTRIENTS
- Needed to perform work
- Nutrients that break down to yield energy the
- Body has considerable requirement for energy,
body can use
even at rest
o 1/3 of energy expenditure is for UNITS OF ENERGY
voluntary work
- Energy released from macronutrients can be
o 2/3 is required for maintenance of the
measured in calories
body, aka homeostasis
a. CALORIES
FOOD o amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1g of water by 1 degree
- Body’s fuel
Celsius
FOOD CHOICES o conversion factors:
1000 calorie = 1Kcal
a. Personal preference 1Kcal = 4.186KJ
b. Habit
c. Ethnic heritage or tradition *TAKE NOTE: energy and heat are different forms of the
d. Social interaction same thing*
e. Availability, convenience and economy
ENERGY FROM FOODS
f. Emotions
g. Values - Amount of energy depends on how much carbs,
h. Body weight and image fats and protein it contains
i. Nutrition and health benefits - When completely broken down in the body:
1g carbohydrate 4Kcal of energy
NUTRIENTS
1g protein 4Kcal of energy
- Atoms, molecules and cells of your body 1g fat 9Kcal of energy
continuously move and change even though 1g alcohol 7Kcal of energy
the structures of your tissues, organs and
external appearance remains relatively constant - Fat = greatest energy density (measure of
- To maintain your “self” you must replenish from energy a food provides relative to the amount
foods of food)

NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF THE BODY ENERGY IN THE BODY

- Materials similar to those found in food - When body uses the energy-yielding nutrients,
the bonds between the nutrient’s atoms break
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF NUTRIENTS - Energy is released as bond breaks
A. Inorganic o energy is released as heat
- No Carbon o used in other internal structures
- Living things (iex: Minerals and Water) - More energy consumed than expended =
B. Organic increase in energy stores and weight gain
- Substance containing C-C or C-H bonds (iex: VITAMINS
Carbohydrates, protein, fats, vitamins)
- Do not provide energy
ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS

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 - Facilitate the release of energy and in numerous othe one that does not receive the
other activities throughout the body treatment
- Functions only when intact o control group and experimental group
- Vulnerable to destruction are divided equally
o subject to randomization
Vitamin A Beneficial in treating eye
2. Sample size
disorders, skin infection,
o population of the sample
Vitamin B9 Reduces risk of neural
o must be large to ensure chance
tube defects during
pregnancy variation
Vitamin B12 Provides relief from 3. Placebos
symptoms of anemia, o inert substance or treatment which is
kidney and liver disorders not designed to have therapeutic value
Vitamin C Helps treat scurvy, o experimental group receives treatment
cancer and common cold o control group receive placebo
Vitamin D Aids in treating arthritis, 4. Double blind
tooth decay, diabetes o both subjects and the researchers
and rickets don’t know which subjects are in which
Vitamin E Improves blood group
circulation and slows o reduces bias
down aging process
Vitamin K Reduces risk of ANALYZING RESEARCH FINDINGS
menstrual pain and
internal bleeding CORRELATIONS AND CAUSES

VARIABLES
MINERALS
- Something that has a quantity or quality that
- Do not yield energy varies
- Inorganic
CORRELATION
o indestructible and don’t need to be
handled with special care unlike - Statistical technique that can show how
vitamins strongly pairs of variables are related
a. No correlation = no relationship
WATER
b. Positive correlation = direct relationship;
- Provides the environment in which nearly all does not always have a positive result
the body’s activities are conducted c. Negative correlation = inverse relationship

NUTRITION SCIENCE PUBLISHING RESEARCH

- Study of nutrients and other substances in the PEER REVIEW
foods and the body’s handling of them
- Depends on other sciences such as biology, - a process by which something proposed (as for
biochemistry and physiology research or publication) is evaluated by a group
- Tremendous growth in the science of nutrition of experts in the appropriate field
as scientists applied knowledge gained from - Validity
sequencing the human genome = conclusions of research are well supported by
evidence
RESEARCH = reviewers endorse the work for publication
- Research scientists follow the scientific method PARTS OF RESEARCH ARTICLE
- An effective research should observe having:
1. Controls • Abstract

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 - The abstract provides a brief overview of the - Average daily amount of a nutrient that will
article. maintain a specific biochemical or physiological
function in half of the healthy people of a given
• Introduction
age and gender group
- The introduction clearly states the purpose of
the current study.

• Review of literature

- A comprehensive review of the literature

reveals all that science has uncovered on the
subject to date.

• Methodology

- The methodology section defi nes key terms

and describes the instruments and procedures
used in conducting the study.

• Results

- The results report the findings and may include

tables and figures that summarize the
information. RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCE (RDA)

• Conclusions - Average daily amount of a nutrient considered

adequate to meet the known nutrient needs of
- The conclusions drawn are those supported by practically all healthy people
the data and reflect the original purpose as - Well-researched
stated in the introduction. Usually, they answer
a few questions and raise several more.

• References

- The references reflect the investigator’s

knowledge of the subject and should include an
extensive list of relevant studies (including key
studies several years old as well as current
ones).

DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE

- Set of standards that best support health
- Set of nutrient intake values for healthy people
used in planning and assessing diets
- Includes:
ADEQUATE INTAKES (AI)
• Estimated Average Requirements (EAR)
• Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) - Value used to guide nutrient intake when RDA
• Adequate Intakes (AI) cannot be determined
• Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (UL) - Reflects the average amount of nutrient that a
group of healthy people consumes
ESTIMATED AVERAGE REQUIREMENT (EAR)
- More tentative than RDA
- Approximation

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 - Any amount in excess energy needs will result in
weight gain = no upper level for energy has
been determined

TOLERABLE UPPER INTAKE LEVELS (UL)

- Maximum daily amount of a nutrient that

appears safe for most healthy people and
beyond which there is an increased risk of
ACCEPTABLE MACRONUTRIENT DISTRIBUTION RANGES
adverse effects
(AMDR)

- Ranges of intakes for the energy nutrients that

provide adequate energy and nutrients and
reduce the risk of chronic diseases
- Composition of diet that provides adequate
energy and nutrients:
• 45 to 65 percent kcalories from carbohydrate
• 20 to 35 percent kcalories from fat
• 10 to 35 percent kcalories from protein

NUTRITION ASSESSMENT
If the deficiency or excess is significant over time, the
person experiences symptoms of malnutrition.

ESTABLISHING ENERGY RECOMMENDATIONS UNDERNUTRION

- Recommendation for energy is not generous, - Deficient energy or nutrients

unlike RDA and AI - causes extreme thinness, frequency of infection
o excess energy cannot be readily and disease and loss of muscle tissue
excreted and is stored as body fat a. Primary deficiency
- Includes: o nutrient is lacking in the person’s diet
a. Estimated Energy Requirement b. Secondary deficiency
b. Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution o body doesn’t absorb, excretes too much
Ranges or uses the nutrient inefficiently
c. Subclinical deficiency
ESTIMATED ENERGY REQUIREMENT (EER) o deficiency in the early stages, before
- Average dietary energy intake that maintains the outward signs have appeared (iex:
energy balance and good health in a person of a body uses up stores of iron)
given age, gender, weight, height and level of OVERNUTRITION
physical activity
- Excess energy or nutrients

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 - causes obesity and vulnerability to heart 3. Materials within the digestive tract should be
disease and diabetes kept moving forward, slowly but steadily
4. Food must be lubricated with fluids to move
NUTRITION ASSESSMENT OF INDIVIDUALS
through the system
- to prepare nutrition assessment, a registered 5. GI tract contains liquid wherein digested food
dietician, dietetic technician, or other trained particles are suspended. Once digestion is
health care professional uses: complete and the needed nutrients have been
o historical information absorbed out of the GI tract and into the body,
o Anthropometric measurements the system must excrete the remaining waste.
o physical examinations Excreting all the water along with the solid
o lab tests residue, however, would be both wasteful and
messy. Some water must be withdrawn to leave
a solid enough waste product
NUTRITION ASSESSMENT OF POPULATIONS 6. Digestive enzyme are designed to digest carbs,
- techniques used are similar to those used in fat and protein. The cells of the GI tract are also
individuals made of carbs, fat and protein
- National surveys use similar assessment 7. Once waste matter has reached the end of the
methods to measure people’s food GI tract, it must be excreted, but it would be
consumption and to evaluate the nutrition inconvenient if this function occurred
status of populations continuously

DIET AND HEALTH ANATOMY OF DIGESTIVE TRACT

- Foods play a vital role in supporting health GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
- Excessive energy and nutrient intake is
associated into development of chronic disease - A flexible muscular tube that extends from the
mouth, through the esophagus, stomach, small
(diseases characterized by slow progression and
intestine, large intestine, and rectum to the
long duration)
anus
RISK FACTORS FOR CHRONIC DISEASE
LUMEN
- Risk Factor
- Inner space within the GI tract
o condition or behavior associated with
- Continuous from one end to the other
an elevated frequency of a disease but
not proved to be causal MOUTH
o more risk factor = more chances of
developing the disease - Process of digestion begins here
- During chewing, teeth crush large pieces of food
DIGESTION into smaller ones, and fluids from foods,
beverages and salivary glands blend with these
- Process of breaking down of food by mechanical pieces to ease swallowing
and enzymatic action in the alimentary canal - Fluids also help dissolve the food so that the
into substances that can be used by the body tongue can taste it; only particles in solution can
CHALLENGES IN DIGESTION PROCESS react with taste buds
- The tongue provides taste sensations and
1. Human beings breathe, eat and drink through moves food around the mouth, facilitating,
their mouth chewing and swallowing
2. Food must pass through the diaphragm to reach - When a mouthful of food is swallowed, it passes
the stomach through the pharynx

PHARYNX

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 - Passage way leading from the nose and mouth MUSCULAR ACTION OF DIGESTION
to the larynx and esophagus respectively
After swallowing, all the activity that follows occur
EPIGLOTTIS without much conscious thought
- Cartilage in the throat that guards the entrance PERISTALSIS
to the trachea and prevents fluid or food from
entering when a person swallows - The entire GI tract is ringed with circular
muscles. Surrounding these rings of muscle are
ESOPHAGUS longitudinal muscles
- Has a sphincter muscle at each end. During each - When the rings tighten and the long muscles
swallow, the upper esophageal sphincter opens. relax, the tube is constricted.
- Bolus then slides down the esophagus, which - When the rings relax and the long muscles
passes through a hole in the diaphragm to the tighten, the tube bulges
stomach
CONTINUATION! (QUIZ 2 COVERAGE)
CHYME
STOMACH ACTION
- Semi liquified mass of partly digested food
- Stomach has the thickest walls and strongest
expelled by stomach into the duodenum
muscle of the GI tract organs
- Bit by bit, the stomach releases the chyme
- Has a third layer of diagonal muscles that also
through the pyloric sphincter, which opens to
alternately contracts and relaxes
the small intestine
- The stomach wall releases gastric juices
SMALL INTESTINE o When the chyme is liquified with gastric
juices, the pyloric sphincter opens
- a 10-foot length of small-diameter intestine that
about 3 times a minute to allow small
is the major site of digestion of food and
portions of chyme to pass through
absorption of nutrients. Its segments are the
duodenum, jejunum, and ileum SEGMENTATION

LARGE INTESTINE - Periodic squeezing or partitioning of the

intestine at intervals along its length by its
- lower portion of intestine that completes the
circular muscles
digestive process
- These contractions mix the chyme and promote
- Having traveled the length of the small
close contact with the digestive juices and the
intestine, the remaining contents arrive at
absorbing cells of the intestinal walls before
another sphincter, the ileocecal valve,
letting the contents move slowly along
- Segments are the:
1. Ascending colon SPHINCTER CONTRACTION
2. Transverse colon
- Sphincter muscles periodically open and close,
3. Descending colon
allowing the contents of the GI tract to move
4. Sigmoid colon (S-shaped)
along at a controlled pace
RECTUM - Parts:
a. Upper esophageal sphincter
- Muscular terminal part of the intestine
▪ Opens in response to
- Extends from sigmoid to the anus
swallowing
- As the intestinal contents pass through the
b. Lower esophageal sphincter
rectum, the colon withdraws water, leaving
▪ Cardiac sphincter
semi solid waste
▪ Prevents reflux of the stomach
- Strong muscles of rectum and anal canal hold
contents
back this waste until it’s time to defecate

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 c. Pyloric sphincter gastric juice from destroying stomach
▪ Stays closed most of the time cells
▪ Holds the chyme in the stomach
PANCREATIC JUICE AND INTESTINAL ENZYMES
long enough for it to be
thoroughly mixed with gastric - Pancreatic juice contains enzymes that act on
juice and liquify three energy nutrients
d. Ileocecal valve - Cells of the intestinal wall also possess the
▪ Allows the contents of the small digestive enzymes on their surfaces
intestine to empty into the - Contains sodium bicarbonate
large intestine o Neutralizes the acidic chyme arriving in
e. Internal and external anal sphincter the small intestine from the stomach
▪ Prevents continuous
elimination of stool BILE

SECRETIONS OF DIGESTION - Also flows into the duodenum

- Liver continuously produces bile, which is then
- Breakdown of foods into nutrients requires concentrated and stored in the gallbladder
secretions from 5 different organs: salivary - Emulsifier
glands, stomach, pancreas, liver and small o Brings fats into suspension with water
intestine so enzymes can break them down into
o Brings abundance of water and variety their component parts
of enzymes
FINAL STAGE
ENZYMES
1. Energy yielding nutrients
- Protein that facilitates chemical reaction: o Digested and ready to be absorbed
o Making a molecule 2. Some vitamins and minerals
o Breaking a molecule apart o Altered slightly during digestion, but
o Changing the arrangement of the most are absorbed
molecule 3. Fibers
o Exchanging parts of molecules o Not absorbed
o Continue through digestive tract
SALIVA
carrying minerals, bile acids and
- Contains water, salts, mucus and enzymes that contaminants of the body
initiates the digestion of carbohydrates ▪ Retains water, accounting to
- Protects the teeth and the lining of the upper the consistency of stool
digestive tract from damage 4. In the colon, intestinal bacteria ferment some
- Salivary glands fibers, producing water, gas, and small
o Squirts enough saliva to moisten each fragments of fat that provide energy for the
mouthful of food so that it can pass cells of the colon
easily down the esophagus 5. Colon retrieves the materials that the body can
recycle
GASTRIC JUICE
o Water and dissolved salts
- Mixture of water, enzymes and hydrochloric 6. Waste is finally excreted
acid (produces a pH of 2.0 in the stomach)
ABSORPTION
o Acts in protein digestion
- Mucus - Most of the absorption takes place in the small
o Thick, slippery, white substance that intestine
coats the cells of the stomach to protect - Small intestine traps and absorb nutrient
molecules

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 - To remove the absorbed molecules rapidly and - Aka blood circulatory system
provide room for more to be absorbed, a rush - Closed system of vessels through which blood
of circulating blood continuously washes the flows continuously
underside of this surface, carrying absorbed - As blood circulates through this system, it picks
nutrients away to the liver and other parts of up and delivers materials as needed
the body - Blood transportation route:

ANATOMY OF THE ABSORPTIVE SYSTEM Heart → arteries → capillaries → veins → heart

- Inner surface of small intestine looks smooth - Routing of blood leaving the digestive system
and slippery but turns out to be wrinkled into has a special feature:
hundreds of folds
Heart → arteries → capillaries (intestine) → hepatic
VILLI portal capillaries (liver) → hepatic vein → heart

- Fingerlike projections from the folds of the

small intestine

MICROVILLI

- Tiny hair-like projections on each cell of every

villus that can trap nutrient particles and
transport them into the cells

CRYPTS

- Tubular glands that lie between the intestinal

villi and secrete intestinal juices into the small
intestine

GOBLET CELLS

- Cells of GI tract that secretes mucus

SPECIALIZATION IN THE GI TRACT

- Cells of the intestinal tract are specialized to THE HEALTH AND REGULATION OF GI TRACT
absorb different nutrients - Factors influencing GI tract function:
- Nutrients are ready for absorption early are o Physical immaturity
absorbed near the top of the GI tract o Aging
- Those that take longer to be digested are o Illness
absorbed further down o Nutrition
*TAKE NOTE: IDEA THAT CERTAIN FOOD GASTROINTESTINAL BACTERIA
COMBINATIONS SHOULD NOT BE EATEN BECAUSE THE
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM CANNOT HANDLE IT IS A MYTH. - Most are not harmful
FOODS EATEN TOGETHER CAN ENHANCE EACH OTHER’S - Diet is one of the several factors that influence
USE BY THE BODY (Iex: vitamin C in pineapple can the body’s bacterial population and
enhance absorption of iron from a meal of chicken)* environment
o Iex: Yogurt
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM ▪ Helps in alleviating diarrhea,
- Once nutrient enters the bloodstream, it will be constipation, inflammatory
transported to any of the cells in the body bowel disease, ulcers, allergies,
lactose intolerance
THE VASCULAR SYTEM

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 ▪ Enhance immune function and - Glucose is produced via photosynthesis (in
protects against colon cancer plants), while it is oxidized in a series of
metabolic reaction known as respiration (in
GASTROINTESTINAL HORMONES AND NERVE
animals) yielding CO2 and water.
PATHWAYS
- Combination of photosynthesis and respiration
- Homeostasis is called carbon cycle
o Maintenance of constant internal
TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES
conditions by body’s control system
o Iex: blood chemistry, temperature and
blood pressure
- Two intricate and sensitive systems coordinate
all the digestive and absorptive process
a. Hormonal system
▪ Endocrine
b. Nervous system

CARBOHYDRATES

- Most abundant of all organic compounds in

nature
- Are all made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen (CHO)
- Simple sugars (Cn(H2O)n ) were once though to
be “hydrates of carbon” thus the name
carbohydrate

ATOMS OF CARBOYDRATES

- Each atom can form certain number of chemical

bonds with other atoms:
o Carbon atoms, four
o Nitrogen atoms, three IMPORTANT FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
o Oxygen atoms, two
o Hydrogen atoms, one - Aldehydes and Ketones contain carbonyl group
- Atoms form molecules in ways that satisfy the (C=O).
bonding requirements of each atom. - Aldehyde
o carbon atom or carbonyl group is
bonded to a hydrogen atom.
- Ketone
o the carbon atom of the carbonyl group
is bonded to two other carbon atoms.

SYNTHESIS AND DECOMPOSITION

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 - Carboxylic acids ▪ A six-carbon monosaccharide
o functional group is the carboxyl group, that is a ketone.
which is a combination of carbonyl and
hydroxyl group

- Hydroxyl group
o Entity containing oxygen bonded to a
hydrogen
o In org chem, alcohol and carboxylic
acids contain hydroxyl group
*SAMPLE PROBLEM*

Classify each of the following monosaccharides as an

aldopentose, aldohexose, ketopentose, or ketohexose.

MONOSACCHARIDES

- Sugars that have a chain of three to eight

carbons
o One in a carbonyl group and the rest
attached to hydroxyl groups
o 3 C – triose
ketopentose
o 4C – tetrose
o 5C – pentose
aldohexose
o 6C – hexose

FISCHER PROJECTION OF MONOSACCHARIDE

- Drawn with vertical and horizontal lines with

the aldehyde group at the top and –H and –OH
groups on the intersecting line.
- In L-glyceraldehyde, the letter L is assigned to
the stereoisomer with the –OH group on the
left.
o Stereoisomer means: each of two or
more compounds differing only in the
- Classification systems to indicate the type of spatial arrangement of their atoms
carbonyl group and the number of carbon
atoms:
o Aldopentose
▪ a five-carbon monosaccharide
that is an aldehyde.
o Ketohexose

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 - Most of the monosaccharides studied under o D-glucose
biochemistry have five or six carbon atom, with - Aka blood sugar
more than one chiral carbon. - Found in fruits, veggies, corn syrup and honey
- The –OH group on the chiral carbon farthest - Building blocks of disaccharides: sucrose,
from the carbonyl group is used to determine lactose and maltose
the D or L isomer. - Building blocks of polysaccharides: amylose
cellulose and glycogen

GALACTOSE

- An aldohexose that is obtained from the

disaccharide lactose
o found in milk and milk products.
- Important in the cellular membranes of brain
and nervous system.
- In the condition galactosemia, an enzyme
*SAMPLE PROBLEM* needed to convert galactose to glucose is
missing.
- Identify the following as D or L xylose o The accumulation of galactose in the
blood and tissues can lead to cataracts,
metal retardation, and cirrhosis.
D - Xylose
FRUCTOSE

- Aka levulose
- fruit sugar
- A ketohexose
- Structure of fructose differs at carbons 1 and 2
STRUCTURE OF SOME IMPORTANT MONOSACCHARIDE by the location of the carbonyl group.
- Sweetest of the carbohydrates
- The hexoses glucose, galactose, and fructose
o twice as sweet as sucrose (table sugar)
are the most important monosaccharides.
- Although we can draw Fischer projections for D HAWORTH STRUCTURES OF MONOSACCHARIDES
and L isomers, the D isomers are more
- Molecules of monosaccharides normally exists
commonly found in nature and used in the cells
in a cyclic structure formed when a carbonyl
of our body.
group and a hydroxyl group in the same
molecule react to give ring structures known as
Haworth structures.
- While the carbonyl group in the open chain
could react with several of the –OH groups, the
most stable form of pentoses and hexoses are
five- or six-atom rings

GLUCOSE

- Most common hexose

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 STEPS IN DRAWING HAWORTH STRUCTURES

1. Turn the open chain condensed structural

formula clockwise 90o

3. Draw the new –OH group on carbon 1 down to

give the α isomer or to give the β isomer.

2. Fold the Carbon Chain into a hexagon and bond

the O on the carbon 5 to the carbonyl group.
o Carbons 2 and 3 are the base of
hexagon
o The reacting –OH group on carbon 5 is MUTAROTATION OF α- AND β-D-GLUCOSE
drawn next to the carbonyl group,
which moves carbon 6 in –CH2OH above - In an aqueous solution, the Haworth structure
carbon 5. of α-D-glucose opens to give the open chain of
o Draw bond from the oxygen of the D-glucose with an aldehyde group.
reacting –OH group (carbon 5) to the - At any given time, there is only a trace amount
carbonyl group of the open chain because it closes quickly to
form a stable ring structure.
- However, when the chain closes it again, it can
form β-D-glucose.

HAWWORTH STRUCTURE OF GALACTOSE

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 - Galactose is an aldohexose that differs from
glucose only in the arrangement of the –OH
group on carbon 4.

OH

HAWORH STRUCTURE OF FRUCTOSE β-D-mannose

- Fructose is a ketohexose.
- The Haworth structure for fructose is a five-
atom ring with carbon 2 at the right corner of DISACCHARIDES
the ring.
- The cyclic structure forms when the hydroxyl - Composed of two monosaccharide linked
group on carbon 5 reacts with carbon 2 in the together.
carbonyl group. - The most common disaccharides are maltose,
- The new hydroxyl group on carbon 2 gives the α lactose, and sucrose.
and β isomer of fructose. - When they are split by water (hydrolysis) in the
presence of an acid or enzyme, the products are
two monosaccharides.

HAWORTH STRUCTURE OF DISACCHARIDES

*SAMPLE PROBLEM* - Glycosidic bond OR glycosidic linkage
o ether bond that connects two
- D-mannose, a carbohydrate found in
monosaccharide.
immunoglobulins, has the following open-chain
o type of covalent bond that joins a
structure. Draw the Haworth structure for β-D-
carbohydrate molecule to another
mannose.
group.
- Ether
o contains an oxygen atom bonded to
two carbon atoms

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 - Glycosidic bond forms between –OH groups of
carbon 1 and 4 of two α-D-glucose molecules
with a loss of a water molecule.
- The glycosidic bond in maltose is designed as an
α-1,4, linkage to show that an alpha –OH on
carbon 1 is joined to carbon 4 of the second
CONDENSATION
glucose molecule.
- Links two monosaccharides together to make a
disaccharide
- A hydroxyl (OH) group from one
monosaccharide and a hydrogen (H) from the
other combine to create a molecule of water
(H2O)

HYDROLYSIS

- Breaks a disaccharide in two

- A molecule of water splits to provide the H and LACTOSE
OH needed to complete the resulting
- Milk sugar
monosaccharide.
- A disaccharide found in milk and milk products
- Commonly occurs during digestion
- Makes up 6-8% of human milk and about 4-5%
of cow’s milk, and it is used in products that
attempt to duplicate mother’s milk.

HAWORTH STRUCTURE OF LACTASE

- The bond in lactose is a β-1,4-glycosidic bond

because the –OH on carbon 1 of β-D-galactose
forms a glycosidic bond with the –OH group on
carbon 4 of a D-glucose molecule.
MALTOSE

- Malt sugar
- Obtained from starch and found in germinating
grains.
- When maltose in barley and other grains are
hydrolyzed by yeast enzymes, glucose is
obtained, which can undergo fermentation to
give ethanol.
- Used in cereals, candies, and brewing of
beverages.

HAWORTH STRUCTURE OF MALTOSE

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 *SAMPLE PROBLEM*

- Melibiose is a disaccharide that is 30 times sweeter

than sucrose. Shown on below is the Haworth structure
of Melibiose.

What are the monosaccharide units of melibiose =

Galactose and glucose

What type of glycosidic bond links the

monosaccharides? = 1,6
SUCROSE
Identify the structure as α- or β- melibiose = α-
- Sugar used to sweeten our cereal, coffee, or tea melibiose
- Most of the sucrose for the table sugar comes
POLYSACCHARIDES
from sugar cane (20% by mass) or sugar beets
(15% by mass). - Polymer of many monosaccharides joined
- Both raw and refined forms of sugar are together.
sucrose. - Three important polysaccharides:
o starch, cellulose, and glycogen
HAWORTH STRUCTURE OF SUCROSE
▪ polymers of D-glucose that
- Consist of α-D-glucose and β-D-fructose differ only in the type of
molecule joined by an α,β-1,2-glycosidic bond. glycosidic bonds and the
- Glycosidic bond is between carbon 1 and carbon amount of branching in the
2 of fructose. molecule are important in
nutrition

STARCH

- A storage form of glucose in plants

- Found as insoluble granules in rice, wheat,
potatoes, beans, and cereals.
- Composed of two kinds of polysaccharides:
o Amylose
o Amylopectin

AMYLOSE

- Makes up about 20% of starch

- Consist of 250-400 α-D-glucose molecules
connected by α-1,4-glycosidic bonds in a
continuous chain.
- Sometimes called straight chain polymer,
polymers of amylose are actually coiled in
helical fashion

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 AMYLOPECTIN

- Makes up as much as 80% of the starch

- Branched chain polysaccharide
- Glucose molecules are connected by α-1,4-
glycosidic bonds.
- At about every 25 glucose units, there is a GLYCOGEN
branch of glucose molecules by an α-1,6-
glycosidic bond between carbon 1 of the - Animal starch
branch and carbon 6 in the main chain. o stored in liver and muscle tissue
- Found to only a limited extent in meats and not
at all in plants
- Stores glucose for future use
o When the hormonal message “release
energy” arrives at the glycogen storage
sites in the liver or muscle cell, enzymes
respond by attacking many branches of
glycogen simultaneously
- Structure is very similar to that of amylopectin
found in plants, except that glycogen is more
highly branched.
- In glycogen, the glucose units are joined by α-
1,4-glycosidic bonds and branches occurring
about every 10-15 glucose units are attached
by α-1,6-glycosidic bonds

HYDROLYSIS OF STARCHES

- Starches hydrolyze easily in water and acid to

give dextrins, which then hydrolyze to maltose
and finally glucose.
- In our bodies, these complex carbohydrates are
digested by enzyme amylase (in saliva) and
maltase (in the intestine).
- The glucose obtained provides about 50% of our
nutritional calories.

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 - It is hydrolyzed in our cells at a rate that o Non-viscous
maintains the blood level of glucose and ▪ Does not form gels
provides energy between meals. = Found mostly in grains and vegetables
= Promote bowel movement, alleviate
CELLULOSE (FIBER)
constipation
- Dietary Fibers o Functional fibers
o Structural parts of plants ▪ When dietary fibers have been
o Found in all plant-derived foods – extracted from plants or are
vegetables, fruits, whole grains, and manufactured and added to
legumes. foods or used as supplements,
- Bonds between the monosaccharides cannot be ▪ Have beneficial effects.
broken down by digestive enzymes in the body. ▪ Iex: C-Lium fiber food
o Also known as nonstarch supplement
polysaccharides
o Contribute no monosaccharides – no
energy
- In cellulose, glucose molecules form a long
unbranched chain similar to that of amylose.
- However, glucose units in cellulose are linked by
β-1,4-glycosidic bonds.
- The cellulose chains do not form coils like
amylose but are aligned parallel in rows that are
held in place by hydrogen bonds between
hydroxyl groups in adjacent cells, making
cellulose insoluble in water.

- Other kinds:
o Soluble fibers
▪ Dissolve in water
o Viscous fibers
▪ Forms gels
o Fermentable
▪ Easily digested by bacteria in
the colon
= Found in oats, barley, legumes, and citrus
fruits
= Associated with protecting against heart
disease and diabetes by lowering blood
cholesterols and glucose levels
o Insoluble fibers
▪ Does not dissolve in water

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