Chapter 25 Celestial Mechanics

25.1 Introduction: The Kepler Problem ..................................................................... 2

25.2 Planetary Orbits.................................................................................................... 3
25.2.1 Reducing the Two-Body Problem into a One-Body Problem .................... 3
25.3 Energy and Angular Momentum, Constants of the Motion ............................. 7
25.3.1 The Orbit Equation for the One-Body Problem ......................................... 7
25.4 Energy Diagram, Effective Potential Energy, and Orbits .............................. 11
25.4.1 Circular Orbit E = Emin ............................................................................... 13

25.4.2 Elliptic Orbit Emin < E < 0 ........................................................................... 14

25.4.3 Parabolic Orbit E = 0 .................................................................................. 16
25.4.4 Hyperbolic Orbit E > 0 ............................................................................... 17
25.5 Orbits of the Two Bodies.................................................................................... 18
25.6 Kepler’s Laws...................................................................................................... 18
25.6.1 Elliptic Orbit Law ........................................................................................ 19
25.6.2 Equal Area Law ........................................................................................... 19
25.6.3 Period Law.................................................................................................... 20
25.7 Worked Examples............................................................................................... 21
Example 25.1 Elliptic Orbit ................................................................................... 21
Example 25.2 The Motion of the Star SO-2 around the Black Hole at the
Galactic Center........................................................................................................ 23
Example 25.3 Central Force Proportional to Distance Cubed ........................... 26
Example 25.4 Transfer Orbit................................................................................. 27
Appendix 25A Derivation of the Orbit Equation..................................................... 31
25A.1 Derivation of the Orbit Equation: Method 1............................................. 31
25A.2 Derivation of the Orbit Equation: Method 2............................................. 32
Appendix 25B Properties of an Elliptical Orbit....................................................... 35
25B.1 Coordinate System for the Elliptic Orbit ................................................... 35
25B.2 The Semi-major Axis ................................................................................... 35
25B.2.3 The Location x0 of the Center of the Ellipse .......................................... 36
25B.2.4 The Semi-minor Axis ................................................................................ 37
25B.2.5 Constants of the Motion for Elliptic Motion........................................... 38
 25B.2.6 Speeds at Nearest and Furthest Approaches .......................................... 39
Appendix 25C Analytic Geometric Properties of Ellipses ...................................... 40

25-1
 Chapter 25 Celestial Mechanics

...and if you want the exact moment in time, it was conceived mentally on
8th March in this year one thousand six hundred and eighteen, but
submitted to calculation in an unlucky way, and therefore rejected as
false, and finally returning on the 15th of May and adopting a new line of
attack, stormed the darkness of my mind. So strong was the support from
the combination of my labour of seventeen years on the observations of
Brahe and the present study, which conspired together, that at first I
believed I was dreaming, and assuming my conclusion among my basic
premises. But it is absolutely certain and exact that "the proportion
between the periodic times of any two planets is precisely the
sesquialterate proportion of their mean distances ..." 1

Johannes Kepler

25.1 Introduction: The Kepler Problem

Johannes Kepler first formulated the laws that describe planetary motion,

I. Each planet moves in an ellipse with the sun at one focus.

II. The radius vector from the sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time.

III. The period of revolution T of a planet about the sun is related to the semi-major
2
axis a of the ellipse by T 2 = k a 3 where k is the same for all planets.

The third law was published in 1619, and efforts to discover and solve the equation of
motion of the planets generated two hundred years of mathematical and scientific
discovery. In his honor, this problem has been named the Kepler Problem.

When there are more than two bodies, the problem becomes impossible to solve
exactly. The most important “three-body problem” in the 17th and 18th centuries involved
finding the motion of the moon, due to gravitational interaction with both the sun and the
earth. Newton realized that if the exact position of the moon were known, the longitude
of any observer on the earth could be determined by measuring the moon’s position with
respect to the stars.

In the eighteenth century, Leonhard Euler and other mathematicians spent many
years trying to solve the three-body problem, and they raised a deeper question. Do the
small contributions from the gravitational interactions of all the planets make the
planetary system unstable over long periods of time? At the end of 18th century, Pierre

1
Kepler, Johannes, Harmonice mundi Book 5, Chapter 3, trans. Aiton, Duncan and Field, p. 411
2
As stated in An Introduction to Mechanics, Daniel Kleppner and Robert Kolenkow, McGraw-Hill, 1973,
p 401.

25-2
Simon Laplace and others found a series solution to this stability question, but it was
unknown whether or not the series solution converged after a long period of time. Henri
Poincaré proved that the series actually diverged. Poincaré went on to invent new
mathematical methods that produced the modern fields of differential geometry and
topology in order to answer the stability question using geometric arguments, rather than
analytic methods. Poincaré and others did manage to show that the three-body problem
was indeed stable, due to the existence of periodic solutions. Just as in the time of
Newton and Leibniz and the invention of calculus, unsolved problems in celestial
mechanics became the experimental laboratory for the discovery of new mathematics.

25.2 Planetary Orbits and the Center of Mass Reference Frame

We now commence a study of the Kepler Problem. We shall determine the equation of
motion for the motions of two bodies interacting via a gravitational force (two-body
problem) using both force methods and conservation laws.

25.2.1 Reducing the Two-Body Problem into a One-Body Problem

We shall begin by showing how the motion of two bodies interacting via a gravitational
force (two-body problem) is mathematically equivalent to the motion of a single body
acted on by an external central gravitational force, where the mass of the single body is
the reduced mass µ ,
1 1 1 mm
= + ⇒µ= 1 2 . (25.2.1)
µ m1 m2 m1 + m2

Once we solve for the motion of the reduced body in this equivalent one-body problem,
we can then return to the real two-body problem and solve for the actual motion of the
two original bodies. The reduced mass was introduced in Chapter 13 Appendix A of
these notes. That appendix used similar but slightly different notation from that used in
this chapter.

Consider a system consisting of two bodies with masses m1 and m2 interacting via a
gravitational force as shown in Figure 25.1.

r̂1,2 F1,2 cm F2,1 r̂2,1

2 x 1

R cm
r2 r1

Figure 25.1 Two bodies interacting via a gravitational force

25-3
 !
Choose a coordinate system with a choice of origin such that body 1 has position r1 and

body 2 has position r2 . The location of the center of mass is given by the vector

  
m1 r1 + m2 r2
R cm = . (25.2.2)
m1 + m2

Newton’s Second Law can be applied to the motion of center of mass:

! !
Fext = (m1 + m2 )A cm . (25.2.3)

For our two-body system the gravitational forces are internal forces and by Newton’s
Third Law sum to zero. If we assume that there are no external forces acting on our two-
body system, then the center of mass is either at rest of moving with a constant velocity.
We can choose as our reference frame, the center of mass reference frame, that is a
reference frame moving with the velocity of the center of mass with our origin located at
the center of mass.
cm
2
r2 r1 1
x

r1,2 = r1 r2
Figure 25.2 Center of mass reference frame

 
Let r1′ be the vector from the center of mass to body 1 and r2′ be the vector from the
center of mass to body 2. Then, by the geometry in Figure 25.2, the relative position
!
′ pointing from body 2 to body 1 is equal to
vector r1,2

! ! !
′ = r1′ − r2′ .
r1,2 (25.2.4)

! !
Because the center of mass is located at the origin, R′cm = 0 , therefore

! !
m1 r1′ = −m2 r2′ , (25.2.5)

!
′ ,
The position vector of body 1 can be found in terms of the relative position vector r1,2
! ! ! !⎛ m ⎞
′ = r1′− r2′ = r1′⎜ 1+ 1 ⎟ ⇒
r1,2
⎝ m2 ⎠
. (25.2.6)
! m2 !
r1′ = r′ .
m1 + m2 1,2

A similar calculation yields

25-4
 ! m1 !
r2′ = − r′ . (25.2.7)
m1 + m2 1,2

In what follows we shall drop the prime indices in the center of mass reference frame

The force on body 2 due to the gravitational interaction between the two bodies can be
described by Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation

! mm
F1,2 = − G 1 2 2 rˆ1,2 . (25.2.8)
r1,2

where r1,2 is the relative distance between bodies 1 and 2. Newton’s Second Law can be
applied individually to the two bodies:

 
d 2r1
F2,1 = m1 2 , (25.2.9)
dt
 
d 2r2
F1,2 = m2 2 . (25.2.10)
dt

Dividing through by the mass in each of Equations (25.2.9) and (25.2.10) yields
 
F2,1 d 2r1
= 2 , (25.2.11)
m1 dt
 
F1,2 d 2r2
= 2 . (25.2.12)
m2 dt

Subtracting the expression in Equation (25.2.12) from that in Equation (25.2.11) yields
! !! ! 2!
F2,1 F1,2
d 2r1 d 2r2 d r1,2
− = 2 − 2 = . (25.2.13)
m1 m2 dt dt dt 2

Newton’s Third Law requires that the force on body 2 is equal in magnitude and opposite
in direction to the force on body 1,
 
F1,2 = −F2,1 . (25.2.14)

Using Newton’s Third Law, Equation (25.2.14), Equation (25.2.13) becomes

2!
! ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ d r1,2
F2,1 ⎜ + ⎟ = . (25.2.15)
⎝ m1 m2 ⎠ dt 2

25-5
Define the reduced mass µ , by
1 1 1
= + (25.2.16)
µ m1 m2
Rewrite Eq. (25.2.15) as
!
! d 2r1,2
F2,1 = µ 2 (25.2.17)
dt

where F2,1 is given by Equation (25.2.8). Using the reduced mass, the position vector of
body 1 can be written as
! µ !
r1 = r. (25.2.18)
m1
and
! µ !
r2 = − r (25.2.19)
m2

When one mass is much smaller than the other, for example m1 << m2 , then the reduced
mass is approximately the smaller mass,

m1 m2 mm
µ= ≅ 1 2 = m1 . (25.2.20)
m1 + m2 m2

Our result has a special interpretation using Newton’s Second Law. Let µ be the
!
mass of a single body with position vector r1,2 = r1,2 r̂1,2 with respect to an origin O , where
rˆ1,2 is the unit vector pointing from the origin O to the single body. Then the equation of
motion, Equation (25.2.17), implies that the single body of mass µ is under the influence
of an attractive gravitational force pointing toward the origin. So, the original two-body
gravitational problem has now been reduced to an equivalent one-body problem,
involving a single body with mass µ under the influence of an attractive central force
!
F2,1 . Note that in this reformulation, there is no body located at the central point (the
origin O ). In what follows we shall drop the indices 1,2 and write Eq. (25.2.17) as
!
Gm1m2 d 2r
− r̂ = µ 2 (25.2.21)
r2 dt

The parameter r in the one-body problem is the distance between the reduced mass and
the central point, and also the relative distance between bodies 1 and 2. This reduction of
the physical two-body problem to a mathematical description of a one body problem
generalizes to all central forces.

25-6
25.3 Energy and Angular Momentum, Constants of the Motion

The equivalent one-body problem has two constants of the motion, energy E and the
angular momentum L about the origin O . Energy is a constant because in our original
two-body problem, the gravitational interaction was an internal conservative force.
Angular momentum is constant about the origin because the only force is directed
towards the origin, and hence the torque about the origin due to that force is zero (the
vector from the origin to the single body is anti-parallel to the force vector and sin π = 0 ).
Because angular momentum is constant, the orbit of the single body lies in a plane with
the angular momentum vector pointing perpendicular to this plane.

In the plane of the orbit, choose polar coordinates (r, θ ) for the single body (see Figure
25.3), where r is the distance of the single body from the central point that is now taken
as the origin O , and θ is the angle that the single body makes with respect to a chosen
direction, and which increases positively in the counterclockwise direction.

Figure 25.3 Coordinate system for the orbit of the single body

There are two approaches to describing the motion of the single body. We can try to find
both the distance from the origin, r(t) and the angle, θ (t) , as functions of the parameter
time, but in most cases explicit functions can’t be found analytically. We can also find
the distance from the origin, r(θ ) , as a function of the angle θ . This second approach
offers a spatial description of the motion of the single body (see Appendix 25A).

25.3.1 The Orbit Equation for the One-Body Problem

Consider the single body with mass µ given by Equation (25.2.1), orbiting about a
central point under the influence of a radially attractive force given by Equation (25.2.8).
Since the force is conservative, the potential energy (from the two-body problem) with
choice of zero reference point U (∞) = 0 is given by

G m1 m2
U (r) = − . (25.3.1)
r

The total energy E is constant, and the sum of the kinetic energy and the potential
energy is
1 G m1 m2
E = µ v2 − . (25.3.2)
2 r

25-7
The kinetic energy term µv 2 / 2 is written in terms of the mass µ and the relative speed
v of the two bodies. Choose polar coordinates such that
 ˆ
v = vr r̂ + vθ θ,
 (25.3.3)
 dr
v= v = ,
dt

where vr = dr / dt and vθ = r(dθ / dt) . Equation (25.3.2) then becomes

1 ⎡⎛ dr ⎞ ⎛ dθ ⎞ ⎤ G m1 m2
2 2

E = µ ⎢⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ r ⎟ ⎥ − . (25.3.4)
2 ⎢⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎥ r
⎣ ⎦

The angular momentum with respect to the origin O is given by

   dθ
L O = rO × µ v = rr̂ × µ (vr r̂ + vθ θ̂) = µ rvθ k̂ = µ r 2 k̂ ≡ Lk̂ (25.3.5)
dt
with magnitude
dθ
L = µ r vθ = µ r 2 . (25.3.6)
dt

We shall explicitly eliminate the θ dependence from Equation (25.3.4) by using our
expression in Equation (25.3.6),
dθ L
= . (25.3.7)
dt µ r 2

The mechanical energy as expressed in Equation (25.3.4) then becomes

2
1 ⎛ dr ⎞ 1 L2 G m1 m2
E = µ⎜ ⎟ + − . (25.3.8)
2 ⎝ dt ⎠ 2 µ r 2 r

Equation (25.3.8) is a separable differential equation involving the variable r as a

function of time t and can be solved for the first derivative dr / dt ,

1
dr 2⎛ 1 L G m1 m2 ⎞
2 2
= ⎜ E− + . (25.3.9)
dt µ⎝ 2 µr 2
r ⎟⎠

Equation (25.3.9) can in principle be integrated directly for r(t) . In fact, doing the
integrals is complicated and beyond the scope of this book. The function r(t) can then,
in principle, be substituted into Equation (25.3.7) and can then be integrated to find θ (t) .

25-8
 Instead of solving for the position of the single body as a function of time, we
shall find a geometric description of the orbit by finding r(θ ) . We first divide Equation
(25.3.7) by Equation (25.3.9) to obtain

dθ
dθ dt
= =
L 1/ r 2( )
. (25.3.10)
dr dr 2µ ⎛ L2
G m1 m2 ⎞
1/2

dt ⎜⎝ E − 2 µ r 2 + r ⎟⎠

The variables r and θ are separable;

dθ =
L (1/ r )
2

dr . (25.3.11)
1/2
2µ ⎛ L2 G m1 m2 ⎞
⎜⎝ E − +
2µ r 2 r ⎟⎠

Equation (25.3.11) can be integrated to find the radius as a function of the angle θ ; see
Appendix 25A for the exact integral solution. The result is called the orbit equation for
the reduced body and is given by
r0
r= (25.3.12)
1− ε cosθ
where
L2
r0 = (25.3.13)
µ G m1 m2

is a constant (known as the semilatus rectum) .

1
⎛ 2 E L2 ⎞ 2
ε = ⎜ 1+ 2⎟
(25.3.14)
⎝ µ (G m1 m2 ) ⎠

is the eccentricity of the orbit. The two constants of the motion, E and L determine all
the properties of the orbit. Any other pair of properties of the orbit can always be
expressed in terms of the constants E and L .

The two constants of the motion, angular momentum L and mechanical energy E , also
determine in terms of r0 and ε , are

L = ( µ G m1 m2 r0 )1/2 (25.3.15)
G m1 m2 (ε 2 − 1)
E= . (25.3.16)
2r0

25-9
The orbit equation as given in Equation (25.3.12) is a general conic section and is
perhaps somewhat more familiar in Cartesian coordinates. Let x = r cosθ and y = r sin θ ,
with r 2 = x 2 + y 2 . The orbit equation can be rewritten as

r = r0 + ε r cosθ . (25.3.17)

Using the Cartesian substitutions for x and y , rewrite Equation (25.3.17) as

(x 2 + y 2 )1/2 = r0 + ε x . (25.3.18)

Squaring both sides of Equation (25.3.18),

x 2 + y 2 = r0 2 + 2 ε x r0 + ε 2 x 2 . (25.3.19)

After rearranging terms, Equation (25.3.19) is the general expression of a conic section
with axis on the x -axis,
x 2 (1− ε 2 ) − 2 ε x r0 + y 2 = r0 2 . (25.3.20)

(We now see that the horizontal axis in Figure 25.3 can be taken to be the x -axis).

For a given r0 > 0 , corresponding to a given nonzero angular momentum as in Equation

(25.3.12), there are four cases determined by the value of the eccentricity.

Case 1: when ε = 0 , E = Emin < 0 and r = r0 , Equation (25.3.20) is the equation for a
circle,
x 2 + y 2 = r0 2 . (25.3.21)

Case 2: when 0 < ε < 1 , Emin < E < 0 , Equation (25.3.20) describes an ellipse,

y2 + A x2 − B x = k . (25.3.22)

where A > 0 and k is a positive constant. (Appendix 25C shows how this expression
may be expressed in the more traditional form involving the coordinates of the center of
the ellipse and the semi-major and semi-minor axes.)

Case 3: when ε = 1 , E = 0 , Equation (25.3.20) describes a parabola,

y 2 r0
x= − . (25.3.23)
2r0 2

25-10
Case 4: when ε > 1 , E > 0 , Equation (25.3.20) describes a hyperbola,

y2 − A x2 − B x = k , (25.3.24)

where A > 0 and k is a positive constant.

25.4 Energy Diagram, Effective Potential Energy, and Orbits

The energy (Equation (25.3.8)) of the single body moving in two dimensions can be
reinterpreted as the energy of a single body moving in one dimension, the radial direction
r , in an effective potential energy given by two terms,

L2 G m1 m2
U eff = − . (25.4.1)
2µ r 2
r

The energy is still the same, but our interpretation has changed,

2
1 ⎛ dr ⎞ L2 G m1 m2
E = K eff + U eff = µ⎜ ⎟ + − , (25.4.2)
2 ⎝ dt ⎠ 2 µ r 2
r

where the effective kinetic energy K eff associated with the one-dimensional motion is

2
1 ⎛ dr ⎞
K eff = µ⎜ ⎟ . (25.4.3)
2 ⎝ dt ⎠

The graph of U eff as a function of u = r / r0 , where r0 as given in Equation (25.3.13), is

shown in Figure 25.4.

U eff (r) 1 L2z

2 μr 2

0 r

Gm1m2
r

25-11
 Figure 25.4 Graph of effective potential energy

The upper red curve is proportional to L2 / (2 µr 2 )  1/ 2r 2 . The lower blue curve is

proportional to −Gm1m2 / r  −1/ r . The sum U eff is represented by the middle green
curve. The minimum value of U eff is at r = r0 , as will be shown analytically below. The
vertical scale is in units of −U eff (r0 ) . Whenever the one-dimensional kinetic energy is
zero, K eff = 0 , the energy is equal to the effective potential energy,

L2 G m1 m2
E = U eff = − . (25.4.4)
2µ r 2 r

Recall that the potential energy is defined to be the negative integral of the work done by
the force. For our reduction to a one-body problem, using the effective potential, we will
introduce an effective force such that

B
 eff  B

U eff , B − U eff , A = − ∫ F ⋅ d r = − ∫ Freff dr (25.4.5)

A A

The fundamental theorem of calculus (for one variable) then states that the integral of the
derivative of the effective potential energy function between two points is the effective
potential energy difference between those two points,

B
dU eff
U eff , B − U eff , A = ∫ dr (25.4.6)
A
dr

Comparing Equation (25.4.6) to Equation (25.4.5) shows that the radial component of the
effective force is the negative of the derivative of the effective potential energy,

dU eff
Freff = − (25.4.7)
dr

The effective potential energy describes the potential energy for a reduced body moving
in one dimension. (Note that the effective potential energy is only a function of the
variable r and is independent of the variable θ ). There are two contributions to the
effective potential energy, and the radial component of the force is then

d d ⎛ L2 G m1 m2 ⎞
Freff = − U eff = − ⎜ − (25.4.8)
dr dr ⎝ 2 µ r 2
r ⎟⎠

Thus there are two “forces” acting on the reduced body,

25-12
 Freff = Fr , centifugal + Fr , gravity , (25.4.9)

with an effective centrifugal force given by

d ⎛ L2 ⎞ L2
Fr ,centrifugal = − = . (25.4.10)
dr ⎜⎝ 2 µ r 2 ⎟⎠ µ r 3

Recall from Eq. (25.3.6) that the angular momentum L = µ r vθ . The effective centrifugal
force (Eq. (25.4.10) can then be rewritten as

µ vθ 2
Fr ,centrifugal = . (25.4.11)
r

The centripetal gravitational force is given by

G m1 m2
Fr , gravity = − . (25.4.12)
r2

With this nomenclature, let’s review the four cases presented in Section 25.3.

25.4.1 Circular Orbit E = E0

The lowest energy state, E0 , corresponds to the minimum of the effective potential
energy, E0 = (U eff )min (Figure 25.5a).

U eff (r) 1 L2z

2 μr 2

r0
0 r

E = E0
Gm1m2
r

Figure 25.5a Plot of U eff (r) vs. r with energies corresponding to circular orbit

25-13
We can minimize the effective potential energy

dU eff L2 G m1m2
0= =− +
dr r=r0
µ r0 3
r0 2

L2 . (25.4.13)
µG m1m2
m1m2
µ=
m1 + m2
and solve Equation (25.4.13) for r0 ,
L2
r0 = , (25.4.14)
µG m1m2

reproducing Equation (25.3.13). For E = E0 , r = r0 which corresponds to a circular orbit.

For the circular orbit L = µr0 v0 , hence Eq. (25.4.14) can be cast into Newton’s Second
Law for the reduced mass undergoing a circular orbit:

G m1m2 v0 2
= µ . (25.4.15)
r0 2 r0

25.4.2 Elliptic Orbit E0 < E < 0

U eff (r) 1 L2z

2 μr 2

0 rmin r rmax
E <0

Gm1m2
r

For E0 < E < 0 , there are two points rmin and rmax such that E = U eff (rmin ) = U eff (rmax ) . At
these points K eff = 0 , therefore dr / dt = 0 which corresponds to a point of closest or

25-14
furthest approach (Figure 25.6). This condition corresponds to the minimum and
maximum values of r for an elliptic orbit.

(a) (b)

Figure 25.6 (a) elliptic orbit, (b) closest and furthest approach

The energy condition at these two points

L2 G m1 m2
E= − , r = rmin = rmax , (25.4.16)
2µ r 2 r

is a quadratic equation for the distance r ,

G m1 m2 L2
r2 + r− = 0. (25.4.17)
E 2µ E
There are two roots
1/2
G m1 m2 ⎛ ⎛ G m1 m2 ⎞ L2 ⎞
2

r=− ±⎜⎜ + ⎟ . (25.4.18)

2E ⎜⎝ ⎝ 2E ⎟⎠ 2 µ E ⎟⎠

Equation (25.4.18) may be simplified somewhat as

⎛ ⎛ 1/2
⎞
G m1 m2 2L2 E ⎞
r=− ⎜ 1± ⎜ 1+ ⎟ ⎟ (25.4.19)
2E ⎜ ⎝ µ (G m1 m2 )2 ⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠

From Equation (25.3.14), the square root is the eccentricity ε ,

1
⎛ 2EL2 ⎞2
ε = ⎜ 1+ 2⎟
, (25.4.20)
⎝ µ (G m1 m2 ) ⎠
and Equation (25.4.19) becomes

25-15
 G m1 m2
r=− (1± ε ) . (25.4.21)
2E
A little algebra shows that
r0 L2 / µ G m1 m2
=
1− ε 2 ⎛ 2L2 E ⎞
1− ⎜ 1+ 2⎟
⎝ µ (G m1 m2 ) ⎠
L2 / µGm1m2
= (25.4.22)
−2L2 E / µ (Gm1m2 )2
G m1 m2
=− .
2E

Substituting the last expression in (25.4.22) into Equation (25.4.21) gives an expression
for the points of closest and furthest approach,

r0 r
r= (1± ε ) = 0 . (25.4.23)
1− ε 2
1 ε

The minus sign corresponds to the distance of closest approach,

r0
r ≡ rmin = (25.4.24)
1+ ε

and the plus sign corresponds to the distance of furthest approach,

r0
r ≡ rmax = . (25.4.25)
1− ε

25.4.3 Parabolic Orbit E = 0

U eff (r) 1 L2z

2 μr 2

E =0
0 rmin r

Gm1m2
r

25-16
The effective potential energy, as given in Equation (25.4.1), approaches zero ( U eff → 0 )
when the distance r approaches infinity ( r → ∞ ). When E = 0 , as r → ∞ , the kinetic
energy also approaches zero, K eff → 0 . This corresponds to a parabolic orbit (see
Equation (25.3.23)). Recall that in order for a body to escape from a planet, the body
must have an energy E = 0 (we set U eff = 0 at infinity). This escape velocity condition
corresponds to a parabolic orbit. For a parabolic orbit, the body also has a distance of
closest approach. This distance rpar can be found from the condition

L2 G m1 m2
E = U eff (rpar ) = − = 0. (25.4.26)
2 µ rpar 2
rpar
Solving Equation (25.4.26) for rpar yields
L2 1
rpar = = r0 ; (25.4.27)
2 µ G m1 m2 2

the fact that the minimum distance to the origin (the focus of a parabola) is half the
semilatus rectum is a well-known property of a parabola (Figure 25.5).

25.4.4 Hyperbolic Orbit E > 0

U eff (r) 1 L2z

2 μr 2
E >0

0 rmin r

Gm1m2
r

When E > 0 , in the limit as r → ∞ the kinetic energy is positive, K eff > 0 . This
corresponds to a hyperbolic orbit (see Equation (25.3.24)). The condition for closest
approach is similar to Equation (25.4.16) except that the energy is now positive. This
implies that there is only one positive solution to the quadratic Equation (25.4.17), the
distance of closest approach for the hyperbolic orbit
r
rhyp = 0 . (25.4.28)
1+ ε

25-17
The constant r0 is independent of the energy and from Equation (25.3.14) as the energy
of the single body increases, the eccentricity increases, and hence from Equation
(25.4.28), the distance of closest approach gets smaller (Figure 25.5).

25.5 Orbits of the Two Bodies

The orbit of the single body can be circular, elliptical, parabolic or hyperbolic, depending
on the values of the two constants of the motion, the angular momentum and the energy.
Once we have the explicit solution (in this discussion, r(θ ) ) for the single body, we can
find the actual orbits of the two bodies.

Recall that in the center of mass reference frame the position vectors of bodies 1
! ! ! !
and 2 are given by Eqs. (25.2.18), r1 = ( µ / m1 )r , and (25.2.19), r2 = −( µ / m2 )r . Thus
each body undergoes a motion about the center of mass in the same manner that the
single body moves about the central point given by Equation (25.3.12). The only
difference is that the distance from either body to the center of mass is shortened by a
factor µ / mi . When the orbit of the single body is an ellipse, then the orbits of the two
bodies are also ellipses, as shown in Figure 25.8.

2 2

r2
1
r = r1 r2
2 r1 2 1

1 1
center of mass center of mass

Figure 25.8 The elliptical motion of bodies interacting gravitationally

When m1 << m2 , then the reduced mass is approximately the smaller mass, µ ! m1 . In
that case, the center of mass is located approximately at the position of the larger mass,
(body 2) and body 1 moves according to
 µ  
r1′ = r ≅ r , (25.4.29)
m1
while body 2 is approximately stationary,
 µ  m  
r2′ = − r − 1 r ≅ 0 . (25.4.30)
m2 m2
25.6 Kepler’s Laws

25-18
25.6.1 Elliptic Orbit Law

I. Each planet moves in an ellipse with the sun at one focus.

When the energy is negative, E < 0 , and according to Equation (25.3.14),

1
⎛ 2E L 2⎞ 2
ε = ⎜ 1+ 2⎟
(25.5.1)
⎝ µ (G m1 m2 ) ⎠

and the eccentricity must fall within the range 0 ≤ ε < 1 . These orbits are either circles or
ellipses. Note the elliptic orbit law is only valid if we assume that there is only one
central force acting. We are ignoring the gravitational interactions due to all the other
bodies in the universe, a necessary approximation for our analytic solution.

25.6.2 Equal Area Law

II. The radius vector from the sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time.

Using analytic geometry in the limit of small Δθ , the sum of the areas of the triangles in
Figure 25.9 is given by
1 (r Δθ )
ΔA = (r Δθ )r + Δr (25.5.2)
2 2

Figure 25.9 Kepler’s equal area law.

The average rate of the change of area, ΔA , in time, Δt , is given by

1 (r Δθ )r (r Δθ ) Δr
ΔA = + . (25.5.3)
2 Δt 2 Δt

In the limit as Δt → 0 , Δθ → 0 , this becomes

dA 1 2 dθ
= r . (25.5.4)
dt 2 dt

25-19
Recall that according to Equation (25.3.7) (reproduced below as Equation (25.5.5)), the
angular momentum is related to the angular velocity dθ / dt by

dθ L
= (25.5.5)
dt µ r 2
and Equation (25.5.4) is then
dA L
= . (25.5.6)
dt 2 µ

Because L and µ are constants, the rate of change of area with respect to time is a
constant. This is often familiarly referred to by the expression: equal areas are swept out
in equal times (see Kepler’s Laws at the beginning of this chapter).

25.6.3 Period Law

III. The period of revolution T of a planet about the sun is related to the semi-major
axis a of the ellipse by T 2 = k a 3 where k is the same for all planets.

When Kepler stated his period law for planetary orbits based on observation, he only
noted the dependence on the larger mass of the sun. Because the mass of the sun is much
greater than the mass of the planets, his observation is an excellent approximation.

In order to demonstrate the third law we begin by rewriting Equation (25.5.6) in the form

dA
2µ = L. (25.5.7)
dt
Equation (25.5.7) can be integrated as
T
∫
orbit
2 µ dA = ∫ L dt ,
0
(25.5.8)

where T is the period of the orbit. For an ellipse,

Area = ∫
orbit
dA = π ab , (25.5.9)

where a is the semi-major axis and b is the semi-minor axis (Figure 25.10).

25-20
 Figure 25.10 Semi-major and semi-minor axis for an ellipse

Thus we have
2 µ π ab
T= . (25.5.10)
L
Squaring Equation (25.5.10) then yields
4π 2 µ 2 a 2 b2
T2 = . (25.5.11)
L2

In Appendix 25B, Equation (25.B.20) gives the angular momentum in terms of the semi-
major axis and the eccentricity. Substitution for the angular momentum into Equation
(25.5.11) yields
4π 2 µ 2 a 2 b2
T =
2
. (25.5.12)
µ Gm1 m2 a(1− ε 2 )

In Appendix 25B, Equation (25.B.17) gives the semi-minor axis which upon substitution
into Equation (25.5.12) yields

4π 2 µ 2 a 3
T2 = . (25.5.13)
µ Gm1 m2

Using Equation (25.2.1) for reduced mass, the square of the period of the orbit is
proportional to the semi-major axis cubed,

4π 2 a 3
T2 = . (25.5.14)
G(m1 + m2 )
25.7 Worked Examples

Example 25.1 Elliptic Orbit

A satellite of mass ms is in an elliptical orbit around a planet of mass mp >> ms . The

planet is located at one focus of the ellipse. The satellite is at the distance ra when it is

25-21
furthest from the planet. The distance of closest approach is rp (Figure 25.11). What is (i)
the speed v p of the satellite when it is closest to the planet and (ii) the speed va of the
satellite when it is furthest from the planet?

Figure 25.11 Example 25.1

 
Solution: The angular momentum about the origin is constant and because rO,a ⊥ v a and
 
rO, p ⊥ v p , the magnitude of the angular momentums satisfies

L ≡ LO ,p = LO ,a . (25.6.1)

Because ms << m p , the reduced mass µ ≅ ms and so the angular momentum condition
becomes
L = ms rp v p = ms ra va (25.6.2)

We can solve for v p in terms of the constants G , m p , ra and rp as follows. Choose zero
for the gravitational potential energy, U (r = ∞) = 0 . When the satellite is at the maximum
distance from the planet, the mechanical energy is

1 Gms mp
Ea = K a + U a = ms va 2 − . (25.6.3)
2 ra

When the satellite is at closest approach the energy is

1 Gms mp
Ep = ms v p 2 − . (25.6.4)
2 rp

Mechanical energy is constant,

E ≡ Ea = E p , (25.6.5)

25-22
therefore
1 Gms mp 1 Gms mp
E= ms v p 2 − = ms va 2 − . (25.6.6)
2 rp 2 ra

From Eq. (25.6.2) we know that

va = (rp / ra )v p . (25.6.7)

Substitute Eq. (25.6.7) into Eq. (25.6.6) and divide through by ms / 2 yields

2Gmp rp 2 2Gmp
vp −
2
= v 2−
2 p
. (25.6.8)
rp ra ra

We can solve this Eq. (25.6.8) for v p :

⎛ r 2⎞ ⎛ 1 1⎞
v p 2 ⎜ 1− p2 ⎟ = 2Gmp ⎜ − ⎟ ⇒
⎝ ra ⎠ ⎝ rp ra ⎠
⎛ ra 2 − rp 2 ⎞ ⎛ ra − rp ⎞
2
vp ⎜ 2 ⎟ = 2Gm p⎜ ⎟⇒
⎝ ra ⎠ ⎝ rp ra ⎠
(25.6.9)
⎛ (r − r )(r + r ) ⎞ ⎛r −r ⎞
v p 2 ⎜ a p 2 a p ⎟ = 2Gmp ⎜ a p ⎟ ⇒
⎝ ra ⎠ ⎝ rp ra ⎠
2Gmp ra
vp = .
(ra + rp )rp

We now use Eq. (25.6.7) to determine that

2Gmp rp
va = (rp / ra )v p = . (25.6.10)
(ra + rp )ra

Example 25.2 The Motion of the Star SO-2 around the Black Hole at the Galactic
Center

The UCLA Galactic Center Group, headed by Dr. Andrea Ghez, measured the orbits of
many stars within 0.8′′ × 0.8′′ of the galactic center. The orbits of six of those stars are
shown in Figure 25.12.

25-23
 Figure 25.12 Obits of six stars near black hole at center of Milky Way galaxy.

We shall focus on the orbit of the star S0-2 with the following orbit properties given in
Table 25.13. Distances are given in astronomical units, 1au = 1.50 × 1011 m , which is the
mean distance between the earth and the sun.

Table 25.1 Orbital Properties of S0-2

Star Period Eccentricity Semi-major Periapse Apoapse

(yrs) axis (au) (au)
−3
( 10 arcsec )
S0-2 15.2 0.8763 120.7 (4.5) 119.5 (3.9) 1812 (73)
(0.68/0.76) (0.0063)

The period of S0-2 satisfies Kepler’s Third Law, given by

4π 2 a 3
T2 = , (25.6.11)
G(m1 + m2 )

where m1 is the mass of S0-2, m2 is the mass of the black hole, and a is the semi-major
axis of the elliptic orbit of S0-2. (a) Determine the mass of the black hole that the star S0-
2 is orbiting. What is the ratio of the mass of the black hole to the solar mass? (b) What is
the speed of S0-2 at periapse (distance of closest approach to the center of the galaxy)
and apoapse (distance of furthest approach to the center of the galaxy)?
3
A.M.Ghez, et al., Stellar Orbits Around Galactic Center Black Hole, preprint arXiv:astro-ph/0306130v1,
5 June, 2003.

25-24
Solution: (a) The semi-major axis is given by

rp + ra 119.5au + 1812au
a= = = 965.8au . (25.6.12)
2 2

In SI units (meters), this is

1.50 × 1011 m
a = 965.8au = 1.45 × 1014 m . (25.6.13)
1au

The mass m1 of the star S0-2 is much less than the mass m2 of the black hole, and
Equation (25.6.11) can be simplified to
4π 2 a 3
T =
2
. (25.6.14)
G m2

Solving for the mass m2 and inserting the numerical values, yields

4π 2 a 3
m2 =
GT 2
(4π 2 )(1.45 × 1014 m)3
= (25.6.15)
(6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 ⋅ kg −2 )((15.2 yr)(3.16 × 107 s ⋅ yr -1 ))2
= 7.79 × 1034 kg.

The ratio of the mass of the black hole to the solar mass is

m2 7.79 × 1034 kg
= = 3.91× 106 . (25.6.16)
msun 1.99 × 1030 kg

The mass of black hole corresponds to nearly four million solar masses.

(b) We can use our results from Example 25.1 that

2Gm2 ra Gm2 ra
vp = = (25.6.17)
(ra + rp )rp arp

rp 2Gm2 rp Gm2 rp
va = vp = = , (25.6.18)
ra (ra + rp )ra ara

where a = (ra + rb ) / 2 is the semi-major axis. Inserting numerical values,

25-25
 Gm2 ra
vp =
a rp

(6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 ⋅ kg −2 )(7.79 × 1034 kg) ⎛ 1812 ⎞

= ⎜⎝ 119.5⎠⎟ (25.6.19)
(1.45 × 1014 m)
= 7.38 × 106 m ⋅s −1.

The speed va at apoapse is then

rp ⎛ 1812 ⎞
va = vp = ⎜ ⎟ (7.38 × 106 m ⋅s −1 ) = 4.87 × 105 m ⋅s −1 . (25.6.20)
ra ⎝ 119.5 ⎠

Example 25.3 Central Force Proportional to Distance Cubed

A particle of mass m moves in plane about a central point under an attractive central
force of magnitude F = br 3 . The magnitude of the angular momentum about the central
point is equal to L . (a) Find the effective potential energy and make sketch of effective
potential energy as a function of r . (b) Indicate on a sketch of the effective potential the
total energy for circular motion. (c) The radius of the particle’s orbit varies between r0
and 2r0 . Find r0 .

Solution: a) The potential energy, taking the zero of potential energy to be at r = 0 , is

r b
U (r) = − ∫ (−br′ 3 ) dr′ = r 4
0 4

The effective potential energy is

L2 L2 b
U eff (r) = 2
+ U (r) = 2
+ r4 .
2mr 2mr 4

A plot is shown in Figure 25.13a, including the potential (yellow, right-most curve), the
term L2 / 2m (green, left-most curve) and the effective potential (blue, center curve). The
horizontal scale is in units of r0 (corresponding to radius of the lowest energy circular
orbit) and the vertical scale is in units of the minimum effective potential.

b) The minimum effective potential energy is the horizontal line (red) in Figure 25.13a.

25-26
 (a) (b)

Figure 25.13 (a) Effective potential energy with lowest energy state (red line), (b) higher
energy state (magenta line)

c) We are trying to determine the value of r0 such that U eff (r0 ) = U eff (2r0 ) . Thus

L2 b 4 L2 b
2
+ r0
= 2
+ (2r0 )4 .
mr0 4 m(2r0 ) 4

Rearranging and combining terms, we can then solve for r0 ,

3 L2 1 15 4
= b r0
8 m r02 4
1 L2
r06 = .
10 mb

In the plot in Figure 25.13b, if we could move the red line up until it intersects the blue
curve at two point whose value of the radius differ by a factor of 2 , those would be the
respective values for r0 and 2r0 . A graph, showing the corresponding energy as the
horizontal magenta line, is shown in Figure 25.13b.

Example 25.4 Transfer Orbit

A space vehicle is in a circular orbit about the earth. The mass of the vehicle is
ms = 3.00 × 103 kg and the radius of the orbit is 2Re = 1.28 × 104 km . It is desired to
transfer the vehicle to a circular orbit of radius 4Re (Figure 24.14). The mass of the earth
is M e = 5.97 × 1024 kg . (a) What is the minimum energy expenditure required for the
transfer? (b) An efficient way to accomplish the transfer is to use an elliptical orbit from
point A on the inner circular orbit to a point B on the outer circular orbit (known as a

25-27
Hohmann transfer orbit). What changes in speed are required at the points of intersection,
A and B ?

Figure 24.12 Example 25.5

Solution: (a) The mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies,

E = K +U
1 m M (25.6.21)
= ms v 2 − G s e .
2 Re

For a circular orbit, the orbital speed and orbital radius must be related by Newton’s
Second Law,
Fr = m ar
ms M e v2
−G = −ms ⇒ (25.6.22)
Re 2 Re
1 1 m M
ms v 2 = G s e .
2 2 Re

Substituting the last result in (25.6.22) into Equation (25.6.21) yields

1 m M m M 1 m M 1
E = G s e − G s e = − G s e = U (Re ) . (25.6.23)
2 Re Re 2 Re 2

Equation (25.6.23) is one example of what is known as the Virial Theorem, in which the
energy is equal to (1/2) the potential energy for the circular orbit. In moving from a
circular orbit of radius 2Re to a circular orbit of radius 4Re , the total energy increases,
(as the energy becomes less negative). The change in energy is

25-28
 ΔE = E(r = 4Re ) − E(r = 2Re )
1 m M ⎛ 1 m M ⎞
= − G s e −⎜− G s e⎟ (25.6.24)
2 4Re ⎝ 2 2Re ⎠
Gms M e
= .
8Re

Inserting the numerical values,

1 m M 1 m M
ΔE = G s e = G s e
8 Re 4 2Re
1 (3.00 × 103 kg)(5.97 × 1024 kg)
= (6.67 × 10−11 m 3 ⋅ kg −1 ⋅s −2 ) (25.6.25)
4 (1.28 × 104 km)
= 2.3× 1010 J.

b) The satellite must increase its speed at point A in order to move to the larger orbit
radius and increase its speed again at point B to stay in the new circular orbit. Denote
the satellite speed at point A while in the circular orbit as v A, i and after the speed
increase (a “rocket burn”) as v A, f . Similarly, denote the satellite’s speed when it first
reaches point B as v B, i . Once the satellite reaches point B , it then needs to increase its
speed in order to continue in a circular orbit. Denote the speed of the satellite in the
circular orbit at point B by v B, f . The speeds v A, i and v B, f are given by Equation
(25.6.22). While the satellite is moving from point A to point B in the elliptic orbit (that
is, during the transfer, after the first burn and before the second), both mechanical energy
and angular momentum are conserved. Conservation of energy relates the speeds and
radii by

1 mm 1 mm
ms (v A, f )2 − G s e = ms (v B,i )2 − G s e . (25.6.26)
2 2Re 2 4Re

Conservation of angular momentum relates the speeds and radii by

ms v A, f (2Re ) = ms v B,i (4Re ) ⇒ v A, f = 2v B,i . (25.6.27)

Substitution of Equation (25.6.27) into Equation (25.6.26) yields, after minor algebra,

2 G Me 1 GM e
v A, f = , v B,i = . (25.6.28)
3 Re 6 Re

We can now use Equation (25.6.22) to determine that

25-29
 1 G Me 1 G Me
v A,i = , v B, f = . (25.6.29)
2 Re 4 Re

Thus the change in speeds at the respective points is given by

⎛ 2 1 ⎞ G Me
Δv A = v A, f − v A,i = ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 3 2⎠ Re
(25.6.30)
⎛ 1 1 ⎞ G Me
Δv B = v B, f − v B,i =⎜ − ⎟ .
⎝ 4 6⎠ Re

Substitution of numerical values gives

Δv A = 8.6 × 102 m ⋅ s −2 , Δv B = 7.2 × 102 m ⋅ s −2 . (25.6.31)

25-30
Appendix 25A Derivation of the Orbit Equation

25A.1 Derivation of the Orbit Equation: Method 1

Start from Equation (25.3.11) in the form

L (1/ r 2 )
dθ = 1/2
dr . (25.A.1)
2µ ⎛ L2 G m1 m2 ⎞
⎜⎝ E − +
2µ r 2
r ⎟⎠

What follows involves a good deal of hindsight, allowing selection of convenient

substitutions in the math in order to get a clean result. First, note the many factors of the
reciprocal of r . So, we’ll try the substitution u = 1/ r , du = −(1/ r 2 ) dr , with the result

L du
dθ = − . (25.A.2)
2µ ⎛
1/ 2
L2 2 ⎞
⎜E− u + G m1 m2 u ⎟
⎝ 2µ ⎠

Experience in evaluating integrals suggests that we make the absolute value of the factor
multiplying u 2 inside the square root equal to unity. That is, multiplying numerator and
denominator by 2µ / L ,

du
dθ = − . (25.A.3)
( 2µ E / L − u )
1/2
2 2
+ 2( µG m1 m2 / L )u
2

As both a check and a motivation for the next steps, note that the left side dθ of Equation
(25.A.3) is dimensionless, and so the right side must be. This means that the factor of
µ G m1 m2 / L2 in the square root must have the same dimensions as u , or length −1 ; so,
define r0 ≡ L2 / µ G m1 m2 . This is of course the semilatus rectum as defined in Equation
(25.3.12), and it’s no coincidence; this is part of the “hindsight” mentioned above. The
differential equation then becomes

du
dθ = − . (25.A.4)
(2 µ E / L − u 2 + 2u / r0 )1/2
2

We now rewrite the denominator in order to express it terms of the eccentricity.

25-31
 du
dθ = −
( 2µ E / L + 1/ r )
1/2
2
0
2
− u 2 + 2u / r0 − 1/ r0 2
du
=− (25.A.5)
( 2µ E / L + 1/ r )
1/2
2
0
2
− (u − 1/ r0 ) 2

r0 du
=− .
( )
1/2
2 µ Er0 2 / L2 + 1− (r0 u − 1)2

We note that the combination of terms 2 µ Er0 2 / L2 +1 is dimensionless, and is in fact

equal to the square of the eccentricity ε as defined in Equation (25.3.13); more
hindsight. The last expression in (25.A.5) is then

r0 du
dθ = − . (25.A.6)
(ε − (r0 u −1)2 )
2 1/ 2

From here, we’ll combine a few calculus steps, going immediately to the substitution
r0 u −1 = ε cosα , r0 du = −ε sin α dα , with the final result that

−ε sin α dα
dθ = − = dα , (25.A.7)
(ε − ε 2 cos 2 α )
2 1/ 2

We now integrate Eq. (25.A.7) with the very simple result that

θ = α + constant . (25.A.8)

We have a choice in selecting the constant, and if we pick θ = α − π , α = θ + π ,

cos α = − cosθ , the result is
1 r0
r= = , (25.A.9)
u 1− ε cosθ

which is our desired result, Equation (25.3.11). Note that if we chose the constant of
integration to be zero, the result would be

1 r0
r= = (25.A.10)
u 1+ ε cosθ

which is the same trajectory reflected about the “vertical” axis in Figure 25.3, indeed the
same as rotating by π .

25A.2 Derivation of the Orbit Equation: Method 2

The derivation of Equation (25.A.9) in the form

25-32
 1
u= (1− ε cosθ ) (25.A.11)
r0

suggests that the equation of motion for the one-body problem might be manipulated to
obtain a simple differential equation. That is, start from
 
F = µa
m1m2 ⎛ d 2r ⎛ dθ ⎞ ⎞
2
(25.A.12)
−G 2 r̂ = µ ⎜ 2 − r ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ r̂.
r ⎜⎝ dt ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎟⎠

Setting the components equal, using the constant of motion L = µr 2 (dθ / dt) and
rearranging, Eq. (25.A.12) becomes

d 2r L2 Gm1m2
µ = − . (25.A.13)
dt 2 µ r 3 r2

We now use the same substitution u = 1/ r and change the independent variable from t to
r , using the chain rule twice, since Equation (25.A.13) is a second-order equation. That
is, the first time derivative is
dr dr du dr du dθ
= = . (25.A.14)
dt du dt du dθ dt

From r = 1/ u we have dr / du = −1/ u 2 . Combining with dθ / dt in terms of L and u ,

dθ / dt = L u 2 / µ , Equation (25.A.14) becomes

dr 1 du Lu 2 du L
=− 2 =− , (25.A.15)
dt u dθ µ dθ µ

a very tidy result, with the variable u appearing linearly. Taking the second derivative
with respect to t ,
d 2 r d ⎛ dr ⎞ d ⎛ dr ⎞ dθ
= = . (25.A.16)
dt 2 dt ⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠ dθ ⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠ dt

Now substitute Eq. (25.A.15) into Eq. (25.A.16) with the result that

d 2r d 2u ⎛ 2 L2 ⎞
= − u . (25.A.17)
dt 2 dθ 2 ⎜⎝ µ 2 ⎟⎠

Substituting into Equation (25.A.13), with r = 1/ u yields

25-33
 d 2u 2 L2 L2 3
− u = u − Gm1m2 u 2 . (25.A.18)
dθ 2 µ µ

Canceling the common factor of u 2 and rearranging, we arrive at

d 2u µGm1m2
− 2 =u− . (25.A.19)
dθ L2

Equation (25.A.19) is mathematically equivalent to the simple harmonic oscillator

equation with an additional constant term. The solution consists of two parts: the angle-
independent solution
µGm1m2
u0 = (25.A.20)
L2

and a sinusoidally varying term of the form

uH = Acos(θ − θ 0 ) , (25.A.21)

where A and θ 0 are constants determined by the form of the orbit. The expression in
Equation (25.A.20) is the inhomogeneous solution and represents a circular orbit. The
expression in Equation (25.A.21) is the homogeneous solution (as hinted by the
subscript) and must have two independent constants. We can readily identify 1/ u0 as the
semilatus rectum r0 , with the result that

1
u = u0 + uH =
r0
(1+ r0 A(θ − θ0 )) ⇒
(25.A.22)
1 r0
r= = .
u 1+ r0 A(θ − θ 0 )

Choosing the product r0 A to be the eccentricity ε and θ 0 = π (much as was done leading
to Equation (25.A.9) above), Equation (25.A.9) is reproduced.

25-34
Appendix 25B Properties of an Elliptical Orbit

25B.1 Coordinate System for the Elliptic Orbit

We now consider the special case of an elliptical orbit. Choose coordinates with the
central point located at one focal point and coordinates (r,θ ) for the position of the
single body (Figure 25B.1a). In Figure 25B.1b, let a denote the semi-major axis, b
denote the semi-minor axis and x0 denote the distance from the center of the ellipse to
the origin of our coordinate system.

(a) (b)

Figure 25B.1 (a) Coordinate system for elliptic orbit, (b) semi-major axis

25B.2 The Semi-major Axis

Recall the orbit equation, Eq, (25.A.9), describes r(θ ) ,

r0
r(θ ) = . (25.B.1)
1− ε cosθ
The major axis A = 2a is given by
A = 2 a = ra + rp . (25.B.2)

where the distance of furthest approach ra occurs when θ = 0 , hence

r0
ra = r(θ = 0) = , (25.B.3)
1− ε

and the distance of nearest approach rp occurs when θ = π , hence

r0
rp = r(θ = π ) = . (25.B.4)
1+ ε

25-35
Figure 25B.2 shows the distances of nearest and furthest approach.

Figure 25B.2 Furthest and nearest approach

We can now determine the semi-major axis

1⎛ r r ⎞ r
a= ⎜ 0 + 0 ⎟= 0 2 . (25.B.5)
2 ⎝ 1− ε 1+ ε ⎠ 1− ε

The semilatus rectum r0 can be re-expressed in terms of the semi-major axis and the
eccentricity,
r0 = a(1− ε 2 ) . (25.B.6)

We can now express the distance of nearest approach, Equation (25.B.4), in terms of the
semi-major axis and the eccentricity,

r0 a(1− ε 2 )
rp = = = a(1− ε ) . (25.B.7)
1+ ε 1+ ε

In a similar fashion the distance of furthest approach is

r0 a(1− ε 2 )
ra = = = a(1+ ε ) . (25.B.8)
1− ε 1− ε

25B.2.3 The Location x0 of the Center of the Ellipse

From Figure 25B.3a, the distance from a focus point to the center of the ellipse is

x0 = a − rp . (25.B.9)

25-36
 (a) (b)

Figure 25B.3 Location of the center of the ellipse and semi-minor axis.

Using Equation (25.B.7) for rp , we have that

x0 = a − a(1− ε ) = ε a. (25.B.10)

25B.2.4 The Semi-minor Axis

From Figure 25B.3b, the semi-minor axis can be expressed as

b = (rb 2 − x0 2 ) , (25.B.11)
where
r0
rb = . (25.B.12)
1− ε cosθ b
We can rewrite Eq. (25.B.12) as

rb − rb ε cosθb = r0 . (25.B.13)

The horizontal projection of rb is given by (Figure 25B.2b),

x0 = rb cosθb , (25.B.14)

which upon substitution into Eq. (25.B.13) yields

rb = r0 + ε x0 . (25.B.15)

Substituting Equation (25.B.10) for x0 and Equation (25.B.6) for r0 into

Equation (25.B.15) yields
rb = a(1− ε 2 ) + aε 2 = a . (25.B.16)

25-37
The fact that rb = a is a well-known property of an ellipse reflected in the geometric
construction, that the sum of the distances from the two foci to any point on the ellipse is
a constant. We can now determine the semi-minor axis b by substituting Eq. (25.B.16)
into Eq. (25.B.11) yielding

b= (rb
2
− x0 2 ) = a 2 − ε 2a 2 = a 1− ε 2 . (25.B.17)

25B.2.5 Constants of the Motion for Elliptic Motion

We shall now express the parameters a , b and x0 in terms of the constants of the motion
L , E , µ , m1 and m2 . Using our results for r0 and ε from Equations (25.3.13) and
(25.3.14) we have for the semi-major axis

L2 1
a=
µ Gm1 m2 (1− (1+ 2 E L / µ (G m1 m2 )2 ))
2
. (25.B.18)
G m1 m2
=−
2E

The energy is then determined by the semi-major axis,

G m1 m2
E=− . (25.B.19)
2a

The angular momentum is related to the semilatus rectum r0 by Equation (25.3.13).

Using Equation (25.B.6) for r0 , we can express the angular momentum (25.B.4) in terms
of the semi-major axis and the eccentricity,

L = µ Gm1 m2 r0 = µ Gm1 m2 a(1− ε 2 ) . (25.B.20)

Note that
L
(1− ε 2 ) = , (25.B.21)
µ Gm1 m2 a

Thus, from Equations (25.3.14), (25.B.10), and (25.B.18), the distance from the center of
the ellipse to the focal point is

x0 = ε a = −
G m1 m2
2E
(1 + 2E L / µ (G m m ) ) ,
2
1 2
2
(25.B.22)

a result we will return to later. We can substitute Eq. (25.B.21) for 1− ε 2 into Eq.
(25.B.17), and determine that the semi-minor axis is

25-38
 b = aL2 / µ Gm1 m2 . (25.B.23)

We can now substitute Eq. (25.B.18) for a into Eq. (25.B.23), yielding

G m1 m2 1
b = aL2 / µ Gm1 m2 = L − / µ Gm1 m2 = L − . (25.B.24)
2E 2µ E

25B.2.6 Speeds at Nearest and Furthest Approaches

At nearest approach, the velocity vector is tangent to the orbit (Figure 25B.4), so the
magnitude of the angular momentum is
L = µrp v p , (25.B.25)
and the speed at nearest approach is
v p = L / µrp . (25.B.26)

Figure 25B.4 Speeds at nearest and furthest approach

Using Equation (25.B.20) for the angular momentum and Equation (25.B.7) for rp ,
Equation (25.B.26) becomes

L µ Gm1 m2 (1− ε 2 ) Gm1 m2 (1− ε 2 ) Gm1 m2 (1+ ε )

vp = = = = . (25.B.27)
µrp µ a(1− ε ) µ a(1− ε ) 2
µ a(1− ε )

A similar calculation show that the speed va at furthest approach,

L µ Gm1 m2 (1− ε 2 ) Gm1 m21− ε 2 Gm1 m2 (1− ε )

va = = = = . (25.B.28)
µra µ a(1+ ε ) µ a(1+ ε )2 µ a(1+ ε )

25-39
Appendix 25C Analytic Geometric Properties of Ellipses

Consider Equation (25.3.20), and for now take ε < 1 , so that the equation is that of an
ellipse. We shall now show that we can write it as

(x − x0 )2 y 2
+ 2 = 1, (25.C.1)
a2 b

where the ellipse has axes parallel to the x - and y -coordinate axes, center at (x0 , 0) ,
semi-major axis a and semi-minor axis b . We begin by rewriting Equation (25.3.20) as

2ε r0 y2 r02
x2 − x + = . (25.C.2)
1− ε 2 1− ε 2 1− ε 2
We next complete the square,

2ε r0 ε 2 r02 y2 r02 ε 2 r02

x2 − x + + = + ⇒
1− ε 2 (1− ε 2 )2 1− ε 2 1− ε 2 (1− ε 2 )2
2
⎛ ε r0 ⎞ y2 r02
⎜⎝ x − + = ⇒ (25.C.3)
1− ε 2 ⎟⎠ 1− ε 2 (1− ε 2 )2
2
⎛ ε r0 ⎞
⎜⎝ x −
1− ε 2 ⎟⎠ y2
+ = 1.
( )
2
r0 / (1− ε 2 ) (r0 / 1− ε 2 )2

The last expression in (25.C.3) is the equation of an ellipse with semi-major axis

r0
a= , (25.C.4)
1− ε 2
semi-minor axis
r0
b= = a 1− ε 2 , (25.C.5)
1− ε 2

and center at
ε r0
x0 = = εa , (25.C.6)
(1− ε 2 )

as found in Equation (25.B.10).

25-40
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8.01 Classical Mechanics

Spring 2022

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