Raus IAS CSM20 Compass History

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CONTENTS
SYLLABUS 01 ►EVOLUTION OF EDUCATION SYSTEM IN ANCIENT INDIA
21
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS AND THEME MAP 02 ►CONTRIBUTION OF MUGHALS TO INDIAN PAINTING 21
►TANGAM LANGUAGE 23
Section-1 ►HARVEST FESTIVALS AND ITS IMPORTANCE 24
Art & Architecture ►BHAKTI MOVEMENT AS SOURCE OF SOCIAL AND

CULTURAL REVOLUTION 24
07
►PREHISTORIC ROCK PAINTINGS 07 Section-2
► FEATURES OF TOWN PLANNING OF HARAPPAN CITIES 08
Important Historical
►ECONOMY DURING INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION 08
Personalities
HETERODOX RELIGIONS (BUDDHISM AND JAINISM) 26
BUDDHISM 09
►DR. B R AMBEDKAR 26
►RELIGIOUS TEACHINGS OF BUDDHISM 09
►BHAGAT SINGH, SUKHDEV AND RAJGURU 27
►FEATURES OF MAHAYANA & HINAYANA 09 ►MAHATMA GANDHI 28
JAINISM 10 ►KABIR 29
►RELIGIOUS PHILOSOPHY OF JAINISM 10 ►RAJA RAM MOHAN ROY 30
►TWO SECTS OR SCHOOLS OF JAINISM 10 ►SUBHASH CHANDRA BOSE 31
►HOW BUDDHISM AND JAINISM IMPACTED INDIAN ART ►SARDAR VALLABHBHAI PATEL 32
FORMS 10
►GURU NANAK 33
► IMPORTANCE OF INDIGENOUS LITERATURE AND
►LALA LAJPAT RAI 34
FOREIGN ACCOUNTS IN UNDERSTANDING HISTORY 12
►SRI SATGURU RAM SINGHJI 34
►GANDHARA AND MATHURA SCHOOL OF ARTS 13
►VISHNU NARAYAN BHATKHANDE 35
►ANASUYA SARABHAI 35
►TEMPLE ARCHITECHTURE 13
►DR. RAJENDRA PRASAD 36
►NAGARA STYLE OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE 14
►DR. RAM MANOHAR LOHIA 36
►DRAVIDA STYLE OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE 14
►KAMALA DEVI CHATTOPADHYAY 37
►VESARA STYLE OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE 15
►BAL GANGADHAR TILAK 37
►KALINGA STYLE OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE 15
►MAULANA ABDUL KALAM AZAD 38
►SCULPTURAL TRADITIONS IN ANCIENT INDIA 15
►BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE DURING SATVANA RULE 20
►DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLASSICAL AND FOLK DANCE 20
ii
Section-3 Section-4
Modern History World History
40 59
►CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE ►AMERICAN REVOLUTION 59
40
►FRENCH REVOLUTION 60
►THE DIFFERENT DIMENSIONS OF SWADESHI MOVEMENT 40
►WHAT WERE THE FACTORS INVOLVED IN THE RISE AND FALL
►CHAMPARAN SATYAGRAHA 42 OF NAPOLEON TO POWER? 62
►101 YEARS SINCE JALLIANWALA BAGH MASSACRE 43 ►DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IMPERIALISM AND COLONIALISM 64
►NON-CO-OPERATION MOVEMENT 44 ►THE FIRST WORLD WAR 65
►MALABAR REBELLION 45 ►RESPONSIBILITY OF KAISER WILLIAM II OF GERMANY FOR
►SALT SATYAGRAHA 45 FIRST WORLD WAR 67
►QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT 47 ►SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR 43
►THE NAVAL MUTINY: THE LAST NAIL IN THE COFFIN OF ►THE LEAGUE OF NATION SUCCESS OR FAILURE 70
BRITISH COLONIAL ASPIRATIONS IN INDIA 48 ►THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION 71
► MOVEMENT FOR HARIJAN BY GANDHIJI 49 ►BISMARCK’S IDEAS OF GERMAN UNIFICATION 73
►ROLE OF MAHATMA GANDHI IN DRAWING WOMEN INTO ►COMPARISON BETWEEN BISMARCK AND CAVOUR 75
MAINSTREAM OF NATIONALIST MOVEMENT 50
►COMPARISON BETWEEN THE ITALIAN & GERMAN
►GROWTH OF MODERN NATIONALISM IN INDIA 50 UNIFICATION 75
►FEATURES OF PEASANT MOVEMENTS IN INDIA 51 ►THE KOREAN WAR 77
►DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN INDIA 51
►DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDIAN PRESS DURING THE BRITISH

RULE 53
►GROWTH OF LEFT MOVEMENT 53
►WHY THE CONGRESS ACCEPTED THE PARTITION 54
►REORGANIZATION OF STATES: REGIONAL ISSUES 55
►LAND REFORMS AFTER INDEPENDENCE 57
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SYLLABUS
Indian Culture
• Indian Culture will cover the salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature, and Architecture from ancient to modern
times.
Modern Indian History and Freedom Struggle
• Modern Indian history from about the middle of the eighteenth century until the present
• Significant events, personalities, issues
• The Freedom Struggle - its various stages
• Important contributors /contributions from different parts of the country in Freedom struggle.
Post Independence India
• Post-independence consolidation and reorganization within the country.
World History
• History of the world will include events from the 18th century, such as the industrial revolution
• World Wars
• Redrawing of national boundaries
• Colonization, decolonization
• Political philosophies like communism, capitalism, socialism, etc.- their forms and effect on the society.
RAU’S IAS FOCUS SPECIAL EDITIONS | MAINS COMPASS (C3 CURATION) for CSE 2020
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PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS & THEME MAP
THEME 1: INDIAN CULTURE

IMPORTANT THEMES FOR MAINS
SUB-THEME YEAR UPSC MAINS QUESTIONS
2020
2019 Highlight the Central Asian and Greco Bactrian • Prehistoric Rock Paintings
elements in Gandhara art. • Features of town planning of
Indian Culture 2018 Safeguarding the Indian art heritage is the need of Harappan cities
the moment. Discuss. • Economy during Indus valley
2018 Assess the importance of the accounts of the civilization
Chinese and Arab travellers in the reconstruction • Religious teachings of
of the history of India. Buddhism
2018 The Bhakti movement received a remarkable re- • Features of mahayana &
orientation with the advent of Sri Chaitanya hinayana
Mahaprabhu. Discuss. • The religious philosophy of
2017 How do you justify the view that the level of Jainism
excellence of Gupta numismatic art is not at all • How Buddhism and Jainism
noticeable in later times? impacted Indian art forms
2016 Early Buddhist Stupa-art, while depicting folk • The relevance of indigenous
motifs and narratives successfully expounds literature in the reconstruction
Buddhist ideals. Elucidate. of the history
2016 Krishnadeva Raya, the King of Vijayanagar, was not • Features of Gandhara art
only an accomplished scholar himself but was also • Features of Mathura art
a great patron of learning and literature. Discuss. • Temple architecture
2015 The ancient civilization in Indian sub-continent • Sculptural traditions in ancient
differed from those of Egypt, Mesopotamia and India
Greece in that its Culture and traditions have been • Buddhist architecture during
preserved without a breakdown to the present savanna rule
day. Comment. • Difference between classical
2015 Mesolithic rock cut architecture of India not only and folk dance
reflects the cultural life of the times but also a fine • Evolution of the education
aesthetic sense comparable to modem painting. system in ancient India
Critically evaluate this comment. • Contribution of Mughals to
2014 To what extent has the urban planning and culture Indian painting.
of the Indus Valley Civilization provided inputs to • What are the constitutional
the present day urbanization? Discuss. provisions for the protection of
2014 Gandhara sculpture owed as much to the Romans the rich cultural heritage of
as to the Greeks. Explain. India?
2
2014 Taxila university was one of the oldest universities • Tangam language
of the world with which were associated a number • Harvest festivals and its
of renowned learned personalities of different importance
disciplines. Its strategic location caused its fame to • Bhakti movement as a source
flourish, but unlike Nalanda, it is not considered as of social and cultural
a university in the modern sense. Discuss.
2014 Sufis and medieval mystic saints failed to modify
either the religious ideas and practices or the
outward structure of Hindu / Muslim societies to
any appreciable extent. Comment.
2013 Though not very useful from the point of view of a
connected political history of South India, the
Sangam literature portrays the social and
economic conditions of its time with remarkable
vividness. Comment.
2013 Discuss the Tandava dance as recorded in the
early Indian inscriptions.
2013 Chola architecture represents a high watermark in
the evolution of temple architecture. Discuss.
THEME 2: MODERN INDIAN HISTORY, PERSONALITIES AND FREEDOM STRUGGLE

MOVEMENT
2020
2019 The 1857 uprising was the culmination of the • Characteristic features of Indian
recurrent, big and small local rebellions that had renaissance
Modern Indian occurred in the preceding hundred years of British • The different dimensions of the
History rule. Elucidate. swadeshi movement
2019 Examine the linkages between the nineteenth • Champaran satyagraha
century's 'Indian Renaissance' and the emergence • 101 years since Jallianwala bagh
of national identity. massacre

• Non-Co-operation movement
2019 Many voices had strengthened and enriched the
(the NCM had both constructive
nationalist movement during the Gandhian phase.
and destructive programs in it)
Elaborate.
• Malabar rebellion
2019 Assess the role of British imperial power in • Salt satyagraha
complicating the process of transfer of power • The Gandhi Irwin pact
during the 1940s. • Quit India movement
2018 Throw light on the significance of the thoughts of • The naval mutiny: the last nail
Mahatma Gandhi in the present times. in the coffin of British colonial
aspirations in India
2017 Clarify how mid-eighteenth century India was
• Movement for Harijan by
beset with the spectre of a fragmented polity.
Gandhiji
2017 Why did the 'Moderates' fail to carry conviction
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with the nation about their proclaimed ideology • Role of Mahatma Gandhi in
and political goals by the end of the nineteenth drawing women into
century? mainstream of nationalist
movement
2017 Examine how the decline of traditional artisanal
industry in colonial India crippled the rural • Growth of modern nationalism
economy. in India
• Features of peasant
2017 The women's questions arose in modern India as a
movements in India
part of the 19th-century social reform movement.
• Development of education in
What were the major issues and debates
India
concerning women in that period?
• Development of the Indian
2017 Highlight the importance of the new objectives press during the British rule.
that got added to the vision of Indian • Growth of the left movement
independence since twenties of the last century. • Why the congress accepted the
2016 Explain how the Uprising of 1857 constitutes an partition
important watershed in the evolution of British

policies towards colonial India.
2016 Discuss the role of women in the freedom struggle

especially during the Gandhian phase.
2016 Highlight the differences in the approach of

Subhash Chandra Bose and Mahatma Gandhi in
the struggle for freedom.
2015 How different would have been the achievement

of Indian independence without Mahatma Gandhi?
Discuss.
2015 It would have been difficult for the Constituent

Assembly to complete its historic task of drafting
the Constitution for Independent India in just three
years but for the experience gained with the
Government of India Act, 1935. Discuss.
2014 The third battle of Panipat was fought in 1761.

Why were so many empire-shaking battles fought
at Panipat?
2014 Examine critically the various facets of economic

policies of the British in India from the mid-
eighteenth century till independence.
2014 In what ways did the naval mutiny prove to be the

last nail in the coffin of British colonial aspirations
in India?
2013 Defying the barriers of age, gender and religion,

the Indian women became the torch bearer during
the struggle for freedom in India. Discuss.
2013 Several foreigners made India their homeland and
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participated in various movements. Analyze their
role in the Indian struggle for freedom.
2013 In many ways, Lord Dalhousie was the founder of

modern India. Elaborate.
2013 Discuss the contribution of Maulana Abul Kalam

Azad to pre-and post-independent India.
THEME 3: POST INDEPENDENCE INDIA

2020
Post- 2013 Critically discuss the objectives of Bhoodan and • Reorganization of states:
Independence Gramdan movements initiated by Acharya Vinoba Regional issues
India Bhave and their success. • Land reforms after
2013 Write a critical note on the evolution and independence
significance of the slogan "Jai Jawana Jai Kisan".
2013 Analyze the circumstances that led to the Tashkent

Agreement in 1966. Discuss the highlights of the
agreement.
2013 Critically examine the compulsions which

prompted India to play decisive roles in the
emergence of Bangladesh.
THEME 4: WORLD HISTORY

2020
2019 Explain how the foundations of the modern world • Whether or not the American
were laid by the American and French Revolutions. revolution was truly all that
World History revolutionary
2018 Why indentured labour was taken by the British
from India to other colonies? Have they been able • French revolution
to preserve their cultural identity over there? {outcomes/results/consequenc

es of the french revolution}
2017 What problems were germane to the
• What were the factors involved
decolonization process of the Malay Peninsula.
in the rise and fall of napoleon
2017 The anti-colonial struggles in West Africa were led to power?
by the new elite of Western-educated Africans. • Difference between imperialism
Examine. and colonialism
2015 Why did the industrial revolution first occur in • The first world war
England? Discuss the quality of life of the people • Responsibility of kaiser William-
there during the industrialization. How does it ii of Germany for first world war
compare with that in India at present? • Social implications of the first

world war
2015 To what extent can Germany be held responsible
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for causing the two World Wars? Discuss critically • The league of nation success or
failure
2014 What were the major political, economic and social
developments in the world which motivated the • The Russian revolution
• Bismarck's ideas of German
anti-colonial struggle in India?
unification
2014 What were the events that led to the Suez Crisis in
• Comparison between Bismarck
1956? How did it deal a final blow to Britain's self-
and Cavour
image as a world power?
• Comparison between the Italian
2014 The New Economic Policy – 1921 of Lenin had & German unification
influenced the policies adopted by India soon after • The Korean war
independence. Evaluate.
2013 "Latecomer" Industrial revolution in Japan involved

certain factors that were markedly different from
what west had experience.
2013 Africa was chopped into states artificially created

by accident of European competition. Analyse.
2013 American Revolution was an economic revolt

against mercantilism. Substantiate.
2013 What policy instruments were deployed to contain

the great economic depression?
6
A RT &
A RCHITECTURE
PREHISTORIC ROCK PAINTINGS GENERAL FEATURES OF PREHISTORIC BHIMBETKA
PAINTINGS
The Upper Palaeolithic period witnessed a proliferation
of artistic activities. They employed colors, including various shades
ol white, yellow, orange, red ochre, purple, brown,
• Subjects were confined simple human figures,
to
green, and black .
human activities, geometric designs, and symbols.
o The paints used by these people were made by
• In India, remnants of rock paintings have been found
on the walls of caves situated in several districts
grinding various colored rocks .
of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, o They got red from hematite (Gem in India) .
Teraogana, Karnataka, Kerala, 8 ihar, and Uttarakhand . a Green was prepared from a green-colored rock
• Some of the examples of early rock paintings sites

called Chalcedony .
are lakhudiyar in Uttarakhand, Kupgallu in a White was from Limestone.
Telangana, Piklihal, and Tekkalkotta in Karnataka, d Some sticky substances such as animal lat or gum
Bhimbetka and Jogimara in Madhya Pradesh, oi resin from trees may have been used while
Karrkiyoor rock art in Tamil Nadu, etc. mixing rock powder with water.
• Paintings discovered can be divided into three Brushes were made of plant fiber.
categories: Man, Animal, and Geometric symbols.
It rs believed that these colors remained thousands of
• Bhimbetka Caves represent excellent prehistoric years because of the chemical reaction of the oxide
paintings in India : They consist of nearly 400 painted present on the surface of rocks,
rock shelters in five dusters.
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ART & ARCHITECTURE
* The street lights system, Watch and ward
• Many rock art sites of the new painting are painted on
top of an older painting. In Bhimb-etka, we can see arrangement during the night to oust the
lawbreakers.
nearly 20 layers of paintings, one on top of another .
• Public wells in every street, Well in every house .
• The use of many geometrical patterns is seen.
Main streets varying from 9 feet to as wide as 30- 34
• Scenes were mainly hunting and the economic and feet .
social life of people.
There were covered drains along the road Houses .
The Karikiyoor rock art paintings are approx 5,000 were built on either Side of the roads and streets,
.
years old- it is situated in Kil Kotagirl village Tamil Nadu Each street had a well-organized drain system.
and has been defaced with religious symbols using « No stone- built house in the Indus cities, and the
whitener pens and political messages with chalk. Some staircases of big buildings were solid; the roofs were
couples have carved their names on the rocks, flat and were made of wood.
permanently disfiguring them.
• We find remarkable use of baked bricks and sun-
The Lakhudiyar Caves are located m the Almora dried bricks
district of Uttarakhand. These caves have paintings of
animals, humans and also tectiforms done with fingers
ECONOMY DURING INDUS
in black, red, and white.
VALLEY CIVILIZATION
FEATURES OF TOWN PLANNING The economy of Indus Valley Civilization was based
OF HARAPPAN CITIES upon agriculture as well as trade Commerce was

important , and there were links from overseas places .
• The Indus Valley Civilization was the Bronze Age
AGRICULTURE& ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
civilization ( 2500- 1600 BCE ) extending from what
today is northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and • The furrows discovered in the pre-Harappan phase
at Kalibangan |Rajasthan) indicate that the fields
northwest India.
were ploughed during the Harappan period .
• Since IVC preceded Iron Age. the Harappans were
unaware of the use of iron but used copper, * The Harappans probably used the wooden plough
bronze, silver, and gold .
drawn by oxen and camels .
* Harappan villages, mostly situated neat the flood
• Along with ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, it was
plains, produced sufficient food grains not only for
one of three early civilizations of the world. Its town
planning features are as follows:
their inhabitants but also for the town's people .
* The Indus people produced wheat, barley, rogi, peas,
• Indus Valley Civilization was the first urban center in etc. A substantial quantity of barley was discovered
the region. at Banawali (Haryana ) .
• The Harappans were excellent city planners. The • In addition, sesamum and mustard were grown .
quality of municipal town planning suggests the
• The Indus people were the earliest people to produce
knowledge of urban planning and efficient municipal
cotton , and because of this, the Greeks called the
governments, which placed a high priority on area sin don, which is derived from Ssndh.
drainage
• were raised on a
in Indus Valley Civilization, animals
• The Harappan city was divided into the upper town
called the Citadel (in citadel rich people lived ) and the
.
large scale . Oxen, buffaloes, goacs sheep, and pigs
were domesticated. Humped bulls were favored by
lower town lower Town was the residential area
,
the Harappans. There is evidence of dogs and cats,
where the common people lived . and asses and camels being bred .
• The city srreets were based on a grid system and
oriented east to west. The roads and streets
intersected at right angles.
* The Harappans had commercial links with
Afghanistan and Iran . They set up a trading colony
RAU
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ART & ARCHITECTURE
in northern Afghanistan, which evidently facilitated ►FEATURES OF MAHAYANA &
trade with Central Asia.
HINAYANA
• The Harappans carried on long-distance trade in lapis
lazuli: lapis objects may have contributed to the • Buddhists broke into 2 schools i.e. Theravadi or
social prestige of the ruling class. Sthavira, who became Hinayana, Sarvastivadin or
Mahasanghik, who became Mahayana schools
• The Mesopotamian records from about 2350 BC th
during the 4 Buddhist council.
onwards refer to trade relations with Meluha,
which was the ancient name given to the Indus FEATURES OF MAHAYANA
region. • It was started by Nagarjuna with its prime center in
• The Mesopotamian texts speak of two intermediate Andhra Pradesh.
trading stations called Dilmun and Makan, which lay • Its scriptures are written in Pali.
between Mesopotamia and Meluha. Dilmun is
• They see Buddha as the incarnation of God and
probably identifiable with Bahrain on the Persian
started his idol worship.
Gulf.
• Mahayana attaches importance to the role of
• Archaeologists have discovered a massive, dredged
Bodhisattvas who delay their own salvation in order
canal and what they regard as a docking facility at the
to help others to its path.
probability carried exchanges through a barter
• They believed in the concept of transmigration of
system, i.e., the coastal city of Lothal in western India
soul and rebirth.
(Gujarat).
• It was later divided into two sects i.e., Shunyavaad
and Vigyanvaad.
HETERODOX RELIGIONS th
• In the 8 century, A.D Vajrayana School developed as
an offshoot of the Mahayana school in which Tara is
(BUDDHISM AND JAINISM) considered as wife of Buddha.
• In the early medieval period, a new form of

Mahayana called Mantrayana came up in which
BUDDHISM Bodhisattva Avalokiteshwar began to be
worshipped.
►RELIGIOUS TEACHINGS OF
FEATURES OF HINAYANA
BUDDHISM • Hinayana is also known as Shravakayana.
• Buddhism is based upon triratnas i.e. Buddha, • They saw Buddha as a great soul but not God.
Dhamma, and Sangha. • They were orthodox in nature.
• Buddha propagated Ashtangik marga, also called • Hinayana followers believed in helping themselves
Madhya margra. over others in order to attain salvation.
• He was always silent on the discussion of the • They did not believe in Bhakti and idol worship.
existence of God but believed in rebirth. • Their scriptures are written in Sanskrit.
• Buddha was against the caste system and opened • It was later divided into two sects, i.e., Vaibhashika
the gates of Buddhism for all castes. and Sautrantika.
• He permitted women to be admitted to sangha. • Hinayana sect can be found in Sri Lanka, Burma,
and Java.
• Buddha suggested that when desires are conquered
the nirvana will be attained, which means that a man REASONS FOR THE DECLINE OF BUDDHISM
will become free from the cycle of birth and rebirth. 1. The decline of Buddhist Sanghas. The Sanghas
became centers of corruption. The discipline of
• Buddha's chief disciple was Upali, and his most
Vinay Pitaka was violated.
favorite disciple was Ananda.
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ART & ARCHITECTURE
2. The revival of Brahmanical Hinduism. The rites and • Shvetambars are associated with the region of
rituals of Hinduism were simplified. It also Magadha, who rose under the guidance of
incorporated the Buddhist principle of non- Sthalabahu.
violence and accepted Buddha as a Hindu
• The sub-sects under Svetambaras include
incarnation.
Sthanakavasi and Murtipujaka.
3. Buddhism lost the royal patronage, which it
• Sthānakavāsī is a sect of Jainism founded by a
received during the period of Asoka, Kaniska, and
merchant named Lavaji about 1653 CE that does not
Harshavardhana. The Gupta rulers were great
pray to any statue.
patrons of the Brahmanical religion.
• Śvētāmbarins who are not Sthānakavāsins is
4. Buddhism was divided into a number of groups like
"Hinayana,” "Mahayana” "Vajrayana” "Tantrayana" called Murtipujaka (Idol-worshipers).
and "Sahajayana," and ultimately, it lost its originality. • The monks of Murtipujaka sect are divided into six
5. The Buddhist monks gave up pali and took up orders or Gaccha. These are Kharatara Gaccha,
Sanskrit, the language of intellectuals which was Ancala Gaccha ,Tristutik Gaccha , Tapa Gaccha, Vimala
rarely understood by the common people. So people Gaccha, Parsvacandra Gaccha.
rejected it. • The Digambar is associated with Shravanbelagola
6. The Mahayana Buddhists started worshipping (Karnataka) who rose under the guidance of
Buddha as a God. This image worship was a clear Bhadrabahu. Digambar do not wear clothes.
violation of the Buddhist doctrines, which opposed
• Digambar tradition is divided into two main
the critical rites and rituals of Brahmanical Hinduism.
orders Mula Sangh and the Kashtha Sangh.
7. Northern India was mostly ruled by the Rajputs from
• Mula Sangha is further divided into four major groups
the eight to twelfth century who found great pleasure
known as Nandi Gana, Sena Gana, Deva Gana ,
in fighting. They discarded the Buddhist principle of
and Simha Gana.
non-violence.
• Kashta Sangha too, has several orders including
Nanditat gachchha, Mathura Sangha, Bagada gachha
JAINISM and Lata-bagada gachha.
• In north India, Ujjain and Mathura were important

►RELIGIOUS PHILOSOPHY OF centers of Jainism.
JAINISM • Kankali Tila of Mathura is associated with Jains.
• They believe in Triratnas, i.e., Right Faith, Right • The Chalukyan rulers of Gujarat gave shelter to
Action, and Right Character. Jainism in early medieval period which led to its reach
• Jains texts condemned the sanctity of Vedas and in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
were against animal sacrifices in yagyas.
• Dilwara Temple in Mt. Abu is famous for temples of
• They, however, were silent on the caste system. Adinath, Neminatha and other tirthankaras.
• Most of the Jaina texts are written in Aradhamagadhi
language.
►HOW BUDDHISM AND JAINISM
• Jain monks and nuns practiced Sallekhana, i.e.,
fasting until death.
IMPACTED INDIAN ART FORMS
• Jaina philosophy shares many ideas with the Buddhism and Jainism have played a significant
Sankhya philosophy of Hinduism. influence on the development of various Art Forms in
India.
►TWO SECTS OR SCHOOLS OF  JAINISM

JAINISM
• Jainism has influenced and contributed to many
• Jains are divided into two sects, i.e., Shvetambar artistic spheres in India, such as sculpture,
and Digambar. architecture etc. Modern and medieval Jainas built
many temples, especially in western India. The
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ART & ARCHITECTURE
earliest Jain monuments were temples based on the meditation. In the Buddhist religion, it is believed
Brahmanical Hindu temple plan and monasteries for that a stupa brings enlightenment to the one who
Jain monks. builds and owns it. In addition, the stupa is
JAIN ARCHITECTURE considered a place of worship, and many Buddhists
Modern and medieval Jainas built many temples, complete pilgrimages to significant stupas.
especially in western India. The earliest Jain monuments All stupas have a few features in common; however, they
were temples based on the Brahmanical Hindu temple can vary visually.
plan and monasteries for Jain monks. There are five types of stupas:
• Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves are among the 1. Relic stupas, in which the relics of Buddha and other
earliest Jain monuments. Located near the city of religious persons are buried.
Bhubaneshwar in Orissa, India. These caves are
2. Object stupas, in which the objects belonging to
carved out as residential blocks for Jain monks during
Buddha or his disciples are buried.
the reign of King Kharavela of Kalinga (second
century BCE). They are partly natural and partly 3. Commemorative stupas, built to commemorate
humanmade. They bear inscriptions and sculptures events in the life of Buddha and his disciples.
depicting Tirthankaras, elephants, women etc. 4. Symbolic stupas, built to symbolize various aspects
• The Dilwara Temple complex was built under the of Buddhist theology.
Chalukya rule in Rajasthan between the 11th and 5. Votive stupas, constructed to commemorate visits or
13th centuries CE. It consists of five ornately carved gain spiritual benefits.
marble temples, each dedicated to a different Originally a simple mound of clay or mud, stupas
Tirthankara. The interiors of marble domes are richly evolved from simple funerary monuments to become
carved. elaborately decorated objects of veneration.
JAIN SCULPTURE • Buddhist Rock-Cut Architecture
• Common themes in Jain painting and sculpture are Buddhist rock-cut temples and monasteries were
the Tirthankaras , or saviors; the yakshas and yakshinis, often located near trade routes, and these spaces
or supernatural guardian deities, and symbols such as became stopovers and lodging houses for traders. As
the lotus and the swastika, which represent peace their endowments grew, the interiors of rock-cut
and well-being. temples became more and more elaborate and
• Ayagapata is a type of votive slab or tablet decorated.
associated with worship in Jainism; the slabs are • The Barabar Caves
decorated with objects and designs central to Jain
The Barabar caves in Bihar were built in the
worship. These include the stupa, dharmacakra, and
third century BCE during the Mauryan period credited
triratna.
to Emperor Ashoka. They are the oldest examples of
• A colossal monolithic statue of Bahubali at Buddhist rock-cut architecture. These caves mostly
Shravanbelagola, the Jain siddha (one who has consist of two rooms carved entirely out of granite.
attained spiritual salvation), is one of the most sacred
• The Ajanta Caves
pilgrimage sites for Jain worshipers. The statue was
carved in 981 CE out of a single block of granite; it is The Ajanta caves in Maharashtra are a group of rock-cut
entirely nude, customary in the Jain tradition. caves that span six centuries, beginning in the
second century BCE. They are carved into the hills of the
 BUDDHISM Sahyadri Mountains.
• Buddhist Stupas- It is a mound-like or hemispherical The Ajanta caves are considered masterpieces of
structure containing relics (typically the remains of Buddhist architecture and contain living and sleeping
Buddhist monks or nuns) that is used as a place of quarters, kitchens, monastic spaces, shrines, and stupas.
11
ART & ARCHITECTURE
The residences of monks are called viharas, while • Famous Buddhist literature, like Dipavamsha and
the cave shrines used for worship are called Mahavamsha, gives us details about the history of
chaityas. Buddhism.
There are paintings, and the theme is Buddhist and • Among the old Jain literature, mention may be made
of Bhagawati Sutra, Kalpa Sutra, Parishistha Parvana,
gracefully illustrate the major events of Buddha's life, the
etc.
Jataka tales, etc
• In the Bhagawati Sutra, we find the names of the
• The Ellora Caves
sixteen great states (sodasa mahajanapada) of the
The Ellora caves were built between the fifth and 6th century B.C. The Parishistha Parvana of Hema
tenth centuries. These caves are made up of twelve Chandra gives us different information regarding the
Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain rock-cut temples, Mauryan age.
excavated out of the Charanandri hills. • Kautilya's Arthasastra gives a glimpse of Murayan
The proximity of the temples that belong to different Empire.
religions demonstrates the religious harmony of the • Panini's Astadhyayi, Patanjali's Mahabhashya,
time. The Ellora caves contain many frescoes, reliefs, Sudraka's Mricchakatikam, Kalidasa's
and shrines, including carvings of the Buddha, Raghuvamsam, Kumarasamvawam gives a
bodhisattvas and saints. In many cases the stone is glimpse of Guptas Empire. Malavikagnimitram is
based on events of the reign of Pusyamitra Sunga.
intricately carved to look like wood.
• We have immense historical information by
thoroughly scrutinizing biographical literature by
► IMPORTANCE OF court poets.eg. Harshacharita of Banabhatta.
• Local histories written on different regions of our

INDIGENOUS LITERATURE country. Among these local histories, the most
authentic work is undoubtedly the history of
AND FOREIGN ACCOUNTS Kashmir known as Rajatarangini by
Kalhana.Sangam Literature furnishes us with vast
IN UNDERSTANDING information regarding the social, economic, religious
& political condition of South India.
HISTORY • Sangam Literature furnishes us with vast
information regarding the social, economic,
• Since ancient times, writing has reflected the Culture,
religious, and political conditions of South India. It
lifestyle, socio-political conditions of contemporary
also talks of military exploits in detail. Literary
society.
works like Manimekalai, Kurala, Silappadikaram, etc.
• India has also been a land of travelers, and accounts are a few examples
left by them are instrumental in understanding
FOREIGN ACCOUNTS
society and politics when they visited India.
• Fa Xian visited during Chandragupta II and penned
RELEVANCE OF INDIGENOUS LITERATURE IN
down his impressions about India.
RECONSTRUCTION OF THE HISTORY
• Xuan Zang: wrote about the conditions during the
• The Rig Veda gives us a good deal of information
age of Harshavardhana.
regarding early Indo-Aryan.
• Megasthene's Indica: In this book, Pataliputra's
• Ramayana and the Mahabharata are the two
municipal administration is explained in-depth with
greatest epics of India. These two epics describe the
the six committees of five people each, made up to
social and political lifestyle of the later Vedic Aryans.
look after foreign citizens, births & deaths, industry,
• The stories of Jataka provide varied information etc.
regarding the different aspects of contemporary
society.
12
ART & ARCHITECTURE
• Al-Biruni's Observations in his book Kitab-ul-Hind • Mathura Buddha is delighted in mood, no beard,
range from philosophy, religion, Culture, society to and mustache. Strong muscular features.
science, literature, art, and medicine.
• Buddha’s eyes are open with small ears.
• Ibn Batutta's”Rihla” gave a comprehensive account
• Most of the images are seated.
of cities like Delhi & Daulatabad.
• Major Centres: Mathura, Sonkh and Kankalitila.
• Abdur Razzaq Samarqandi, who visited south India,
has given a vivid account of the Vijaynagar empire.
►TEMPLE
► GANDHARA AND ARCHITECHTURE
MATHURA SCHOOL OF • The first Hindu temples were built from rock-cut
ARTS caves. Then, with the arrival of Gupta architecture,

the first free-standing Hindu temples were
FEATURES OF GANDHARA SCHOOL OF ARTS
constructed.
• It had grown around Peshawar (Presently in • The architectural principles of temples in India are
Pakistan) in Northwest India. described in Shilpa Shastra. Shilpa Shastra mentions
• This school was patronized by both Shaka and three main type of temple architecture - Nagara or
Kushan rulers. the Northern style, the Dravida or the Southern
style & the Vesara or Mixed style.
• It is a style of Buddhist visual art.
BASIC FEATURES OF HINDU TEMPLES
• This school use grey sandstone, stucco (lime
plaster). • Shikhara is a vital element of Hindu temples in both
north and south India. They are miniature temple
• It has Hellenistic features of Buddha image.
towers placed one on top of the other.
• Spiritual Buddha Images, minute attention being
• Major elements of Hindu temple architecture are:
given to physical features with wavy hair and has
• Grabhagriha : where the idol is placed
Beard and mustache. Overall a Lean body.
• Mandapa: pillared hall which lies in front of
• Buddha’s eyes are half-closed, and ears are large.
Garbhagriha
• Both seated and standing images are found.
• Ardhmandapa: lies next to mandapa
• Major centers of Gandhara School of art were
• Antarala: joins Garbhagriha and Mandapa
Jalalabad (Eastern Afghanistan), Hadda (an ancient
• Pradakshinapatha: it is a gallery that surrounds
region of Gandhara), Begram (Parwan province of
Garbhagriha meant for Parikrama.
Afghanistan), and Taxila (Pakistan).
• The earliest temple structure includes Lad Khan
FEATURES OF MATHURA SCHOOL OF ARTS
temple, Aihole, which has a towering shikhara.
• Developed in and around Mathura.
• Anomaly: Teli ka mandir situated in north India is
• This school was patronized by Kushan rulers. made in Dravidian style with a Dravidian shikhara.
• It deals with subjects from Hinduism (both Vaishnav • Many Hindu temples are made in the Panchayatana
and Shavite images) and Jainism as well. style, i.e., a temple that has a central shrine
• This school used red stone for making the surrounded by four other shrines. Examples include
sculptures. Brahmeshvara temple, Orissa, Deogarh, Jhansi, and

Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh.
• The Buddha image at Mathura is modeled on the
• In Mahabalipuram rathas sculpture of Arjuna’s
lines of earlier Yaksha images.
penance and descent of Ganga are depicted. A
panel shows Varaha avatar surrounded by Surya,
13
ART & ARCHITECTURE
Brahma, Rishis and Prithvi. A great masterpiece is fierce battle with the buffalo headed demon.
the carving showing goddess Durga engaged in a
►NAGARA STYLE OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
►DRAVIDA STYLE OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
NAGARA STYLE OF DRAVIDA STYLE OF TEMPLE gateway in its center,
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE ARCHITECTURE which is known as

a gopuram.
It developed from the From the 7th century, the
5th century and is Dravida or southern style The garbhagriha is Unlike Nagara style, at some
characterized by a developed. The shape of the always located of the most sacred temples
beehive-shaped tower main temple tower, known directly under the in South India, the main
called shikhara. as Vimana, is like a stepped tallest tower. temple in which the
pyramid. garbhagriha is situated

has, in fact, one of the
In North India, it is Generally, it is not built on smallest towers.
common for an entire a stone platform.
temple to be built on Temple tanks or large It is common to find a
a stone platform with water reservoir are large water reservoir, or a
steps leading upto it. generally not enclosed temple tank, enclosed
with in the temple within the complex.
Further, unlike in Unlike the Nagara temple, complex
South India, it does the Dravida temple is
not usually have enclosed within Images of Goddesses Sculptures of fierce
elaborate boundary a compound wall. The Ganga and Yamuna are dvarapalas or guarding the
walls or gateways. front wall has an entrance placed outside the temple is generally a
14
ART & ARCHITECTURE
Garbhagriha. common feature. the Antarala. So, the temples do not have ambulatory
passageways around Sanctum Sanctorum.
Examples- Kandariya Examples - Shore temple
• Examples- Ladkhan Temple at Aihole, Temples at
Mahadeva (Khajuraho), (Mahabalipuram),
Badami.
Jagannath Temple (Puri), Brihadesvara temple
Dashavatara temple (Thanjavur), Meenakshi
(Deogarh). Temple (Madurai) ►KALINGA STYLE OF TEMPLE
ARCHITECTURE
►VESARA STYLE OF TEMPLE • In Kalinga Architecture, basically a temple is made in
two parts, a tower and a hall.
ARCHITECTURE
• The tower is called deula and the hall is called
• The Vesara style emerged during the reign of jagmohan.
Chalunkyan Rulers.
• The walls of both the deula and the jagmohan are
• It is a hybrid temple architecture. It has features of lavishly sculpted with architectural motifs and a
both the Nagara and Dravidian style of temple profusion of figures. The most repeated form is the
architecture. horseshoe shape, which has come from the earliest
• It is mainly found in Deccan and Central India regions. times, starting with the large windows of the chaitya-
• Though the trend of the Vesara Style of temples grihas. It is the deul or deula which makes three
started by the Chalukyan Rulers, it flourished during distinct types of temples in Kalinga Architecture.
the Rashtrakutas Period. • The style consists of three distinct types of temples:
• The main important feature of the Vesara Style is that Rekha Deula, Pidha Deula and Khakhara Deula.
they have Northern Indian Style (Nagara Style) The former two are associated with Vishnu, Surya and
of Shikhara , and the Mandap was designed in Shiva temples while the third is mainly with
Southern Indian Style (Dravidian Style). Chamunda and Durga temples.
• In the Vesara Style of temples Shikhara (top of the

temple) and Mandap (main shrine) are joint by
15
ART & ARCHITECTURE
►SCULPTURAL TRADITIONS IN • Unfortunately, it is in a damaged condition, but it still

reflects the great mastery with all its vitality and
ANCIENT INDIA
grace.
The phases of sculpture making in Ancient India can be
METAL SCULPTURES
broadly divided into 5 phases:
Bronze casting was practiced in a wide-scale in almost all
1) Indus Valley Civilization Phase
major sites of civilization. The technique used for Bronze
2) Buddhist Phase/Mauryan Phase Casting was the Lost Wax Technique OR Cire Perdue.
3) Post-Mauryan phase 1) Bronze dancing girl: It depicts a female dancer whose
4) Gupta Phase one arm is covered with ivory or bone bangles and is
adorned with necklaces standing in a tribhanga
5) South Indian Phase
position. Braided hair, head slightly tilted back, flat
 INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION nose, and large eyes are the salient features of this
work. It is a 4-inch figure
The beginning of stone sculpture in India goes back to a
2) Bronze buffalo & humped bull.
very remote age. The Indus Valley or Harappan Culture
flourished from C.2500 B.C. to 1500 B.C. The discovery of In the Lost Wax technique, initially, the figure needed is
statues, figurines of men and women in terracotta, made of wax and covered it with clay. After that, the clay
stone, and metal, seals indicate that people of the time is allowed to dry, and the whole thing is heated so that
had a vivid imagination and a profound artistic sense. the wax inside the clay melts. The molten wax was then
There were three types of sculptures found there, which drained out through a tiny hole made in the clay part.
are Stone sculptures, Metal sculptures, and Terracotta The hollow mold of the clay thus created was filled with
sculptures. molten metal. Once it cooled, the clay cover was

completely removed. Human as well as animal figures,
STONE SCULPTURES
were made by Bronze casting.
1. Bearded Nobleman (Priest Man, Priest-King):
TERRACOTTA SCULPTURES
• The figure was made of Steatite.
1. Mother Goddess:
• The figure has been interpreted as a priest who is
• It was discovered in Mohen-jo-Daro is one of the
draped in a shawl coming under the right arm and
significant terracotta sculptures of this age.
covering the left shoulder. His shawl is decorated with
trefoil patterns. • It reveals the concept of the Mother Goddess as a
sign of prosperity and fertility.
• He has a short cut mustache and a short beard and
whiskers. Hair is parted in the middle, and a plain- • These figures are usually crude standing figures
woven fillet is passed around the head. Adorned with necklaces hanging over the prominent
breast and wearing a loincloth and a grid.
• An armlet on the right hand and holes around the
neck suggest a necklace. SEALS
2. Male Torso • Many seals of different shapes and sizes were found
in the Indus Valley Civilisation. The seals were usually
• Found in Harappa (only major art element found in
made of steatite ( soft stone found in river beds) and
Harappa).
also of other materials like copper, faience, terracotta,
• Made of Red Sandstone. chert, ivory, or gold. Various human and animal
• There are socket holes in the neck and shoulders for figures were made on the seals, and they were
the attachment of head and arms primarily used for commercial, identification, or
• Legs are broken. educational purposes.
16
ART & ARCHITECTURE
• Terracotta seals were also manufactured. These seals WHAT DOES IT TELL US ABOUT THE INDUS VALLEY
included the carvings of peepal leaves, a female CIVILISATION?
figurine with forms of deities and animals. All these It can be easily deciphered that the people of this
definite & distinct shapes of stones or seals were civilization were great lovers of the fine arts,
enshrined and worshipped during that time by people especially of dancing, painting, and creating
of civilization. Some of these seals also depicted sculptures. The forms of art include various sculptures,
a harp-like musical instrument, which confirms the seals, pottery, gold jewellery, terracotta figures, and
presence of stringed musical instruments that were in other interesting works of art. The level of achievement
use in this ancient civilization. The seals show the that Indian art had attained in those days can be marked
Culture and civilization of the Indus Valley people. In with mainly two objects that were excavated from the
particular, they indicate: ruins of the Indus valley.
1. Dresses, ornaments, hair-styles of people.
 THE BUDDHIST/MAURYAN PHASE
2. Skill of artists and sculptors.
The earliest historical sculpture in India is of the
3. Trade contacts and commercial relations.
TH RD
Mauryan age in the 4 -3 centuries B.C. It is a bold and
4. Religious beliefs.
massive style marked by an absolute realism freely
SOME OF THE IMPORTANT SEALS ARE MENTIONED employing foreign elements from Achaemenid
BELOW: Persia. The Mauryan sculptures can be differentiated
• Seals of Pashupati Mahadeva into Court art and Popular Art. The Court art includes
the pillars and their capitals, while popular art
Made of steatite, it was found in Mohenjo-Daro. It
consists of the works of sculptors such as the
depicts a human figure seated in a cross-legged
Yakshas and Yakshinis.
position. An elephant and a tiger are depicted to the
right side of the figure, while on the left, a rhinoceros Maurya Court Art includes the Ashokan Palace at
and a buffalo are seen. Two antelopes (deer) are Kumrahar, whose walls are decorated with carvings and
shown below the seat (nearby his feet). The figure has sculptures.
a three-horned head. Pillars: During Ashokan times, the pillars were built or
This seal may throw light on the religion of the inscribed as the symbol of the state or to
Harappan age. Most of these seals have a knob at the commemorate battle victories or to spread sermons.
back through which runs a hole, and it is believed that The most important function of the Mauryan pillars was
they were used by different guilds or merchants and to impress and over-awe the populace with the power
traders for stamping purposes. When not in use, they and majesty of its rulers. This is evident from the
could be worn around the neck or the arm like an compactness of the solid animal figures, their
amulet. exaggerated forms, and their conventional appearances,
also the most imposing stateliness of the columns.
• The Unicorn Seal
Lion Capital at Sarnath, Pillar at Vaishali, Asoka Pillar at
The unicorn is a mythological animal. This seal shows
Allahabad, and Pillars at Lauriya-Areraj and Lauriya-
that at a very early stage of civilization, humans had
Nandangar are some of the important pillars.
produced many creations of imagination in the shape
of bird and animal motifs that survived in later art. LION CAPITAL AT SARNATH
• The Bull Seal 1. The Lion Capital discovered more at Sarnath, near
Varanasi, is generally referred to as Sarnath Lion
This seal depicts a humped bull of great vigor. The
Capital. It was Built-in 250 BCE and is made of
figure shows the artistic skill and a good
polished sandstone.
knowledge of animal anatomy.
2. It is now our national symbol, is considered to be
the finest example of Mauryan sculptural tradition.
17
ART & ARCHITECTURE
3. It is one of the finest examples of sculpture from • Major Pillar Edict II: Defines dhamma as a minimum
Mauryan period and was built by Ashoka in of sins, many virtues, compassion, liberality,
commemoration of ‘Dhammachakrapravartana’ or truthfulness, and purity
the first sermon of Buddha. • Major Pillar Edict III: Abolishes sins of harshness,
• Originally it consists of five components: cruelty, anger, pride etc.
1. The pillar shaft. • Major Pillar Edict IV: Deals with duties of Rajukas.
2. The lotus bell or base. • Major Pillar Edict V: A list of animals and birds which
3. A drum on the bell base with four animals proceeding should not be killed on some days, and another list of
clockwise (abacus). The abacus has four wheels animals which have not to be killed at all occasions.
(chakra) with 24 spokes in all four directions. The Describes the release of 25 prisoners by Asoka.
wheel represents Dharmachakra in Buddhism (the • Major Pillar Edict VI: Dhamma Policy
wheel of dhamma/dharma). Between every wheel, • Major Pillar Edict VII: Works done by Asoka for
there are animals carved. They are a bull, a horse, an Dhamma Policy. He says that all sects desire both self-
elephant, and a lion. The animals appear as if they control and purity of mind.
are in motion. The abacus is supported by the
The Ashokan inscriptions on the Allahabad Pillar
inverted lotus capital.
(along with inscriptions elsewhere) was pivotal to
4. A figure of four majestic addorsed (back to back) the decipherment of the Brahmi script by The Asiatic
lions on a circular abacus. The figures of the lions are Society's James Prinsep. It led to the rediscovery of the
grand and evoke magnificence. Mauryan emperor and the unearthing of the full extent
5. The crowning element, Dharamchakra. of his empire.
PILLAR AT VAISHALI The same six edicts that can be seen on the other pillars.
The Asokan pillar at Vaishali is different from the the Allahabad pillar also includes what is known as
earlier Ashokan pillars because it has only one lion the Schism edict (orders to the maha mantras or
capital. The location of this pillar is contiguous to the officials) and the Queen's edict (refers to the charitable
site where a Buddhist monastery and a sacred deeds of Ashoka's queen, Karuvaki)
coronation tank stood. The lion faces north; the Samudragupta inscriptions on the Allahabad Pillar: A
direction Buddha took on his last voyage. There is also a later inscription by Samudragupta is considered "the
small tank here known as Ramkund. Ashoka became a most important historical document of the classical
great follower of Buddhism after the massacre of Gupta age." It is in excellent Sanskrit by his court poet,
Kalinga and erected his famous Ashokan pillar in Harishena who mentions Samudragupta’s military
Vaishali, which was to memorialize the last sermon of and political conquests and his invasion of South
Lord Buddha that took place here. India.
ASHOKAN PILLAR AT ALLAHABAD Jahangir inscriptions on the Allahabad Pillar: It was
The Allahabad pillar is also called Ashoka Stambha. carved by his favorite calligrapher, Mir Abdullah Mushkin
There are three sets of inscriptions on the column from Qalam, and is in Persian. The Jahangir inscription
the three emperors, Ashoka Maurya, Samudragupta , overwrites the much older Ashoka inscription.
and Jahangir. Pillars at Lauriya-Areraj and Lauriya-Nandangarh also
The Ashokan edicts are as follows: contain the Ashokan edicts.
1)The pillar edicts include: YAKSHAS AND YAKSHINIS
• Major Pillar Edict I: Asoka’s principle of protection of The popular art in Maurya period is represented by
the people images of Yakshas and Yakshinis. They have many

different depictions:
18
ART & ARCHITECTURE
1) Yaksha refers to the nature-spirits, usually • Elephant sculpture at Dhauli: Dhauli is located in
benevolent, also known fertility spirits. A yakshini the ancient city of Kalinga, which was captured by
is the female counterpart of the male Yaksha. emperor Ashoka after bloody warfare and a lot of loss
2) Both Yaksha and Yakshini are said to attend to of life. The rock-cut elephant is one of the oldest
Kubera, the Hindu god of wealth who rules in the carved structures of the Mauryan empire with the
mythical Himalayan kingdom of Alaka. elephant facing east.
3) Yaksha also refers to one of the Exotic Tribes of

 POST MAURYAN PHASE
Ancient India.
• After the decline of the Mauryan Empire in the second
4) Yakshas and Yakshinis are also said to be the
century BC, various rulers controlled the regions
caretakers of the natural treasures. They have a
which were once under the Mauryas, like the
prominent place in the Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist
Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas, and Guptas in the north
literature.
and central India; and the Satavahanas, Abhiras,
• Didarganj Yakshini: The Yakshi embodies close-to- Ikshvakus, and Vakatakas in the south and western
perfect standards of feminine beauty of ancient India.
India and is one of the best sculptures of modern
• During this time, three different schools of
times.
sculpture developed in 3 different regions of India.
A comparative study of them is done below:
FACTORS GANDHARA MATHURA AMARAVATI
Where did it Northwest Frontier of India, In On the banks of the River In the Krishna-Godavari and
develop? Pakistan near Peshawar and Yamuna, in Mathura and near Amravati and
Afghanistan. areas. Nagarjunkonda.
Who were the Kushana rulers like Kanishka. Kushana rulers Satavahana rulers
patron kings?
Which religion Buddhism Hinduism, Buddhism, and Buddhism

influenced it? Jainism.
What were the It has a lot of Greek influence No influence and is No influence and is
external factors and is also called Greco- Indian completely indigenous. completely indigenous.
that influenced school of art or Hellenistic
it? sculpture.
What material is Blueish-grey sandstone Spotted red sandstone White marble

it composed of?
Features of the • Buddha is in spiritual state • Buddha is in a delighted These sculptures are part of
Buddhist with eyes half-closed and mood with a smiling face narrative art, and thus there
sculpture? seated like a yogi. • Seated gracefully in is less emphasis on the
• Hair is wavy padmasana individual features of

Buddha. It depicts the life
• Body is muscular
stories of Buddha and the
Jataka tales.
19
ART & ARCHITECTURE
 SCULPTURES OF THE GUPTA AGE • Secular images were also made in the form of
female images, trees, animals, and birds.
Gupta sculpture thus is the logical outcome of the
• The sculptures at Amaravati have a profound and
early classical sculpture of Amravati and Mathura.
quiet naturalism in human, animal, and floral forms.
During this phase, the use of cream-colored sandstone
• The popular and famous Chaitya hall built at Karle
and the use of metal was done. All these sculptures
is another example of the magnificence of
were dressed well without any form of nakedness.
Satavahana Sculptures. The human figures are
E.g., Sultanganj Buddha is the largest substantially slender & slightly elongated.
complete copper Buddha figure known from the time. • Eroticism is also a predominant feature of these
He is shown standing in abhayamudra, assuring Satavahana sculptures.
protection. His hair is curled, and He is smiling with eyes • White marble was extensively used for making
half-closed. He is well dressed with graceful ornaments. images.
The stone carving from the temples at Deogarh and • There are few Jataka scenes such as the Shibi,
those from the temples of Udayagiri and Ajanta are Nalagiri and Chhadanta Jatakas.
excellent specimens of figure sculpture in their • The Amaravati school had started the practice of
decorative setting. The large panel of Sheshashayi depicting the Buddha as a divine being & receiving
Vishnu from the Deogarh temple, representing the worship.
Supreme being slumbering wakefully on the • The Satavahana rulers are remarkable for their
serpent Ananta, the symbol of eternity, in the interval contributions to Buddhist art & architecture. They
between the dissolution of the universe and its new reflected the best and supreme quality in each area of
creation, is a magnificent example. cave temples & architecture.
►BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE ►DIFFERENCE BETWEEN

DURING SATVANA RULE CLASSICAL AND FOLK DANCE
• During their rule in South India from 2nd century B.C. • Natyashastra is the primary source of knowledge
to 2nd Century A.D Satvahana studded their empire of classical dance. Classical dance is different from
with several splendid monuments. The school of Folk dance in the following manner.
Buddhist art belonging to Satvahanas was known • Classical dance is a broad term used to refer to a
as the Amaravati School of Art. Features of group of dance form which can trace their origin
Amaravati School of Art: to the Natya Shastra, but folk dance is the kind of
• In the Satavahana phase, many Chaityas and Viharas dance that is developed by the people reflecting their
were cut out of the solid rocks. The most famous of lives, often to the local/folk music.
them is Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda. • Classical dance forms are well developed in terms
• Ashokan Stupas were enlarged, the earlier bricks & of their technique and execution. It follows the Guru-
woodwork being replaced with stone works. The most Shishya tradition. Folk dances are common people’s
famous of these monuments are the stupas, dances. The steps are just picked up as they mirror
the region & lifestyle of the local people.
• Most famous among them being the Amravati Stupa
& the Nagarjunakonda Stupa. • Classical dances are performed by professionals.
Folk dances are Performed by common people.
• The stupas at Amaravati are predominantly made of a
distinctive white marble. • There are 8 classical Dances in India, Bharatnatyam
(Tamil Nadu), Mohiniattam (Kerala), Kuchipudi (A.P),
• Amravati is full of sculptures depicting various scenes
Manipuri (Manipur), Odissi (Odishsa), Kathak (North
from the life of Buddha.
India), Sattriya (Assam) & Kathakali (Kerala).
• At Amravati, there is a beautiful scene showing
• There are more than 30 folk dances in India. Some
Buddha’s feet being worshipped.
of the most famous folk dances of India are Kalbelia,
20
ART & ARCHITECTURE
Rouff, Chari, Ghoomer, Fire, Kacchi Gori Dance, Garba • During Harsha, the same Gupta education pattern
, Bihu, Lavani, Dandiya and Bhangra. continued.
• In the sphere of morals and discipline, the education

►EVOLUTION OF EDUCATION system has enriched human life considerably.
SYSTEM IN ANCIENT INDIA

►CONTRIBUTION OF MUGHALS TO
India has a rich tradition of learning and education right
since ancient times, handed over generations to INDIAN PAINTING
generations either through the oral or written medium. The Mughals took a keen interest in paintings and
EVOLUTION OF EDUCATION SYSTEM patronized various painters, which reflected Indo-
• In India, the education system had developed since Persian synthesis. Originating from the time of Babur,
the times of the Indus Valley as the literary the art of Mughal painting flourished with the time.
records support it. Paintings of the Mughal Era depict various themes
• However, the Education process had begun with ranging from fables of Persian literature to Hindu
the Vedic period, according to Vedic sources like Mythology, like portraits of the royalty, details of the
Smriti, Upanishad in the form of Gurukula system. court life, wildlife, hunting scenes, and battle
They taught practical subjects such as self-discipline, illustrations. Many of the paintings produced are now
self-control, respecting elders, hospitality, and moral housed at various museums around the world.
values.The aim of this was to develop an ethical

mental character along with physical development.
GROWTH OF THE MUGHAL PAINTING UNDER
No fees were collected from students. VARIOUS MUGHAL EMPERORS
Gurudakshina was the only service to the teacher. The BABUR
centers were established as mattas in forest, pupil
Although a great lover of art, Babur could not contribute
from distant parts reached there to learn. Important
towards this art as he mostly remained busy in waging
Gurukuls during Vedic period was of Sage Valmiki,
war.
Rishi Kanva’s Gurukul in the 6th century AD.
HUMAYUN
• Education underwent few changes when Buddha
& Mahavira became wandering teachers who The foundation of Mughal painting was laid by Humayun
reached to the students and taught social lessons during his exile from India in Persia and Afghanistan.
of not killing animals, not harming others, not Two of Persia’s greatest painters Mir Sayyid Ali and
indulging in adultery, etc. Abdus Samad came with him to Delhi.
• The private education system also existed, where rich AKBAR

merchants took education. Under his rule, the Mughal painting evolved and
• During Mauryas, the education system further developed at a rapid pace. Akbar ordered the creation of
underwent changes as teacher selected students many paintings and also paid close attention to the final
according to their mental capacity as the concept output of all these artworks. He was very particular
of knowledge was related to education. about the details and the artistic elements involved.
• Gradually during Gupta’s, with the establishment More than 100 painters were recruited from different
of schools and universities, common men got parts of India, which include Daswant, Basawan,
attracted to education. Nalanda University, Taxila Keshav, and Farrukh Beg. Some of the finest paintings
University, etc., became a prominent center are also found in the ‘Akbarnama’, written by Abul Fazl.
during Gupta’s, which included only male pupils. He commissioned a number of massive painting
Though education was not denied, women's projects, which include Tutinama (an episodic Persian
education was much lower. story divided into 52 parts), Hamzanama, (which
• Hieun Tsang (Chinese Traveller) got educated at narrated the legend of Amir Hamza), Gulistan, Darab
Nalanda, and he mentions a special chapter of Nama, etc.
education in India.
21
ART & ARCHITECTURE
JAHANGIR WHAT ARE THE CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS
It is generally stated that during Jahangir’s time, the art FOR THE PROTECTION OF THE RICH CULTURAL
of painting reached its climax. He was not only HERITAGE OF INDIA?
interested in painting but also a good judge of art.
• The Preservation of National Heritage is a duty
Jahangir attracted many artists at his court.
imposed by the Constitution of India under Article 51
Painting became almost an industry with a fine regard A, Fundamental Duties, - It states that- ‘It shall be
for the division of labor. One artist drew the outline of the duty of every citizen of India to value and
scenes of men and animals; the specialist in landscape preserve the rich heritage of our composite
drew the background; the colorist filled the colors. culture.’
Sometimes four or five artists worked on a single • The Constitution has also provided for the protection
painting. Manohar and Basawan excelled in portrait of monuments under Article 49 of the Constitution,
painting, Mansur specialized in painting rare animals Directive Principle of State Policy, wherein -
and birds, and Abul Hasan was an expert in designing a Protection of Monuments and Places and Objects
colour scheme. of National Importance – ‘It shall be the obligation
of the State to protect every monument or place or
European art also attracted Jahangir. He ordered his
object of artistic or historic interests, declared by or
painters to follow the single point perspective used by
under law made by Parliament to be of national
European artists. As a result, most of the Mughal
importance, from spoliation, disfigurement,
paintings commissioned by Jahangir had finer brush
destruction, removal, disposal or export, as the case
strokes and lighter colors. One of the major projects
may be.’
commissioned by him was the ‘Jahangirnama.’ It was an
For the protection of art, architecture, and cultural
autobiography of Jahangir, and it consisted of several
heritage of India, The Ministry of Culture has also
paintings that included unusual themes, such as fights
made many schemes and initiatives which are as
between spiders.
follows:
SHAH JAHAN
1) The Ministry of Culture has formulated a Scheme
He was more interested in architecture and titled “Scheme for Safeguarding the Intangible
neglected painting. He reduced the number of court Heritage and Diverse Cultural Traditions of India”
painters; however, Mughal painting continued to expand with the objective of reinvigorating and revitalizing
during his rule. The paintings that were displayed in the various institutions, groups, individuals, identified
court became increasingly rigid and formal. However, he non-MOC institutions, non-government
commissioned a large number of paintings meant to be organizations, researchers, and scholars so that they
his personal collection. These paintings were based on may engage in activities/ projects for strengthening,
themes like gardens and pictures that gave great protecting, preserving and promoting the rich
aesthetic pleasure. He also ordered many works that intangible cultural heritage of India.
portrayed lovers in intimate positions. The Scheme covers Performing arts, Social practices,
One of the most important works produced during his rituals and festive events, knowledge, and practices
reign was the ‘Padshanama.’’ which narrated the concerning nature and the universe, traditional
craftsmanship, etc.
achievements of the King, contained several paintings of
the courtiers and servants as well. 2) The ministry gives out various awards recognizing
excellence in the field of art like awards by the
AURANGZEB
Sahitya Academy and Sangeet Natak Akademy.
Aurangzeb’s lack of interest in painting reduced all the
3) A portal has been created by the Archeological
more the number of court painters. Several artists
Survey of India, which notifies “Must-see
dismissed from his court found shelter in the courts of
Munoments and Archeaological Sites of India.’
several Hindu and Muslim provincial rulers. It resulted
This will highlight the magnificent and outstanding
in the development of regional painting traditions in
monuments in India.
Rajasthan and the Punjab hills (Pahari Painting).
22
ART & ARCHITECTURE
4) The National Virtual Library has been created to They can also be educated and made concerned about
bring together all the information on India’s rich the decorating conditions, which will prove to be
heritage. beneficial in creating awareness among the masses.
5) The conservation portal of the ASI: It is also a The cultural sector of the government can be
tracking portal that checks all the conservation and liberalized and can be entrusted to private entities,
developmental works that are done in India. Satellite universities, and NGOs. Government agencies can
mapping of ASI monuments is also done by the have a supervisory role. This will heighten the
Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO). conservation standards.
6) The retrieval of stolen antiques from abroad: Sourcing of materials locally for the conservation and
Example: The bronze Nataraja and the stone object of repair of these monuments will increase employment
Ardhnarishwara from Australia have been retrieved, opportunities and also will result in economic gain.The
and some objects like the seated image of Buddha, conservation works need to be coupled with urban
Pratayangira, and the Buddha panel are in the improvements, improved transport infrastructure,
process of return. improving health, education, and sanitation
7) PROJECT MAUSAM: This project is an initiative of the infrastructure.
Ministry Of Culture. The nodal agency for project Funding that comes from the Central Government
Mausam is the Archeological Survey of India. The can also be supplemented by the state Government
project aims to explore the multi-faceted Indian and private businesses. This can be done by levying
Ocean ‘world.’ It will correlate archeological and taxes and creating prohibition zones near the
historical research to document the rich diversity of monuments.
Culture, commerce, and religious interaction in the
Indian Ocean area.
►TANGAM LANGUAGE
8) Swachh Smarak: under it, ASI Protected Historical
WHO ARE THE TANGAMS?
Monuments and Archeological Sites are declared
Polythene Free Zones.Rs.350 crores was provided • Recently, the Chief Minister of Arunachal Pradesh has
to it by the Government, and important Sites were released a book titled “Tangams: An Ethnolinguistic
categorized as ‘Adarsh’ Sites. Study Of The Critically Endangered Group of
9) The Sanskriti App: It is the mobile App to view the Arunachal Pradesh”.
cultural events of India like music, dance, theatre. • The Tangams are a little-known community within
Literature, Film shows, etc. the larger Adi tribe of Arunachal Pradesh and
10) A Cultural Scheme Monitoring System (CSMS) was reside in the hamlet of Kugging in Upper Siang
launched, and Cultural Mapping was also done. district’s Paindem circle. Tangams were now
This was done to preserve, promote, explore, and concentrated in only one village (Kugging), with 253
share India’s Culture and heritage along with its reported speakers.
ethos and values for the benefit of mankind.
• Tangam is an oral language that belongs to the
11) Digitalization: A digital collection of pictures and Tani group, under the greater Tibeto-Burman
videos have been created and is available for public language family.
viewing.
• It has been marked ‘critically endangered’ by
12) Rashtriya Sanskriti Mahotsav: They are organized the UNESCO World Atlas of Endangered
on a yearly basis to showcase India’s cultural Languages (2009).
heritage. Celebration of ‘Festivals of India’ abroad
WHY ARE THE LANGUAGES AT RISK?
also showcased India’s folk dances and classical
dances, Indian cuisine and India’s talented artist in The diversity of languages has led various communities
the countries where they were held. to depend on English, Assamese and colloquial variety of
WAY FORWARD Hindi called Arunachalee Hindi as the link languages.

Many believe this shift has led to loss of native
More cultural events can be organized, which will
languages of the tribal communities.
make the trip to these places exciting for the visitors.
23
ART & ARCHITECTURE
Main reasons for its Decline are as follows: • Onam: Onam is a legendary harvest festival of Kerala
• Smaller languages are more vulnerable, and their celebrated with great enthusiasm in different parts of
extinction is directly proportional to population. Kerala. The festival is celebrated for 10 days with the
• They (Tangams) have become multilingual over arrival of Mahabali.
time to communicate with their neighbours. • Magha Bihu: In Assam and many parts of the North
• They rarely speak their own language now East, the festival of Magha Bihu is celebrated. It sees
because their population is restricted to a single the first harvest of the season being offered to the
village. Moreover, they are relatively unknown even gods along with prayers for peace and prosperity.
within the state so there was no possibility of its
• Uttarayan: Gujarat celebrates it in the form of the
expansion.
convivial kite festival of Uttarayan.
• Lack of Development and Infrastructure: The
IMPORTANCE OF HARVEST FESTIVALS
village lacks proper infrastructure in all basic sectors
of education, health, drinking water facilities, road, • Harvest festivals are believed to be the oldest forms
and electricity. Not a single person from the of festivals around the world. They are a way of
community has gone to a university. thanking the nature for the bounty it offers in the
form of new crops.
►HARVEST FESTIVALS AND ITS • Since India is a land of great biodiversity, different
IMPORTANCE states celebrate a large number of harvest festivals.
DIFFERENT HARVEST FESTIVALS • For a country largely dependent on agriculture,

harvest becomes one of the most important events
• Makar Sankranti: The festival of Makar Sankranti is
across the nation. Lohri, Makar Sankranti, Baisakhi,
celebrated in Karnataka when the Sun enters the
Onam, Pongal are some of them.
Makar zodiac and the days begin to lengthen
compared to nights. • Harvest festivals are not just about celebrating the
ripe crops but also an important astronomical
• Maghi: In Punjab, Makar Sankranti is celebrated as
change going on in the solar system.
Maghi. Bathing in a river in the early hours on Maghi
is important. • They are considered to be auspicious periods and
hence are marked with celebrations and prayers.
• Saaji: In Shimla District of Himachal Pradesh, Makara
Sankranti is known as Magha Saaji. Saaji is the Pahari
word for Sankranti, start of the new month. Hence ►BHAKTI MOVEMENT AS SOURCE
this day marks the start of the month of Magha. OF SOCIAL AND CULTURAL
• Nuakhai: Nuakhai is an age old harvest celebration in REVOLUTION
Odisha. Locally ‘nua’ means new and ‘khai’ means
REVOLUTION DURING THE MEDIEVAL TIMES.
food.The festival is also known as Nuakhai Parab or
Nuakhai Bhetghat. • Bhakti means devotion to God which signifies
complete surrender of oneself to God without any
• Gudi Padwa: Gudi Padwa is a grand harvest festival
expectation and to attain a state of blissful.
of Maharashtra marking the beginning of an
auspicious New Year. People make rangoli designs at • The Salient features of Bhakti movement are:
the entrance of their homes and decorate it with ο Promoted monotheism

flowers and a handmade doll. ο Require Guru through which direction can be
• Pongal: In South India and particularly in Tamil Nadu, achieved
it’s the festival of Pongal which is being celebrated ο Criticised caste, varna, occupation, sacrifices,
over 4 days at harvest time. rituals and ceremonies.
24
ART & ARCHITECTURE
ο Promoted vernacular languages to bring
teachings closer to the masses and united people
across India.
ο No gender discrimination, female saints were

also there as Meera bai (Rajasthan), Lal Didi
(Kashmir), etc.
• Hence Bhakti movement acted as source of social

and cultural revolution, as it:
ο United all sections of the people.
ο Followed no discrimination policy, eg. Kabir was

weaver, Surdas was untouchable, etc.
ο Promoted the increment in cattle wealth as

sacrifices decreased.
ο Promoted concept of monotheism so communal

tensions reduces.
ο Devotional music and bhajans emerged which

united people.
ο People gradually forgot social barriers of caste,

untouchability, slavery in society.
• The bhakti tradition continues in a modified version

even in the present day.
25
Section-2
MPORTANT
ISTORICAL
ERSONALITIES
►DR. B R AMBEDKAR • However became the first Indian to get a Doctorate
(PhD) degree in Economics from abroad and is the
Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar Popularly known as Baba Saheb
only Indian whose statue is attached with Karl Marx in
was the Principal Architect of Indian Constitution
the London Museum.
because he was the Chairman of the Drafting Committee
WHY IN NEWS?
of the Constituent Assembly and was a scholar par
st
excellence, a jurist, an idealistic, an emancipator and real 100 years of Mooknayak, Ambedkar’s 1 newspaper
nationalist. • He was an ardent advocate of resolving all issues
• He led several social movements to secure and through democratic, peaceful, non-violent, and
safeguard human rights to the oppressed and harmonious means.
miserable sectors of the society. • The path shown by him strengthens the spirit of
• He himself was born in 1891 in a poor untouchable fraternity, compassion, and equity.
family of Mhow.
26
IMPORTANT HISTORICAL PERSONALITIES
• His death anniversary is observed as Mahaparinirvan For this, Fundamental rights have been incorporated
Din or Ambedkar Jayanti or on 14 April every year. in the Indian Constitution (art 14-15-16).
IMPORTANT LIFE EVENTS AND CONTRIBUTIONS • His thoughts paved the way for a socialist democracy
• Ambedkar was against the caste-based and advocated for a reform of the social order.
discriminations and untouchability in society and

advocated the Dalits to organize and demand their ►BHAGAT SINGH, SUKHDEV AND
rights.
RAJGURU
• He condemned Hindu scriptures that he thought
propagated caste discrimination. INTRODUCTION
• He was part of the Bombay Presidency Committee Bhagat Singh, Shivaram Rajguru, and Sukhdev Thapar
that worked with the Simon Commission in 1925. were Revolutionary freedom fighters and fought for the
cause of Indian independence.
• He established the ‘Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha’ to
promote education and socio-economic • They were all members of the Hindustan Socialist
improvements among the Dalits. He started Republican Association, an organization involved in
magazines like Mooknayak, and Bahishkrit Bharat. revolutionary activities.
• He advocated separate electorates for the • They believed that only an armed revolution could
‘Depressed Classes,’ the term with which Dalits were bring about freedom from colonial rule.
called at that time. He was in disagreement with • The national leader Lala Lajpat Rai died of a heart
Mahatma Gandhi since Gandhi was against any attack in November 1928 after he was brutally lathi-
sort of reservation in the electorates. Later, An charged on the orders of the Superintendent of Police
agreement was signed between Gandhi and James A. Scott. The trio confused John Saunders with
Ambedkar in the jail, whereby it was agreed to give J.A Scott and assassinated him. They were on the run
reserved seats to the depressed classes within the for many months.
general electorate. This was called the Poona Pact. • The Government enacted the Defense of India Act,
• Ambedkar founded the Independent Labour Party which gave more power to Police such as preventive
(later transformed into the Scheduled Castes detention and admissibility of evidence which did not
Federation) in 1936. conform to the Indian Evidence act.
• He advocated a free economy with a stable Rupee. • In April 1929, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt
He also mooted birth control for economic threw two bombs in the Central Legislative
development. He also emphasized equal rights for Assembly at Delhi to protest against the unjust
women. bill. Their intentions were not to harm anyone but
• Ambedkar considered the Right to Constitutional only to publicize their struggle. The two did not flee
Remedy as the soul of the Constitution. from the scene after the chaos and courted arrest,
shouting, ‘Inquilab Zindabad.’ They were given life
• Being the Law Minister, Dr. Ambedkar fought
imprisonment.
vigorously for the passage of the Hindu Code Bill, the
most significant reform for women's rights in respect • Other revolutionaries, including Rajguru, were
to marriage and inheritance arrested from a bomb factory at Lahore.
CURRENT RELEVANCE • The police were then able to link the revolutionaries
to the Saunders murder case(Lahore Conspiracy
• He wanted an egalitarian society and was against the
Case). They charged Singh, Rajguru, Sukhdev, and
humiliation of caste discrimination and violence. This
others in this case.
thought has found a lot of relevance to our modern-
day society, where various schemes are being • In May 1930, an ordinance was passed by Lord Irwin,
implemented by the government for the upliftment of declaring an emergency. The Lahore Conspiracy Case
the depressed classes. He strictly advocated against was shifted from the court of an Indian Judge to a
untouchability and wanted equality of opportunity. Special Tribunal of three Judges, which was given the
power to proceed with the case in the absence of the
accused as per the Rowlatt Act.
27
• During the trial, Bhagat Singh and others launched a Gandhi returned to India. During his initial days, he
hunger strike for the rights of undertrials and spent his time at the Sabarmati Ashram in
prisoners. After 64 days strike, Jatin Das, one of the Ahmadabad and sought guidance from Gopal Krishna
undertrials, died on September 13, 1929. They Gokhle in assuming his political stance. It was
wanted to be considered political prisoners. Gokhle's advice to Gandhi that he should first study in
• The strike gained huge publicity, and the detail the socio-political scenario prevalent in the
revolutionaries got a lot of support and sympathy country and then act accordingly. However, Gandhi
from the public.The death of Jatin Das ended the soon emerged on to the political scenario through his
strike, and Bhagat Singh demands were accepted by able leadership in specific local conflicts.
the Jail authorities. MAHATMA’S ECONOMICS
• The tribunal gave its verdict, and Bhagat Singh, Mahatma Gandhi's economic views were humanitarian
Sukh Dev, and Raj guru were given Capital in nature, where the social and economic prosperity of
Punishment in the Lahore Conspiracy Case. The citizens who were reeling under the burden of
trio was ordered to be hanged on 24 March 1931, but unemployment, inhumane working conditions, and
the sentence was carried out a day earlier at the stagnant agricultural growth were his priority. Along with
Lahore Jail. After the hanging, their mortal remains social well-being, he also focused on the welfare of the
were cremated in secret. environment, thus laying the basic concept of
• There was a considerable backlash against the sustainable development.
government for their execution. These ideas have taken shape in the way of Directive
WHY IN NEWS Principles of State Policy and Fundamental Rights.
March 23, 2020 marks the 89

th
year of martyrdom of The following points highlight the top ten economic
Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev Thapar, and Shivaram Rajguru, ideas of Mahatma Gandhi:
and India observed Shaheed Diwas or Martyr Day pay 1. Economic Laws: He wanted sustainable development
tribute to the national heroes. Current relevance: as the basis of growth.
• Bhagat Singh had a vision for an egalitarian India. 2. Non-Violent Economy: According to him, violence in
His thoughts on equal opportunity and social trade meant exploitation of individuals, capitalism,
justice ring right even today. where the significant share of profit gets
• Bhagat Singh believed that capital punishment was accumulated in the hands of a few people leaving out
a social evil and protested against it. Thus he had a the rest of the people in a very poor state.). The
vision of a society free of arbitrary oppression. He concept of Labour Welfare arises from this. He was
highlighted the importance of the youth in completely against the employment of children
modern-day society by his various actions against and advocated safety measures in factories.
oppression. 3. Decentralisation: He was entirely against the use

of machines. He advocated labor-intensive
technology because the Indian population was very
►MAHATMA GANDHI
large and the use of machines would lead to loss of
He was a renowned freedom activist and an employment of the individuals. He wanted the
authoritative political leader who played an important integration of cottage industries with agriculture to
role in India's struggle for Independence against the provide work to the farmer in their spare time and
British rule in India. thus would increase income.
• His birthday is celebrated every year as Gandhi 4. Khadi Industry: For Gandhiji, production of Khadi
Jayanti, a national holiday in India. meant that for the common man, it was a source of
• His ideology of truth and non-violence influenced steady income, it did not require capital investment,
many and was adopted by Martin Luther King and it did not depend upon monsoon, and helped in
Nelson Mandela for their struggles. solving the problem of unemployment.
• The emergence of Gandhi played a pivotal role in the 5. Regeneration of Villages or Village Sarvodaya :
history of Indian Nationalism. In the year 1915, Gandhiji evolved the ideal of Village Sarvodaya or a
28
self- sufficient village economy. He wanted the • Right to freedom
revival of ancient village communities with • Right against exploitation
prosperous agriculture, decentralized industry, and
• Cultural and Educational Right
small scale co-operative organizations. He also
wanted the participation of people at all levels of the In India, the Directive Principles of State Policy is also
economy such that inclusive development would encompassed by the Gandhian principles.
take place. These principles reflect the program of reconstruction
6. The Trusteeship Doctrine: Trusteeship provides a enunciated by Gandhi during the national movement. In
means of transforming the present capitalist order to fulfill the dreams of Gandhi, some of his ideas
order of society into an egalitarian one in which were included in DPSP, and they direct the state
equal distribution of wealth and uplifting of all through- Article 40, Article 43, Article 43 B, Article 46,
sections of society would take place. He believed that Article 47, and Article 48.
Capitalists could become trustees and would take New Directive Principles were added in the 42
nd
care of not only themselves but also of others. In Amendment Act of 1976 to the original list. They also
this way, there would be mutual trust and confidence encompassed Gandhian principles:
with the help of which the remarkable ideal of
1. Added clause in Article 39: To secure opportunities
economic equality could be achieved.
for the healthy development of children
7. Food Problem & Law of Bread Labour: He believed
2. Added clause in Article 39 as Article 39A: To
that every individual should curtail his or her
promote equal justice and to provide free legal aid to
requirements of food to the minimum and as far
the poor
as possible, the consumption of food grains and
pulses should be reduced to the minimum by 3. Added clause in Article 43 as Article 43 A: To take
substituting vegetables, milk, fruits, etc., for them. steps to secure the participation of workers in the
Along with this, the law of Bread-labour management of industries.
emphasized that man must earn his bread by his IMPORTANT GANDHIAN CONCEPTS IN TODAY’S
labor. This would reduce the dependency ratio, ECONOMY
increase income and productivity, thus removing The Trusteeship doctrine: Due to the growing
poverty and hunger, which was prevalent during that economic differences in society today, this theory will
time. bring the narrowing of the income gap in India. India
8. Population: Gandhiji opposed the use of is the second most unequal country in the world after
contraceptives; he was in favor of birth control Russia. According to Oxfam report, the richest 10 %
through self-control and not through the use of of Indians own 73 % of the wealth. This trend is going
artificial methods. He considered self-control as the in the upward direction every year, which means the rich
“infallible sovereign remedy”. are getting richer at a much faster rate than the poor.
9. Prohibition: According to Gandhiji, the use of coffee, Regeneration of Villages or Village Sarvodaya: Recently,
tea, tobacco, and alcohol was detrimental to the a lot of impetus has been given to panchayat and
mental, physical, and moral development of an institutions of local self-government. This will integrate
individual. He firmly believed that Western as well as give an impetus to the village economy since
materialism and industrialization had increased financial allocations to them have been increased.
human wants. Non-Violent Economy: His concept can be used to fight
10. Exchange Economy: Gandhian idea on the exchange all the ills that are rampant in our country now, such as
economy was based on the swadeshi spirit. black marketing, nepotism, corruption, and red-tapism.
RELEVANCE IN TODAY’S SCENARIO
The following fundamental rights recognized by the ►KABIR

Indian constitution and are also encompassed by the He was one of the most influential mystic saints and
Gandhian Economic Theories:
was one of the disciples of Ramananda. He believed
• Right to equality that the Teacher or ‘Guru’ has been accorded the prime
29
position and was the incarnation of God. Kabir, name of religion (lynching, honor-killing,
Throughout his life, strived to create a bridge between infanticide etc) can be eradicated from society.
Hindus and Muslims and also to foster brotherhood
between them.
►RAJA RAM MOHAN ROY
CONTRIBUTIONS
He is considered the "Father of the Indian Renaissance”.
• His Objective was to reconcile Hindus and Muslims
CONTRIBUTIONS:
and establish harmony between the two sects. To
• His influence was apparent in the fields
him, Rama and Allah, temple and mosque were the
of politics, public administration, education, and
same. He emphasized the essential oneness of all
religion like sati and child marriage.
religions.
• In 1815, he started the Atmiya Sabha, a philosophical
• He preached Monotheism, that is, belief in one discussion circle in Kolkata, which was later
God. Kabir believed in a formless Supreme God: reorganized into the Brahmo Samaj.
Nirgunbrahman (God without attributes) • The Brahmo Samaj was a reformist movement of
• Kabir did not believe in extreme asceticism and Bengali Brahmins to fight against social evils. It
abstractions from the world. believed in the existence of One Supreme God-
Monotheism.
• He opposed idolatry and rituals, the worship of
stone images and was against rituals and ceremonies NEWSPAPERS & JOURNALS
in religion. • He started publishing newspapers and magazines for

which he was called the “Father of Indian
• Kabir was a great opponent of the caste system. He
Journalism.”
laid great emphasis on the equality of man before
• He wrote Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhidin (A Gift to
God.
Monotheists) in Persian with an introduction in
• Kabir’s poetry is very famous in popular Culture as Arabic.
‘Dohas’
• He edited a new Bengali newspaper called Samvad
• Some of these were later collected and preserved in Kaumudi (the Moon of Intelligence) and a Persian
the Guru Granth Sahib, Panch Vani, and Bijak. paper called Mirat-ul-Akbar.
• Some of his famous writings include ‘Sakhi Granth,’ • He wrote The Precepts of Jesus - Guide to Peace and
‘Anurag Sagar’, ‘Bijak’, and ‘Kabir Granthawali.’ Happiness (1820): In this book, he criticized the
ritualism of Christianity and refused to accept Christ
CURRENT RELEVANCE
as the incarnation of God.
• World is bogged down by the excessive materialism
SOCIAL CONTRIBUTIONS:
of the world. The deep-seated economic inequalities
• He fought for the liberation of the poor
of the world are leading to a simmering discontent
tenants exploited by Zamindars by fighting against
across the globe. Hence Kabir’s principles of
the fixed revenue for the cultivators in Bengal and
compassionate ethics are relevant. opposed heavy export duties imposed on Indian
• Corruption is a deep-seated problem in India, which goods.
is eating away the vitals of the nation inside out. The • He launched his attack against sati (the co-
emphasis on honest livelihood by Kabir, if understood cremation of widows), polygamy, child marriage, and
in the right spirit, will provide a way of changing the dowry. He also demanded property inheritance
individual perspective. rights for women.
• Communalism is a lurking evil in the Indian societal • He championed the cause of the English language
context. If Kabir’s ideology of universalism is and the western system of education and supported
the move of Lord Macaulay.
followed, many of the evils which happen in the
• He started the English school, the Hindu College, and
the Vedanta College at Calcutta.
30
CURRENT RELEVANCE Hind.’ Along with the other Indians who had gathered
Raja Rammohan Roy, as a pioneer of modern education, there, he made regular broadcasts from the German-
always had used the term scientific temper, use of sponsored Azad Hind Radio beginning in January
reason, and freedom of thoughts. This attitude is very 1942, speaking in various languages English, Hindi,
relevant today as in our daily life; Science and Bengali, Tamil, Telugu, Gujarati, and Pashto.
technology are growing at a rapid and tremendous pace. THE INDIAN NATIONAL ARMY
Raja Ram Mohan Roy wanted the economic • Netaji felt that in order to liberate India from British
independence of women to remove them from rule, an army had to be created.
misery, and so he advocated that they should be • Rash Behari Bose was a revolutionary who had
entitled to property rights. With the passage of time, this attempted the Gadar conspiracy, which was an
issue has again gained relevance. attempt at a pan-India mutiny. He was also the leader
of the Delhi-Lahore conspiracy of 1912, which was
►SUBHASH CHANDRA BOSE another failed attempt. Due to this, he was
persecuted by the British Government, and he fled to
Subhash Chandra Bose was one of the most celebrated
Japan in 1915. During the time when Netaji was in
freedom fighter and charismatic influencer of the youth
Germany, Rash Behari Bose was busy in organizing
of India.
the Indian Independence League in Japan. For this
WHY IN NEWS? purpose, he had convened two conferences in 1942:
The Prime Minister inaugurated the Subhash Chandra one in Tokyo and the second in Bangkok. The
Bose museum at Red Fort to mark his birth anniversary. revolutionaries had assembled in the conferences
wanted to form an Indian National Army (Azad Hind
CONTRIBUTIONS
Fauj) for the liberation of India from the British rule.
• He joined the Indian National Congress in 1927 and
• The army was formed with the Indians in the South-
supported the idea of complete independence
East Asian Countries and Indian soldiers of the British
(Purna Swaraj). With his support, Jawaharlal Nehru
Army captured by the Japanese. Capt. Mohan Singh
passed the resolution of Poorna Swaraj in 1929.
was entrusted with the responsibility for raising the
• He was elected as Congress President in 1938 when army, and Rash Behari Bose was made the President
the annual session was convened at Haripur in of the Council of Action. Shortly afterward, Rash
Bengal. He established the National Planning Behari dismissed Mohan Singh due to his
Committee to ensure equal distribution of wealth disagreements with the Japanese Government.
among diverse sections. This committee marked the Despite his repeated attempts to get an independent
beginning of an era of economic planning in India. status for the army from the Japanese Government,
• He resigned in 1939 due to differences with he was not able to achieve it.
Mahatma Gandhi and set up the All India Forward • After this, Rash Behari then played a pivotal role in
Bloc. Through this, he wanted to gather all the radical organizing the movement, and when Subhash Bose
elements around him, which would aid him in the arrived in Tokyo in 1943, he was invited to take up the
freedom struggle. leadership of the INA. Netaji firstly held discussions
• But he was arrested again by the government, with the Japanese authorities in the course of which
and to protest against it, he undertook a fast unto the Japanese promised the independence of India
death. Fearing this move, the British officials released after the war.
him, and he was placed under house arrest. • After taking over the command of the I.N.A., he
• However, he escaped and undertook a long and gave his famous battle slogan, “Delhi Chalo” (on
arduous journey escaping India through Kabul, then to Delhi). He also worked out a master plan of
Moscow, and finally reached Berlin in Germany. He campaign for the INA with the ultimate goal of
wanted the Germans to help him in the Indian reaching Delhi. A provisional Government of Azad
Independence struggle. Hind (Free India) thus was set up. Gradually the
• In Germany, the Indian community hailed him as number of the I.N.A. men began to grow significantly.
‘Netaji’ and greeted him with the slogan of ‘Jai
31
• The INA revealed Subhash Bose’s excellent participation by the youth was absolutely necessary. He
capability as a military leader and an organizer. believed in the concept of primary and advanced
One of the INA Brigades advanced with the Japanese education and also gave speeches for it. He wanted all
army up to the frontiers of India. The Indian national Indians to get access to education for the upliftment of
flag was hoisted in Kohima in March 1944 by them. society.
But with the change of fortune in the war and the Governments have formed various committees since the
retreat and defeat of the Japanese, the INA collapsed. time Bose reportedly died in a plane crash in Taipei in
The role of INA had far-reaching influences on the 1945. These include Shah Nawaz Commission, 1956;
Indian political scene. Khosla Commission, 1970; Mukherjee Commission,
• The stories of their remarkable courage and sacrifice 1999-2005.
had come to the knowledge of the Indian people at However, Instead of answering questions for the public,
the end of the war, and there was a wave of these committee reports have only set off new ripples of
revolutionary upsurge throughout the country. The mystery.
British Government could now realize that patriotism
for Indians was greater than their service to a foreign
power. ►SARDAR VALLABHBHAI PATEL
• The INA soldiers were now tried for various Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, popularly known as the ‘Iron
charges like treason, atrocities, abetment to Man of India’, one of the most influential personalities
murder, and murder at the Red Fort. For this, they to have fought for Independence.
were also called the Red Fort Trials. Influential • His contribution in integrating 565 princely states into
INA leaders like Colonel Shah Nawaz, Major G.S. a newly independent India is unforgettable. Patel
Dhillon, and Captain Prem Sehgal were initially joined Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation Movement
convicted but later released, thus making it a (1920).
clear victory for them.
• He had organized the peasants of Kheda, Borsad,
• The critical influence that the INA had on the Indian and Bardoli in Gujarat in a non-violent civil
freedom struggle was as follows: disobedience movement against oppressive policies
• The British government realized that it would not be imposed by the British Raj. The Bardoli Satyagraha
possible for them to rule over India any longer. of 1928 earned him the title of ‘Sardar.” Patel was a
selfless leader who placed the country’s interests
• The heroic sacrifice of the INA soldiers did not go in
above everything else and shaped India’s destiny with
vain. Within two years after the surrender of the INA
single-minded devotion.
soldiers the British had to leave the country.
IMPORTANT LIFE EVENTS CONTRIBUTIONS:
• The fight of the INA soldiers inspired the British Indian
Army to burst out in Revolt and there were many BEFORE INDEPENDENCE:
mutinies across India.It also inspired the “Royal Indian • He organized the peasants of Kheda, Borsad, and
Navy Mutiny” or “Bombay Mutiny” of 1946, which was Bardoli in Gujarat in a non-violent civil disobedience
the final death nail on the British rule in India and movement against oppressive policies imposed by
they began the transferring of power. the British Raj.
CURRENT RELEVANCE • He was the Congress president for the 1931
The major teachings of Subhash Chandra Bose were Karachi session. The resolution for fundamental
nationalism and socialism, which are still relevant to rights and civil liberties was taken up during this
society today. session, along with Minimum wages for workers,
and the abolition of untouchability was among his
He had immense belief in the youth of India and
other priorities.
believed that a just and egalitarian society could only be
made only with their help. We are plagued by corruption • He worked against alcohol consumption,
in politics, business greed, and irresponsible behavior of untouchability, caste discrimination and for women
officials in our system. Netaji had then envisioned that emancipation in Gujarat and outside.
for the promotion of integrity in public life, active
32
AFTER INDEPENDENCE: between the Hindus and the Muslims and had no
• He became India’s first Deputy Prime Minister. On intention of founding a new religion. The earliest
the first anniversary of Independence, Patel was biographical sources on Nanak's life recognized today
appointed as the Home Minister of India. are the Janamsākhīs (life accounts). He started free
community kitchens called Guru Ka Langar.
• He organized relief efforts for refugees fleeing
from Punjab and Delhi and worked to restore WHY IN NEWS?
peace. Guru Nanak Dev spent the last 18 years of his life in
• His foresight and tactful handling of the most Kartarpur on the banks of the River Ravi. About 120 km
turbulent period in post-Independence, and the northeast of Lahore. The shrine now lies in Pakistan. The
resolve he demonstrated in integrating the disparate Union cabinet, along with Pakistan’s decision, has
princely States to India is an unparalleled approved the construction of a ‘corridor’ linking India
accomplishment in modern history. with the historic Kartarpur gurdwara.
• Sardar Patel stitched the princely states along with The corridor will provide devotees visa-free access to the
British Indian territory and prevented the shrine.
balkanization of India.
IMPORTANT LIFE EVENTS CONTRIBUTIONS
• He vowed to rebuild Somnath Temple. The
• He advocated the 'Nirguna' form of bhakti. The
Somnath temple had been destroyed and built
concept of god is ‘Vahiguru,’ an entity that is
several times in the past. He felt that the story of its
shapeless, timeless, omnipresent, and invisible. Other
resurrection from ruins this time would be symbolic
names for God in the Sikh faith are Akaal
of the story of the resurgence of India.
Purkh and Nirankar.
• Patel guided the cooperative movements in
• There is only one god – a tenet that is stressed upon
Gujarat and helped in setting up of the Kaira
in the saying ‘Ik Onkar.’ This is the phrase used in
District Cooperative Milk Producers’ Union,
Sikhism to refer to the one Supreme Being that
which proved to be a game-changer for dairy farming
controls the universe.
throughout the country.
• Guru Nanak was against caste-based distinctions,
• His role in establishing the modern-day IAS
sacrifices, ritual baths, image or idol worship,
institution in place of the British-era Indian Civil
austerities, and the scriptures of both Hindus and
Services (ICS) goes a lot further than that landmark
Muslims. He also denied the need for priests and
address.
rituals.
CURRENT RELEVANCE
• He advocated that the purity of character and
Today, if India is known for a vibrant cooperative sector, conduct was the first condition of approaching God.
a large part of the credit goes to Patel. The roots of the
• He emphasized the need for a guru for guidance.
iconic dairy cooperative Amul — Anand Milk Producers
• He advocated a middle path in which spiritual life
Union Ltd — can be traced back to his vision for
could be combined with the duties of the
empowering local communities, particularly women. He
householder.
also popularized the idea of cooperative housing
societies, thus ensuring dignity and shelter for CURRENT RELEVANCE
many. The White Revolution later transformed India into Guru Nanak thus brought ‘equality’, ‘good actions’,
a surplus milk producing country. ‘honesty’, and ‘hard work’ to the core of the value
system of his followers. This was the first time in the
►GURU NANAK religious history of India that “hard work” got a central
place in the value system, which probably had direct
Guru Nanak was the founder of Sikhism and the first
consequences on the economic well-being of the
of the ten Sikh Gurus. He believed that purity of
followers.
character and conduct was the first condition of
This led to a very significant paradigm shift because
approaching God and the need for a Guru for
these values are essential and the major determinants
guidance. Like Kabir, he aimed at bridging distinctions
of entrepreneurship and economic prosperity.
33
GURU NANAK HAD GIVEN 3 IMPORTANT CONCEPTS community worship of God should be conducted.
IN SIKHISM
• NaamJapna: Sikhism beliefs that every person should ►LALA LAJPAT RAI
wake up early in the morning in the Amrit Vela, i.e.,
He was a prominent nationalist leader who played an
between 3 am and 6 am, to mediate and worship
important role in India’s struggle for freedom. His fierce
God.
brand of patriotism and potent vocalism against the
• Dharm Di KirtKarna: The Sikh belief propagates that
British rule earned him the title of ‘Punjab Kesari’ or
every person should work hard with honesty to earn
the Lion of Punjab. He belonged to that time when
his living.
leaders like Aurobindo, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Bipin
• Wand Chhakna: Every person should share his Chandra Pal had come to see the fault of moderate
wealth and whatever he/she has with the deprived politics and called it political mendicancy.’
and the needy.
IMPORTANT LIFE EVENTS AND CONTRIBUTIONS
THE BASIC TENETS OF SIKHISM
• In 1897, he founded the Hindu Relief Movement to
1) Worship one God: Monotheism provide relief to the famine-stricken people.
2) Treat Everyone Equally: No distinction between • He was associated with the foundation of Punjab
people on any grounds National Bank in 1895.
3) Live by the Three Primary Principles: The Principles • He was deeply influenced by the Arya Samaj
that Sikhism lays down for its followers is as follows: founder Swami Dayanand Saraswati and
One should always be absorbed in meditation and Associated with Hindu Mahasabha so that all
prayer. Hindus could be united in their struggle against the
British.
• Make a real income.
• In 1921, he had founded Servants of the People
• Share earnings and selflessly serve others
Society, a non-profit welfare organization. The
4) Avoid the Five Sins of Ego: Pride, Lust, Greed, Anger, society, devoted to "enlist and train national
Attachment. missionaries for the service of the motherland."
5) Become Baptized by the "Five Beloved" Sikhs, who
prepare and administer immortalizing nectar to
►SRI SATGURU RAM SINGHJI
initiates.
He was a Sikh philosopher, reformer, and freedom
6) Keep the Code of Honor and live an Ethical Life
fighter.
7) Wear the Five Articles of Faith that is , the Kesh (Hair),
• He spearheaded the Namdhari sect to free the
Kacchera (a specific type of undergarments), Kangha
country.
(wooden comb), Kada (iron bracelet), and Kirpan
(curved sword) • Namdharis were also “Kuka” because they recited
Gurbani in a similar manner.
8) Follow the Four Commandments: In Sikhism, four
commandments include prohibitions against the • Satguru Ram Singh had set up the Namdhari Sect and
following four activities: appointed Suba (Governors) and Naib Suba
(dy.Governors) to mobilize Kukas across Punjab.
ο Do not cut the hair
• Namdharis consider themselves a sect of Sikhism but
ο Do not use tobacco or other intoxicants
insisted that the line of Sikh gurus did not end with
ο Do not eat sacrificial meat Guru Gobind Singh and was continued through the
ο Do not commit adultery Namdhari leaders.
9) Recite the Five Daily Prayers: Sikhism has an WHY IN NEWS?

established practice of three-morning prayers, an The 200th birth anniversary of Sri Satguru Ram Singhji
evening prayer, and a bedtime prayer. being celebrated in an International Seminar by the
10)Take Part in Fellowship activities like the Langar, the Union Ministry of Culture in collaboration with Panjab
34
University, Chandigarh, and Kuka Martyrs Memorial India are committing suicides and are also evading
Trust. their plots. Application of his teachings thus makes a
The Union Minister of Culture said that whatever he was big difference, and the Government has implemented
preaching or practicing in the 19th Century is equally loan waivers to make farmers debt-free.
good in 21st century as well.
IMPORTANT LIFE EVENTS AND CONTRIBUTIONS ►VISHNU NARAYAN BHATKHANDE
• He organized the Indians for the noble cause of total Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande wrote the first modern
freedom of the country and mankind. treatise on Hindustani classical music before that,
• His contribution to the freedom struggle was also only oral traditions had continued.
commendable, and he undertook the first revolt • Bhatkhande traveled far and wide across North India,
against the British. He advocated a boycott of British collecting information about the way music was
merchandise and services.
taught in the various gharanas.
• He advocated reverence for the cow, simple
• He then moved South and met many important
wedding ceremonies, widow remarriage, and
personalities like ‘Poochi’ Srinivasa Iyengar and
mass marriages with minimal expenditure, i.e., a
Subbarama Dikshitar.
rupee and twenty-five paisa only. dowry was totally
banned in any shape • He wrote extensively on Hindustani music, and his
four-volume Hindustani Sangeet Paddhathi is even
• He preached against killing the girl child in infancy
today the standard text for the North Indian style of
and stood firmly against the Sati system.
classical music. Bhatkhande also began organizing All
• He started the Kuka Movement to free the
India Music Conferences, which focused on
country. The Kuka movement was a religiopolitical
Hindustani Music.
movement in Punjab. Kukas were not part of the
main-stream Sikhism of the Sikhs. They wanted caste- • He is known to bridge both the Hindustani and Carnatic
abolition, the permission of intermarriages, widow- systems of music.
remarriages, abstinence from desi liquor, meat, and
VISHNU NARAYAN BHATKHANDE
drugs.
The Bhatkhande Music Institute is a music institute
• Kukas wanted to overthrow the British rule and
in Lucknow which was established by him. it was
restore Sikh Sovereignty over Punjab.
declared a deemed university by University Grants
• Thus Kuka movement had elements of “Non-
Commission (UGC) in 2000, and offers music
Cooperation” and “civil disobedience” as well.
education in Vocal Music, Instrumental, Rhythms,
CURRENT RELEVANCE Dance, Musicology and Research and Applied Music.
• Though his movements and teachings, he inspired It is now known as the Bhatkhande Music Institute
many social reforms in India. He believed in the Deemed University, formerly.
emancipation of women. This included liberation
from the throes of social evils like female infanticide &
child marriages and also increasing the minimum ►ANASUYA SARABHAI
marriageable age for girls and encouraged widow
• Anasuya Sarabhai is remembered for her role in
remarriage.
pioneering women’s labor movement in India.
• Non-addiction to drugs, alcohol or any other kind
• While living in England, she was influenced by new
of intoxication is one of the most important
ideas concerning equality and got involved with the
characteristics of an ideal modern-day society,
Suffragette struggle, which advocated voting rights to
and it was preached by him.
women in England.
• Several hard-working debt-ridden farmers were
emancipated from the throes of high interest and IMPORTANT LIFE EVENTS AND CONTRIBUTIONS:
debt when Satguru Ji decreed that earning income • She decided to get involved in the labor movement
through such means was against the welfare of the after witnessing exhausted female mill workers
religion and community,thus creating a debt-free returning home after a 36-hour shift.
society. In modern-day society, we see that farmers in
35
• In 1914, she helped Ahmadabad’s weavers youth in the freedom movement and began the
successfully organize their first strike for higher independence movement in Goa in 1946.
wages. CONTRIBUTIONS
• She was supported in her work by Mahatma Gandhi, Rammanohar Lohia was an eminent socialist thinker.
with whom she set up the Ahmedabad Textile Labour He put forth five kinds of inequalities and argued that
Association (Majadoor Mahajan Sangh) in 1920. each of these inequalities had independent roots and
• This paved the way for the founding of the Self- had to be fought separately and simultaneously :
Employed Women’s Association of India (SEWA). Gender Inequality: Patriarchal mindset and gender
CURRENT RELEVANCE discrimination is rooted in most societies. So he inferred
• The efforts of Anasuya Sarabhai have been noted and that in poor countries, women majorly functioned as
resulted in the emancipation of women and better reproductive machines and as household servants.
conditions for them. It resulted in the creation of Racism: Black skin color constitutes low status and
many micro-credit schemes, and Self Help Groups ugliness, where inner purity is substituted by outer
were set up to finance women and help them set up appearance. He warned that such discrimination would
their own business. disturb global inner peace and freedom and tried to
change the mind-set of people and put forth a real
definition of beauty – based on inner conscience.
►DR. RAJENDRA PRASAD
Caste discrimination: He refuted the caste system, and
He was the first President of Independent India. He was
it restricted individual growth and tried to imbibe a
actively involved in India’s freedom struggle and made
sense of equality in society
many important contributions to it. The sequence of
Colonial exploitation: He considered foreign rule as an
events in the political struggle are as follows:
evil which drains the national resources for foreign
• He set up the Bihari Students’ Conference. To protest
profit, and thus tried to promote nationalism &
against it, the partition of Bengal in 1905.
independence from foreign rulers.
• In 1917, Gandhiji had started the Champaran
Economic inequality: He stressed to abolish private
Satyagraha so that the peasants and farmers who
ownership of means of production and establish ownership
were trapped in the ‘Teen-Kathia’ system would be
of the whole community, and favored the development of
released and would not be forced to cultivate indigo;
MSME rather than big industrialization
Dr. Rajendra Prasad joined this movement and fought
Being a socialist, he was against these inequalities
for their cause.
and wished to fight by solutions like-
• He also actively participated in the Non-cooperation
1. Intervention by the state to redistribute the
movement, Salt Satyagraha, and Quit India movement
wealth by welfare policies.
against the British colonial rule
2. Regulations on the market, collectivization of
• Before independence, Dr. Rajendra Prasad was
resources, and nationalization of major public assets.
elected as the President of Congress in the year 1939
and 1943. 3. He had no faith in the notion of private property.
• He was honored with the Bharat Ratna, India’s highest His book The Mystery of Sir Stafford Cripps (1942) played
civilian award in 1962. a significant role in spreading the messages of socialism
in India.
►DR. RAM MANOHAR LOHIA RELEVANCE IN MODERN SOCIETY
Ram Manohar Lohia’s concepts on equality show

He was a socialist political leader, a great thinker as
relevance to many events that have been taking place
well as a noted freedom fighter of India who not only
recently.
protested against the British rulers but also raised voice
against social injustice, class and caste discrimination • Gender inequality is prevalent throughout the world,
and gender bias. He has actively involved the country's in both developing as well as developed countries.
36
• Racism has been seen prevailing even in the USA, to survive with very limited funds. However, the recent
where many ‘blacks’ are treated differently. The Government initiative of Make in India handicrafts has
recent immigration policy of the USA also shows racial received an impetus and is growing. Thus this is creating
discrimination. In Europe, too, the migrants from employment of youth and also is helping in creating our
Central Asia and Africa are victims of racial image on a global platform by showcasing India’s talent
discrimination. and reviving the indigenous industry.
• Rohingyas from Myanmar were persecuted by the

Buddhist Majority, Dalit lynching cases in India, ►BAL GANGADHAR TILAK
Middle East crises(where the Sunni-Shia fight is
Bal Gangadhar Tilak was an Indian social reformer and
continuing), or the US Govt. recent immigration policy.
freedom activist. He was one of the prime architects of
• Neo-colonialism by Western nations like America,
modern India and probably the strongest advocates of
Russia, and China in Africa is trying to take over her
Swaraj or Self Rule for India. His famous declaration,
valuable resources.
“Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it,” inspired
many.
►KAMALA DEVI CHATTOPADHYAY He opposed the moderates, and Along with Bipin
She was also a freedom fighter and a social reformer Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai, he was called the ‘Lal-
and was greatly inspired by Gandhian ideas and the Bal-Pal’ trio of extremist leaders. Due to this
concept of non-violence. fundamental difference in outlook, Tilak and his

supporters came to be known as the extremist wing of
CONTRIBUTIONS
the Indian National Congress Party. Tilak was one of
• She was a key figure in the international socialist the first INC leaders to suggest that Hindi in the
feminist movement during the Freedom Struggle. In Devanagari script be India’s sole language.
the early 1920’s she joined the Seva Dal, It established
CONTRIBUTIONS
as Hindustani Seva Mandal within the Indian National
Congress in 1924. • He was keen on setting up good educational institutes
in the country since he believed that education must
• She was in charge of the women’s wing and recruited,
be imparted with an emphasis on Indian culture. He
trained, and organized the Sevikas.
was one of the founders of the Fergusson College in
• Kamaladevi was closely associated with this Pune through the Deccan Education Society.
organization and served as in charge of its women’s
• He also propagated swadeshi movements and
wing.
encouraged people to boycott foreign goods.
• In 1927, she led the All India Women’s Conference.
• He coordinated the work of the Deccan Education
• In 1936 Kamaladevi assumed the head role in the Society with his associate Gopal Ganesh Agarkar and
AIWC. others.
• She took upon the job to resettle nearly 50,000 • He published two newspapers, Kesari in Marathi
Pathans from the Northwest Frontier Province (NWFP) and Mahratta, in English. In both these, he severely
in the wake of the post-Partition migrations. criticized the government
• She also set up the Indian National Theatre (INT) • He founded the All India Home Rule League. His
in 1944, what we today know as the National League would work in Maharashtra (except Bombay),
School of Drama. It was a movement to recognize the Central Provinces, Karnataka, and Berar.
and celebrate indigenous modes of performance like
• The Lucknow pact between the Congress and the
dance, folklore, and mushairas and help the freedom
Muslim League was mediated by him, and he greatly
struggle.
criticized the British Divide and Rule policy
RELEVANCE IN THE MODERN DAY SCENARIO
RELEVANCE IN MODERN SOCIETY
Under the British Rule, the Indian handicraft market had
Tilak’s concept of nationalism in the country and unity
declined and had completely collapsed. Due to some of
inspires many to this date. Festivals like Ganesh Utsav
the institutions made by Kamala Devi, the art managed
and Shivaji Jayanti are celebrated with great importance
37
even today in Maharashtra. His books, Gita Rahasya, • He criticized Jinnah over Two Nation Theory and
give us the insight to fight against any form of believed that Hindu and Muslims could co-exist in
equality prevalent in society. Independent India. He opposed the partition.
Through weekly Urdu newspaper Al-Hilal, he took
up the cause of reforming Islam by challenging
►MAULANA ABDUL KALAM AZAD
dogmatic interpretations of the Quran.
He oversaw the establishing a national education system
• He played a Significant Role in Quit India
with free primary education and modern institutions of
Movement by Meeting a large number of People in
higher education. He is also credited with establishing
rallies and massive Agitations and Protest against
the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) and laid the
Colonial Government.
foundation of the University Grants Commission,
• He had played an essential role in the foundation
which is an important institution to supervise and
of Jamia Millia Islamia at Aligarh in Uttar Pradesh.
advance higher education throughout the country. He
He assisted in shifting the campus of the university
became the first education minister of independent
from Aligarh to New Delhi in 1934.
India.
RELEVANCE IN MODERN SOCIETY
CONTRIBUTIONS
• The National system of education was formulated by
• Maulana Azad was a Prominent Leader in Khilafat
him. Education promotes the development of human
Movement in which he came in close contact with
resources, thereby contributing to the nation's
National Leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi, Vallabh
economy.
Bhai Patel, and Jawahar Lal Nehru.
• He brought together nationalism with secularism and
• He was disheartened by the Rowlatt Act of 1919 and
was a pillar of Hindu Muslim Unity. Thus the
worked to organize the Non-Cooperation Movement
foundation of modern education and vocational
and Protests to oppose it.
training, which is very important today, was bought
• He supported Swadeshi, Non-Violence, and Truth.
about by him and is helping us in narrowing the
divide between theoretical and practical knowledge.
COMPARISON BETWEEN THE IDEOLOGIES OF MAHATMA GANDHI AND JAWAHAR LAL NEHRU:
GANDHI NEHRU
He gave little importance to the acquisition of

theoretical knowledge or scholarly attainments. He He believed that religion and
POLITICAL condemned western influence. He was a man of sentiments could not be mixed with
THOUGHT action, having a practical approach and believed that politics and considered all problems
religion and sentiments are an inseparable part of and solutions on a scientific basis.
politics. To him, politics was religion in action.
Nehru believed in this concept but had

He believed in this concept and thought that love some reservations. He did not,
ON NON VIOLENCE
and nonviolence was the truth of life however, rule out the use of force in
a particular situation.
Gandhi was completely against the use of

USE OF MACHINES Nehru believed in mechanization and
machines and said that its use was a great sin. He
AND MODERN gave great emphasis to the material
believed that material progress would lead to
CIVILISATION progress of the West.
perpetual competition between men.
Nehru was not very vocal about bread

Gandhi believed in the concept of bread labor,
TRUSTEESHIP labor. He was against the concept of
trusteeship, and decentralized villages and cottage
DOCTRINE Trusteeship and believed in State
industries.
control of resources rather than
38
individual controlling massive
resources.
He believed in the ancient concept of self- He wanted a socialist-secular state

VILLAGE sufficient economy and functioning as self-sufficient and called for an increase in wealth and
SARVODAYA units. He wanted people to lead a simple, minimal, prosperity and improved the general
and austere life. standard of living.
He believed that khadi was a minor

He gave a lot of importance to the use of charkha
KHADI aspect of a fast developing economy
and the production of khadi.
and did not attach importance to it.
COMPARISON BETWEEN THE IDEOLOGIES OF MAHATMA GANDHI AND SUBASH CHANDRA BOSE:
GANDHI SUBHASH CHANDRA BOSE
He was guided by reason and believed that Gandhi did

He was guided by compassion and not have a proper plan for the attainment of freedom. He
POLITICAL
instinct. He believed in non- had little belief in nonviolence and the doctrine of purity.
THOUGHTS
violence. He believed that through violence alone, the British
could be expelled from India.
He was a complete supporter of economic progress

ECONOMIC He was against modernization through mechanization and refuted the idea of
THOUGHTS and had the concept of Trusteeship trusteeship. He believed in the idea of socialism and state
ownership of all important programs.
COMPARISON BETWEEN THE IDEOLOGIES OF Dr.B R AMBEDKAR AND MAHATMA GANDHI:
GANDHI B.R. AMBEDKAR
Gandhi perceived depressed classes

to be an integral part of Hindu Ambedkar was in favor of the annihilation
SOCIETY society. However, he did not of the caste system as, according to him, it
support the abolition of the caste was beyond reforms
system or Varnashrma order.
Gandhi believed in peaceful

Ambedkar had developed a deep faith in the
political struggles like non-
POLITICAL STRUGGLE constitutional means of change and
cooperation and civil disobedience
improvement.
and other forms of Satyagraha.
Ambedkar was highly critical of the village

Gandhi gave a central place to as a unit of local administration. He
VILLAGE SARVODAYA village autonomy and self- claimed that village isolation in India would
sufficiency in his vision of future India lead to an increase in localism,
communalism, and narrow interests.
39
Section-3
ODERN ISTORY
► CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF ►THE DIFFERENT DIMENSIONS OF
INDIAN RENAISSANCE SWADESHI MOVEMENT
• Indian Renaissance grew in the 19th Century, which ECONOMIC ASPECTS
aimed at reforming the Indian Society. Renaissance, In its economic aspect, swadeshi expresses the
meaning revival or rebirth, was a transitional nationalist-protectionist sentiment against foreign
movement. It was influenced by the Western Thinkers capital and also expresses an outlook for promoting
and began in India through the reformers. indigenous goods and urging consumers to use them
even if they were more expensive than - or inferior in
• The characteristic features of Indian Renaissance are:
quality to, the imported commodities.
o A new movement for socio-religious reformers In other words, in economic sense, the swadeshi sends
like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidhya out the call of patriotic duty for people with capital
Sagar, Narayana Guru, etc. and enterprise to pioneer indigenous industries even
o It emphasis on an universal outlook.

at the risk of small or even no profit in the initial period.
But swadeshi is not exhausted in the economic urge
o Propagation of Western Education.A new way of
alone.
Studying India’s Past was brought in.
Swadeshi ideas, developed in the exciting swadeshi era,
o Emancipation of Women and the Downtrodden. and having had its beginning In a nationalist-
o The emphasis of Humanism which resulted in the protectionist policy looked beyond it and set its sights on
Improvement of the Under Privileged and the everything Indian in all possible directions.
backward classes. Thus, though the starting point of swadeshi was

economic, it soon crystallised into a comprehensive
o Propagation of the concept of self-respect and
social, economic political and cultural ideology under the
self-reliance among Indians to check the
impact of the interpretations given by such leaders of
Malpractices of Indian religion.
Indian thought as Bipin Pal, Aurobindo,
o Therefore Indian Renaissance became an essential Brahmabandhab, Rabindranath, Satis Chandra
part of the Indian Society during India’s freedom Mukherjee and others during the swadeshi movement.
struggle, which gradually created rationalism Swadeshi thus developed into a full-fledged ideology,
and humanism. reflecting the political aims and economic demands as

well as the cultural traditions of the people of India
40
MODERN HISTORY
against the political domination and the imperialist persons in their country either buying or selling Indian
economic policy of the British Power in India . goods.
POLITICAL ASPECTS Defenders of free trade in the world protected their
The Hindu Mela tradition of holding periodic markets by tariff and imposed penal laws against
exhibitions of swadeshi products was revived by the unfavourable economic competition "when everything is
Industrial Association from 1893 onwards, and its 1895 swept away by force and violence, these hypocritical
exhibition is reported to have attracted 20,000 visitors. feringhis pose as honest and innocent and "we are told
Since 1901, such industrial exhibitions became a this is honest swadeshi.’

regular part of the annual Congress sessions. At the Minto’s homily on open market and honest swadeshi
height of the swadeshi movement in 1906, meant for Great Britain a policy of buying raw materials
Jogeshchandra Chaudhury organized the Congress in the open market at the cheapest price and selling
exhibition at Calcutta, and Lord Minto was invited to 14 finished products at non-competitive prices in India.
inaugurate it. The nationalists under the leadership of Brahmabandhab said that a policy of protective tariff
Tilak were trying to radicalize the ideology and programs duty in the national economic interest was the universal
of Congress at the risk of a hitter encounter with the policy followed by Great Britain, France, Germany and
right-wing elements while the latter was engaged in other European nations.
making use of the industrial exhibition, a part of the CULTURAL ASPECTS
Congress session, to find favor with the Viceroy who had
The concept of swadeshi in the sense of promotion and
used the inaugural function to praise and pat ’honest
encouragement of indigenous industries was a legacy of
swadeshi, implying mere promotion of indigenous
the Moderates tradition of thinking. The Radical
industries as opposed to political swadeshi based on the
Nationalists infused the flesh of boycott and the blood of
boycott movement. The Radical Nationalists vehemently
politics in the body of the swadeshi to movement and
opposed the holding of the exhibition under 15 official
thus helped/revolutionize the concept of swadeshi. They
patronage and they called for its boycott. Lord Minto’s
went a step further and gave a more expansive
homily on honest swadeshi created a convulsion in the
interpretation to swadeshi, covering within its broad
Radical Nationalist press and platform. On the
sweep almost every aspect of Indian culture, tradition,
ideological plane, the Minto sermon was attacked by the
and attitude.
exponents of the new thought pushing forward the rift
and basic differences between the two schools of politics The alleged superiority of western civilization,
as to the interpretation and application of swadeshi. culture, and society so long fondly cherished by the
Moderates were seriously challenged by the Radical
Brahmabandhab Upadhyay, stormy-petrel of the
Nationalists while explaining their concept of swadeshi.
swadeshi movement, In an article on ’Homest swadeshi
The Radical Nationalists regarded western technology
or the Vice-Roy’s hypocrisy’ published in his evening
and culture, Its aggressive nationalism and utilitarianism
daily, the “Sandhye” of the 24th December, 1906,
in the light of an onslaught on the traditional culture and
exposed the concept of honest swadeshi, its
society of India. They revolved against everything
ideological meaning, and its mendicant slant.
western and passionately upheld everything Indian. In
He wrote : '’Honest swadeshi was explained by His the swadeshi movement, they saw a direct clash of two
Excellency as swadeshi dissociated from politics, the opposite value systems. They took immense pride in
swadeshi which buys cheapest thing in the open market, supporting the cause of an ancient civilization and
without discrimination between indigenous and foreign”. culture as that of India.
He described these words as mere ’’humbuggism and
Economic swadeshi was the starting point of the anti-
hypocrisy”.
partition swadeshi movement, and very soon, the idea of
Brahmabandhab vividly gave an account of how a the movement spilled over its economic contents and
discriminating tariff policy of the British caused encompassed everything. "Valentine Chirol remarked:
destruction of Indian commerce and indigenous '‘The question of partition itself receded into the
industries. The British did not hesitate to impose a fifty "background, and the issue, until then successfully veiled
percent ad valorem duty on Indian manufactured goods and now openly raised, was not whether Bengal should
imported to England and a penalty of fifty pound on all be an unpartitioned province or two partitioned
41
MODERN HISTORY
provinces under British rule, but whether British rule • The Government of India did not want to make an
itself was to endure in Bengal, for the matter of that, 50 issue of it, so ordered the local Government to retreat
anywhere in India. The Radial Nationalists of Bengal and allow Gandhiji to proceed with his inquiry.
launched a massive struggle in/realm of ideas against ENQUIRY BY GANDHIJI
the British rule. To symbolized them, British rule was not
merely economic and political, but it broadly/ western • A victorious Gandhiji embarked on his investigation of
influence. They understood and interpreted swadeshi in the peasants’ grievances. He and his colleagues
the broad perspective of containing British rule in toured the villages and, from dawn to dusk, recorded
economics and political spheres as well as a challenge to the statements of peasants, interrogating them to
the Inroad of western influence in the Indian society and make sure that they were giving correct information.
culture. Brij Kishore, Rajendra Prasad, and other members of
the Bihar intelligentsia, Mahadev Desai and Narhari
Parikh, two young men from Gujarat and J.B.
►CHAMPARAN SATYAGRAHA Kripalani, were included in Gandhi’s colleagues.
BACKDROP
OUTCOMES
In the early nineteenth century, European planters had
• Meanwhile, the Government appointed a
involved the cultivators of Champaran, Bihar, in
Commission of Inquiry to go into the whole issue
agreements that forced them to cultivate indigo on
and nominated Gandhiji as its members. Armed
3/20th of their holdings. It was known as the
with evidence collected from peasants, he had little
tinkathia system. difficulty convincing the Commission that the
TURNING POINT tinkathia system needed to be abolished. And that the
peasants should be compensated for the illegal
Towards the end of the nineteenth century, German
enhancement of their dues.
synthetic dyes forced indigo out of the market. So, the
European planters of Champaran wanted to release the • As a compromise with the planters, he agreed that
cultivators from the obligation of cultivating indigo. And they refund only twenty-five percent of the money
they tried to turn their necessity to their advantage by they had taken illegally from the peasants.
securing enhancements in rent and other illegal dues as • Answering critics who asked why he did not ask for a
a price for the release. Resistance had surfaced as early full refund, Gandhiji explained that even this refund
as 1908. had done enough damage to the planters’ prestige
and position.
EMERGENCE OF M.K. GANDHI
• Gandhi’s assessment was correct, and, within a
Since his return from South Africa in 1915, Gandhi
decade, the planters left the district altogether.
started a pan India tour of understanding the problems
of the masses. In between, Raj Kumar Shukla, a native of IMPORTANCE OF CHAMPARAN SATYAGRAHA:
Champaran, decided to follow Gandhiji all over the • The Champaran Satyagraha was the first struggle
country to persuade him to come to Champaran to that Gandhiji undertook on Indian soil after his
investigate the problem. great 20-year long movement for the defense of
Indians’ rights in South Africa.
• Raj Kumar Shukla’s decision to get Gandhiji to
Champaran is indicative of the image he had acquired • It is widely regarded as the place where Gandhi did
as one who fought for the rights of the exploited and his first experiments in satyagraha and then
the poor. replicated them elsewhere.
• It was followed quickly by the Ahmedabad

GANDHIJI’S DEFIANCE
workers’ strike against indigenous mill-owners
• Gandhiji, on reaching Champaran, was ordered by the
and by the Kheda satyagraha against revenue
Commissioner to leave the district immediately. But enhancements, both in 1918; and then the all-India
to the surprise of all concerned, Gandhiji refused and April satyagraha of 1919 against the Rowlatt Acts and,
preferred to take the punishment for his defiance. finally, the non-cooperation and Khilafat movement of
1920-22.
42
MODERN HISTORY
• Joining of peasant unrest to India's National • Among the crowd were pilgrims who had come to
Movement is a very significant aspect of the celebrate Baisakhi, the annual harvest festival.
Champaran Satyagraha. • General Reginald Dyer arrived there with his
troops and ordered them to shoot the unarmed
►101 YEARS SINCE JALLIANWALA citizens. The indiscriminate firing started, and the
shooters only stopped to reload.
BAGH MASSACRE
• It killed about 1000 people and injured many.
WHY HAD THE CROWD GATHERED?
• The British government was now at the peak of its
• During World War I (1914–18), the British government colonial arrogance. It was highly criticized by all
of India enacted a series of repressive emergency nationalists and even some British.
powers. These were made so as to combat subversive
AFTERMATH OF THE EVENT
activities and to stop anti- British sentiments from
rising. • The Hunter Commission: Also referred to as the
Disorders Inquiry Committee, the Commission held
• After the war ended, expectations were high among
General Dyer guilty but did not impose any
the Indians that those measures would be eased and
punishment on him, nor any disciplinary action was
that India would be given more political autonomy.
taken. He was relieved of his services in 1920.
However, they were awarded by the Rowlatt Act.
• Rabindranath Tagore gave up his knighthood title
• The Rowlatt Act: The act is officially known as the
as a protest.
Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, 1919
was passed in 1919 by the Imperial Legislative • Gandhi had given up his title of ‘Kaiser-e-hind’
Council. This act extended the extreme wartime bestowed on him by the British for his activities in the
measures. Boer War in South Africa.
ο It had authorized the British government to arrest • 2020 marks 101 years to the shameful incident. The
anybody suspected of terrorist activities. massacre continues to inspire revulsion, even in the
UK. British Prime Minister Theresa May called the
ο It also authorized the government to detain
massacre a ‘shameful scar’ on British Indian history
such people arrested for up to 2 years without
but did not apologize. Queen Elizabeth had also called
trial.
the incident as a “distressing example” of Britain’s
ο It empowered the police to search for a place
history with India.
without a warrant.
ο It placed severe restrictions on the freedom of

► NON-CO-OPERATION MOVEMENT
the press
Non co-operation movement (1920–22) was organized
ο To this, the situation in Punjab was very volatile,
by Mahatma Gandhi to induce the British government
and many protests were taking place. To control it,
of India to grant self-government, or swaraj, to India. It
Punjab was put under martial law, which meant
was one of Gandhi’s first organized acts of large-
that it became unlawful for more than four people
scale civil disobedience.
to assemble at a place.
Events that led to the Non-Cooperation movement
EVENTS OF THE DAY
of 1920
• On a fateful day, a crowd of at least 10,000 men,
• Indians were dissatisfied by the GOI Act 1919 as
women, and children gathered in the Jallianwala
they were expecting autonomy at the end of World
Bagh. The place was completely enclosed on all sides,
War-I in return for the support to the British.
with only one exit.
• Peasants suffered as the prices of agricultural
• The civilians had assembled for a peaceful protest to
products did not increase.
condemn the arrest and deportation of two
national leaders, Satya Pal and Saifuddin • Faith in the British system of justice was broken due
Kitchlew, who had demonstrated against the Rowlatt to Rowlatt Bills, the Jallianwala Bagh massacre,
Acts. and Hunter Committee.
43
MODERN HISTORY
• The Khilafat issue played an important part in recruit new joiners.
launching the NCM.
2) To withdraw Native educational
• The droughts, epidemics, and high inflation also children and boycott institutions were
contributed to their unpopularity. government schools established like Gujarat
st
Thus Gandhi launched the NCM on the 1 of August and colleges Vidyapith, Bihar Vidyapith,
1922. The Nagpur Session of the INC clearly defined the Tilak Maharashtra Vidyapith,
objective and the steps of the NCM. It had adopted the Kasi Vidyapith, the Bengal
aim of ‘Swaraj.’ Lala Lajpat Rai had also passed away on National University, and the
the same day. Jamia Milia of Delhi
How NCM gave a new direction to India’s freedom 3) Boycott of British to establish native
Struggle? courts by lawyers arbitration centers all over
• It was a mass movement it reached from Indian and litigants & India
peasants, workers, artisans, shopkeepers, traders to Boycott the
professionals. elections
• NCM became the first contact for many of them with 4) Refusal for
nationalist politics and the ideology of nationalism. recruitment for
• Poor’s, by their courage, sacrifice, and fortitude in the military and other
face of adversity, they dispelled the notion that desire services in
for national freedom was the preserve of the Mesopotamia
educated and rich. Now freedom became an
5) Boycott of foreign The Swadeshi concept
elemental urge common to all.
goods. became a household word,
• It gave women exposure regarding nationalist and the use of Indian-made
politics. Women participated in considerable products gained impetus.
numbers in the picketing of shops.
• The Prince of Wales visited India, and a large
• Hindus and Muslims both participated, thereby
demonstration was set up against it. A hartal was
bridging the gap caused due to British policies.
organized.
• NCM contributed to the rise of local
movements.eg. In Assam, laborers on tea plantation • The Chauri-Chaura Incident: On 5 February 1922, a
went on strike. Defiance of forest laws becomes procession of Congress khilafa was underway. The
popular in Andhra. police had behaved very badly with the mob, and a
group from this crowd attacked then. When the
• It commanded the strength and sympathy of vast
sections of the society. Even after its withdrawal, a officials hid in the police station of Chaura, it was
different line of political activities came up to keep up attacked at set on fire. The mob burnt the police
the spirit of resistance, and it gave a new direction to station, and in those, nearly 22 policemen died.
India’s freedom struggle. The ones who tried to escape were hacked to death
The NCM had both constructive and destructive and thrown back inside. This was against the basic
programs in it rule of ahimsa or non-violence, as advocated by
Gandhi.
CONSTRUCTIVE DESTRUCTIVE
• The horrific incident made Gandhi suspend the
1) The Congress In order to finance the non- movement on the12th of February 1922, as he
wanted the people cooperation movement, believed that the country was not ready for a mass
of India to surrender Tilak Swaraj Fund was
movement. The other leaders were not happy with
all titles and started to which money
his decision but accepted it. This movement, however,
honorary offices and poured, and within six
projected Gandhiji as an all- India leader and also
resign from months, nearly a crore of
showed the massive support the Congress
nominated seats in rupees was subscribed; the
local bodies All India Congress received from the people of India.
Committee was made to
44
MODERN HISTORY
►MALABAR REBELLION • After the battle of Plassey, the British increased the
land rent (where salt was produced in Bengal) and
ABOUT MALABAR REBELLION
transient charges on the transportation of salt.
• Took place in 1921 in Kerala, also known as Moplah
• After the Battle of Buxar, they made the manufacture
uprising.
of salt the sole monopoly of the British.
• Led by - Variyamkunnath Kunjahammed Haji.
• Later by the Salt Act, India and in particular, Bengal
• It was an armed revolt staged by the Mappila Muslims and its surrounding provinces were rendered
of Kerala in 1921. dependent upon imported salt from Liverpool and
• In response to Gandhiji’s call (when he visited elsewhere. This imported salt was of inferior quality
Calicut during Khilafat Movement and Non-co- to Indian salt. The indigenous industry was oppressed
operation), a Khilafat committee was formed in with the burden of extravagant charges and was
Malabar. unable to compete with its English rival. The salt
tax/duties on the annual requirement of a family
• The Mappilas, under their religious head Mahadum
amounted at one time up to nearly two months’
Tangal of Ponnani who pledged support to the non-
wages of a laborer.
cooperation movement.
• The salt tax bought enormous amounts of money to
• During 1920, the farmers and low-class tenants were
the treasury.
oppressed by the landlords (who were patronized by
the British.) The Indian National Congress (INC) asked HOW DID THE CONGRESS AND MAHATMA GANDHI
the Mappila cultivators to support both the agrarian AGITATE AGAINST THE SALT TAX?
reforms and independence actively. • One of the earliest demands of the INC was the
• Resulting into agitation against the Hindu abolition of the salt tax, and in the Congress session
landlords (locally referred to as janmi) and the British of 1885(first congress session) it was strongly put
government. Their grievances were related to renewal forward by the member that the salt tax was a big
fees, high rents, the security of tenure, and other burden on the common Indian.
unfair exactions of the landlords. • Mahatma Gandhi had started writing against the
RESPONSE OF BRITISH GOVERNMENT salt tax since he was in South Africa in papers like
The Vegetable and Hind Swaraj.
• British brought Ghurkha regiments to suppress it and
imposing martial law. • In the 1929 Lahore session of the INC, Jawaharlal
Nehru was made the President because of Gandhi’s
• They responded with aggression.
support. In this session, a program of civil
• A tragedy took place known as “the wagon tragedy,” disobedience was authorized, which included the
In which approximately 60 Mappila prisoners on their non-payment of taxes and the slogan of ‘Poorna
way to prison were suffocated to death in a closed Swaraj.’ This gave Mahatma Gandhi full authority to
railway goods wagon. launch the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• The Malabar Rebellion in 1921 started as resistance • Gandhiji then sent to the Viceroy Lord Irwin an 11
against the British colonial rule and the feudal system point Ultimatum threatening Civil Disobedience if
in southern Malabar but ended in communal violence these demands were not met. Lord Irwin ignored
between Hindus and Muslims. these demands.
• Gandhiji, along with a group of 78 volunteers from

►SALT SATYAGRAHA the Sabarmati Ashram, began a march from
Sabarmati to Dandi, covering a distance of 240 miles.
WHAT WAS THE SALT TAX LEVIED BY THE BRITISH?
He had announced that on reaching the coast of
• Salt in India had been taxed since the time of the Dandi, he would break the salt laws by collecting salt
Mauryas. During British rule, it was increased, and from the beach. Thus the Salt Satyagraha began.
other charges were added to it due to which it
• Thousands of people came out to support him, and
became a big burden on the common man.
Gandhiji urged the people to violate the salt laws
in a nonviolent manner. Upon reaching Dandi,
45
MODERN HISTORY
Gandhiji picked up a handful of salt, thus launched also bought a variety of forms of defiance and
the Civil Disobedience Movement. vigorous boycott with it.
• Many people were being recruited into the Congress ο It brought a lot of people, including women and
so that grass root level Congress Committees would the depressed classes, directly in touch with
be made. This would enable Satyagraha to start from the freedom movement. They actively
the villages too. Funds were being collected, sites for participated in drug and alcohol use
satyagraha was chosen, and volunteers were being ο It showed the power of the non-violent
prepared. Salt law violations began all over the Satyagraha as a tool in fighting imperialism.
country.
• Lord Irwin met Gandhiji, and after days of negotiation,
1) In Malabar, K Kelappan(hero of Viacom the Gandhi Irwin Pact was signed.
Satyagraha) started the revolt
THE GANDHI IRWIN PACT
2) In Assam, people walked from Sylhet to
Naokhali(Bengal coast) to break the salt law. GANDHI’S LORD IRWIN’S
COMMITMENTS COMMITMENTS
3) In Andhra, sibirams (military camps) were set up
4) In the NWFP, Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan, through He agreed that the INC The British would
his organization, Khudai Khidmatgars or Red Shirt would attend and take withdraw all orders
Organisation, began revolting. part in the Second imposing curbs or bans
Round Table Conference on the activities of the
• Gandhiji then announced that they would raid the
to chalk out Indian National Congress.
Dharasana Salt Works, which was administered by
constitutional reforms
the British Government. This led to his arrest, and the
revolts against it broke out in the whole country. The INC would stop the They also agreed to
st
• The Dharashana Cruelty: Sarojini Naidu (1 Indian civil disobedience withdraw trials relating to
women as Congress President), Imam Saheb, and movement. several offenses except
Manilal (Gandhiji’s son), along with 2000 volunteers, those involving violence
marched towards the Dharasana Salt Works (Gujarat).
Release of prisoners
The police violently charged the non-resisting
arrested for participating
Satyagrahis. The first line of Satyagrahis would be
in the civil disobedience
injured badly, be carried away in stretchers, and a
movement.
fresh line would come forward and take their place,
ready to be beaten up. This continued for quite some The following demands Removal of the tax on
time, which resulted in 320 people being injured and were not accepted by salt
two dead. This incident of resolute heroism of the Lord Irwin:
Dharasana Satyagrahis became a symbol everywhere. To restore the
A public inquiry into confiscated properties of
• This led to Satyagraha in many places: Bombay, police excesses during its the satyagraha.
Karnataka, Madras, Andhra Pradesh, Bengal, and suppression of the
Orissa. movement.. To withdraw all
• The satyagraha against the salt tax continued for ordinances and
Commuting the death
almost a year, ending with Gandhi's release from prosecutions.
sentences of Bhagat
jail and negotiations with Viceroy Lord Irwin at Singh and his associates
the Second Round Table Conference. Over 60,000 to life sentences
Indians were jailed as a result of the Salt
Satyagraha. However, it failed to result in significant The government agreed
concessions from the British. to let the people picket
peacefully, the shops that
• This movement had three main effects:
sold liquor
ο It was the catalyst that pushed Indian freedom
struggle into the limelight in western media. It
46
MODERN HISTORY
►QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT GANDHI’S GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS TO DIFFERENT

SECTIONS
REASONS FOR THE QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT
• These were spelled out at the Gowalia Tank meeting
• Failure of the Cripps Mission- The failure of the
but not actually issued. They were directed at various
Cripps Mission to accommodate the demand for full
sections of society:
independence for India, and further also giving the
ο Government servants: Do not resign but declare
right to provinces to secede, resulted in a
your allegiance to the Congress.
constitutional deadlock.
ο Soldiers: Do not leave the Army but do not fire on
• Thus, Indian leaders became clear that any more
compatriots.
silence on the British lack of sincerity would be
equivalent to accepting the British right to decide the ο Students: If confident, leave studies.
fate of Indians without consulting Indians. ο Peasants: If Zamindars are anti-government, pay
• Popular discontent- There was popular discontent mutually agreed rent, and if Zamindars are pro-
because of rising prices and shortage of rice, salt, etc. government, do not pay rent.
and because of factors such as the commandeering ο Princes: Support the masses and accept the
of boats in Bengal and Orissa. There were fears of sovereignty of your people.
Britain following a scorched earth policy in Assam,
Princely states’ people: Support the ruler only if he is
Bengal and Orissa against possible Japanese advance.
anti-government and declare yourselves to be a part of
• Imminent British collapse- News of reverses the Indian nation
suffered by the British in South-East Asia and an
THE THREE STAGES OF THE MOVEMENT
imminent British collapse gave confidence to
st
Indians and also enhanced popular willingness to • 1 Stage: this phase was the most violent phase and
give expression to discontent. lasted from 9th August to 15th August. It was
predominantly urban in nature and saw violent
• Popular faith in the stability of British rule was so low
protests at Delhi, Mumbai, Pune, Ahmadabad, etc.,
that people were withdrawing deposits from
where the protestors attacked rails, telegraph, and
banks and post offices.
postal services. At places, the police and the army
• Further, the manner in which the British evacuated were attacked. This phase is remembered as the
from South-East Asia, leaving the subjects to their fate ‘Great August Revolt.’
and the rout by an Asian power (Japan) shattered nd
• 2 Stage: the second phase saw the center of the
Britain’s prestige and exposed the racist tendencies
movement shifting to rural centers in the countryside
of the rulers.
as the young leaders who spearheaded the
BEGINNING OF THE MOVEMENT: movement in the absence of the top leadership were
• The All-India Congress Committee met in Bombay forced to move towards the countryside in the face of
at the historic grounds of Gowalia Tank (which was strong British vigilance at the urban centers. Parallel
later renamed as ‘August Kranti Ground’) on 8th governments were established in three places:
August 1942. The Quit India Resolution was ratified, ο Ballia (in August 1942 for a week) — under
and the meeting resolved to: Congress leader Chittu Pandey. It was the first
• Demand an immediate end to British rule in India. parallel government to be formed in the Country
during this movement.
• Declare commitment to free India to allow it to
defend itself against all types of Fascism and ο Tamluk (Midnapore, from December 1942 to
imperialism on its own. September 1944) — this government immediately
undertook cyclone relief work, sanctioned grants to
• Form a provisional Government of India after British
schools, organized Bidyut Bahinis, etc.
withdrawal.
ο Satara (mid-1943 to 1945) — It was named ‘Prati
• Sanction a civil disobedience movement against
Sarkar’ and was organized under leaders like Y.B.
British rule.
Chavan, Nana Patil, etc. Village libraries and
• M.K. Gandhi was named the leader of the struggle.
Nyayadan Mandals were organized, prohibition
47
MODERN HISTORY
campaigns were carried on, and ‘Gandhi marriages’ support it. The Communists did not support it as
were organized to which the schedule castes were Soviet Russia got involved in the War from the side
invited. It was the longest surviving parallel of the Allies, and therefore, the Communist parties
government formed during the Quit India were directed to resist from disrupting war efforts. And
Movement. Muslim League, which was engaged in separatist
• 3rd Stage: This stage lasted from October to movement, also remained away from the movement.
December and was limited to attacks by educated MAJOR SIGNIFICANCES OF THE QUIT INDIA
youth on police and army installations and MOVEMENT
communications and was identified by underground • Feeling of nationalism- It witnessed nationalistic
activities carried out by the young leaders of the feelings among the people at its zenith.
movement. The underground activity was carried out
• The realization to the British- It convinced the
by Ram Manohar Lohia, Jayaprakash Narayan, Aruna
British Government that their days were numbered in
Asaf Ali, Usha Sharma, Biju Patnaik, Chhotu Bhai
India. It hastened the process of India's march
Puranik, Achyut Patwardhan, Sucheta Kriplani, and
towards freedom.
R.P. Goenka. Usha Sharma started an underground
radio in Bombay. This phase of underground activity • Though the movement was crushed, the amount of
was meant to keep up popular morale by continuing energy and resources the British had to employ to
to provide a line of command and guidance to contain the movement convinced them of the
distribute arms and ammunition. unfeasibility of ruling India in the near future.
SOCIAL BASE OF THE MOVEMENT • The anti-British and anti-colonial sentiment

exhibited during the movement gave the message
(The movement saw broad participation from varied
that the Indians would not be satisfied with any
sections)
political or constitutional reforms less than complete
• The participation was seen at various levels- Independence.
ο Youth, especially the students of schools and • Global support- It played an important role in
colleges, remained at the forefront. convincing the world about the urgency of the Indian
ο Women, especially school and college girls, actively Freedom Movement. Many nation-states among the
participated and included Aruna Asaf Ali, Sucheta Allies, including the USA supported Indian
Kriplani, and Usha Mehta. independence.
ο Workers went on strikes and faced repression. • Final march to freedom- Although the movement
ο Peasants of all strata were at the heart of the failed to achieve its aim immediately yet it conveyed
movement. Even some Zamindars participated. the general message that it was simply a matter of
These peasants concentrated their offensive on sometime and procedure to decide upon the process
symbols of authority, and there was a complete of granting independence to India.
absence of anti-zamindari violence.
ο Government officials, especially those belonging ►THE NAVAL MUTINY: THE LAST
to lower levels in policy and administration, NAIL IN THE COFFIN OF BRITISH
participated resulting in erosion of government
loyalty. COLONIAL ASPIRATIONS IN INDIA
ο Muslims helped by giving shelter to In the history of Indian struggle, the Royal Indian Navy
underground activists. There were no communal revolt of 18 February 1946 shook the foundation of the
clashes during the movement. British empire proved as one of the last nails in the
coffin of the British Raj, thus compelling the colonial
ο Communists, despite their anti-war line, felt the
rulers to ponder over leaving Indian land as soon as
irresistible pull of the movement.
possible.
ο Princely states showed a low-key response.
The royal Indian navy mutiny deserves a special place in
Hindu Mahasabha and RSS kept themselves aloof of the national struggle of India as it was the second major
the complete movement. Dr. Ambedkar also did not rebellion after the popular Sepoy mutiny of 1857, which
48
MODERN HISTORY
involved regular British Ratings (Indian Navy sailors) Naval Central Strike Committee. Sardar Patel appealed
determined to show their defiance against the to the rebel soldiers to end their act of defiance against
exploitative and discriminatory policies of their white the British Raj, which got the support of the Muslim
masters. British Prime Minister Clement Atlee once league later on.
admitted that this mutiny of Navy Ratings (Sailors) Despite assurances given by the Congress and Muslim
in February 1946 paved the way for the early league regarding the right service conditions, the
departure of Britishers from the Indian land. massive arrest was made, followed by large-scale
Compared to the first sepoy mutiny of 1857, which is dismissals from the service and court-martials. The
also popularly known as the ‘First War of Indian ‘Bombay mutiny’ though shorter in duration, brought the
Independence,’ the ‘Bombay Mutiny’ had lasted for a Britishers to the home about the brevity of their rule in
much (around six days) shorter period but left a India as successive revolts by the armed forces
more profound blow to the prestige of the British convinced them about their early departure from the
Empire. Britain, while still recovering from the Indian land.
devastation of the war which had weakened it seriously, This naval mutiny will remain conspicuous in the annals
provided an essential opportunity to the ratings of the of modern history owing to its timing and fervour, which
Royal India Navy to stand against the maltreatment in the far end of British rule, unlike previous agitations,
meted out to them by their white superiors. almost confirmed the independence of the country from
The reverberations of the revolt were felt throughout British subjugation.
the major part of the country as it soon spread like
wildfire to the naval ships stationed in Calcutta, Karachi,
► MOVEMENT FOR HARIJAN BY
and Madras along with other ports.
Initially, started with the strike on ‘HMIS Talwar’ on

GANDHIJI
the issues such as serving the low quality of food, The word Harijan which means hari ka jan, (the man of
instances of racial abuse by the white superiors of the god) was a term popularized by Gandhi ji for referring
Indian sepoys, finally switched over the significant communities traditionally considered so-called
demands of releasing the Generals of INA and not "Untouchable".
employing the Indian soldiers in Indonesia. Gandhi started publishing a weekly journal called
The much expected casual response of the white bosses "Harijan" in 1933 from Yerwada Jail during British
was the ready recipe for the ensuing violence, which rule. He created three publications: Harijan in English
nearly burnt down the whole city of Bombay, claiming (from 1933 to 1948), Harijan Bandu in Gujarati, and
more than 200 lives. Besides, unlike the previous sepoy Harijan Sevak in Hindi. These newspapers found Gandhi
mutiny of 1857, this was a pre-planned event. On the concentrating on social and economic problems, much
evening of February 19, a strike committee under the as his earlier English newspaper, Young India, had done
two officers MS Khan and Madan Singh was formally from 1919 to 1932.
established to act like a president and vice president of The announcement of the Communal Award in August
the committee. The selection of one Muslim and a Sikh 1932 was another example of the ‘Divide & Rule’ policy,
was made deliberately to defeat any possible attempt by as it meant Harijan (Dalit) could only vote Harijan,
the government of playing the divide and rule card. Hindus vote Hindu & Muslim vote Muslim. Gandhi
The mutiny, which hardly sustained the onslaught of started his fast against it, and Poona Pact was signed in
British forces for four days, started buckling under September 1932.
pressure as soon as the British troops had begun After the Poona pact, Gandhi ji decided to commence
targeting the rebel ships with increasing bombardment. an ‘Untouchability prevention movement,’ as he was
In the ensuing negotiations, the government accepted always against untouchability. On November 7, 1933, he
most of the demands of rebels in principal, which embarked on a country-wide tour which covered 12,500
included improvement in the quality of food and living miles and lasted for nine months. The tour evoked great
conditions of the ratings. The mutiny was called off enthusiasm for the breaking down of the barriers which
owing to the intervention of Sardar Vallabh Bhai divided the untouchables from the rest of the Hindu
Patel, who chose to meet MS Khan, the president of the community; however, Gandhi Ji faced a lot of trouble by
49
MODERN HISTORY
reactionary forces. His movement was known as • Gandhiji felt that most women in India had qualities
”Harijan Yatra.” His entire campaign was based on such as patience and forbearance, as well as moral
principles of humanism and reason. He said that the courage, which is required in a Satyagrah.
shastras do not sanction untouchability, and if they did, • Gandhi’s beliefs helped women to get away with the
they should be ignored as it was against human dignity. sense of inferiority and to rise to dignity.
SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE MOVEMENT • He opposed social evils such as child marriage,
Gandhiji repeatedly described the campaign as not a purdah system.
political movement but was primarily meant to purify • Women went to jail for the first time in the NCM. (“A
Hinduism and Hindu society. yagna is incomplete without women taking part in it”-
• Gradually, the campaign carried the message of Gandhi to during NCM).
nationalism to Harijans, who also happened to be the • During the peasant movement in Awadh, which
agricultural laborers in most parts of the country, accompanied the NCM, Jaggi Devi participated
leading to their increasing participation in the actively, Sarla Devi, Amrit Kaur, Sucheta Kripalani, and
national and peasant movements. Aruna Asaf Ali also participated in the NCM.
• Gandhiji's movement included a program of internal • The Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-33) saw
reform by Harijans covering education, cleanliness, women’s participation. Sarojini Naidu was nominated
hygiene, giving up the consumption of liquor, and by Gandhiji to initiate a raid upon Dharasana Salt
removing untouchability among themselves. Works.
• In 1938, the Removal of Civil Disabilities Act was • Kamla Devi (after support from Gandhi) addressed
passed by the Madras legislature, which provided meetings and prepared salt. Nari Satyagraha
that no Harijan would be disabled from any social or Committee.
public amenity.
• During the Quit India Movement (1942) Usha Mehta
• In the same year, the Madras legislature also passed persisted with broadcasting until their arrest (When
the Malabar Temple Entry Act, which threw open the Gandhi said- Do or die).
temples in Malabar to the untouchables.
• Gandhi’s insistence on non-violence and emphasis on
• Practicing any type of untouchability stopped maintaining a respectable image of women
constitutionally after independence, and it also satyagrahis helped in more participation of Women.
became an offense under the protection of the civil
rights act, 1955.
► GROWTH OF MODERN
► ROLE OF MAHATMA GANDHI IN NATIONALISM IN INDIA
DRAWING WOMEN INTO Modern nationalism in India began with the ‘Revolt of
1857’ and took concrete shape with the coming up of the
MAINSTREAM OF NATIONALIST ‘Indian National Congress’ (1885).
MOVEMENT KEY FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTED TO GROWTH OF
• India’s Freedom Struggle has witnessed the NATIONALISM:
undaunted courage of Women during the pre- • Political and administrative unification of the
Gandhian era from Lakshmibai to Bhima Holkar. Later country – British sword brought a sizeable Indian
reformism gave way to the valorization of tradition, state under a single rule with a unified judiciary and
and women became an ideal emblem of the moral codified civil and criminal laws.
and motherhood. But after the advent of Gandhiji,
• Growing understanding of economic contradiction
there was a significant change in women’s
between Indian and colonial interests – presented in
involvement in the nationalist movement.
economic drain theory.
• Sita and Draupadi were his role models for Indian
• Development of modern transport and
women. He believed they were capable of making the
communication – such as railways, telegraph etc
supreme sacrifice.
introduced by Dalhousie.
50
MODERN HISTORY
• Modern western education – introduced liberal and Peasant Movements in India evolved continuously,
radical thoughts. adding new features to it, which also played an essential
• Role of press and vernacular literature – 169 role in India’s independence struggle.
newspapers helped in spreading criticism of official

policies and generating public opinion. ►DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN
• Emergence of the new middle-class Intelligentsia – INDIA
provided a vital base.
THE INTRODUCTION OF ENGLISH
• Indian renaissance - rediscovery of India’s past and
cultural nationalism. • In 1813, by the Charter Act, the British Parliament
provided an annual expenditure of rupees one lakh
• Reactionary policies and racial arrogance of
for educating the Indians. Yet, for years to come,
rulers- came to light during Ilbert bill controversy, the
the money could not be spent. One reason for the
partition of Bengal.
failure of utilizing this money was the controversy
• Thus, began the freedom struggle that eventually between the Orientalists and the Anglicists.
leads to the overthrowing of foreign yoke and
• While the Orientalists desired that the money should
establishment of ‘Swaraj.’
be spent on the study of Indian languages and
learning like Persian and Sanskrit, the Anglicists
►FEATURES OF PEASANT insisted that it should be spent on the English
language and learning.
MOVEMENTS IN INDIA
th
• The controversy was settled when William Bentinck
Peasant discontent was a familiar feature of the 19
th
came to India as the governor-general. Lord
century. But in the 20 century, the movements that
Macaulay’s Minutes in 1835 favored the
emerged out of this discontent were marked by new
introduction of the English language as the
features.
medium of instruction and the English system of
TH
FEATURES OF 19 CENTURY PEASANT MOVEMENT education in India.
• Mainly localized and violent in nature. • William Bentinck accepted the viewpoint of Macaulay,
• They were mostly unplanned. and it was decided that all funds for the purpose of
education were to be spent on the promotion of
• No objective to end the system of exploitation of the
English literature and sciences through the medium
peasants.
of English language
• Mainly had limited objectives and were backward-
ANGLICIST VS ORIENTALISTS
looking.
Besides the strong support of Macaulay and the desire
• They were brutally suppressed, leading to failure in
of William Bentinck to introduce the English language
an immediate sense.
and western education in India, three important factors
TH
FEATURES OF 20 CENTURY PEASANT MOVEMENT helped in the making of this decision.
• They were closely linked with the politics at the 1. The Evangelists aimed at getting a large number of
national level. (Non-Co-operation Movement, All converts in India by introducing western learning, and
India Kisan Sabha) the Liberals and the Humanitarians felt that it would
• Became more organized as they got support from be an act of humanity.
national leaders like Gandhi (Moppilah), Vallabh Bhai 2. Many Indians themselves also desired it. They rightly
Patel (Bardoli). believed that it would provide them good
• Became more organized and peaceful for getting opportunities for employment in government jobs.
the support of all sections. Raja Ram Mohan Roy became their chief spokesman.
• Peasants started filing cases against moneylenders 3. The British had become politically secure in India by
and landlords. that time. They neither expected any serious
challenge to their power by the Indians nor Oriental
51
MODERN HISTORY
learning, customs and traditions commanded any 6. Vocational teachers’ training and technical schools
respect in their eyes. and colleges should be established.
Therefore, the Anglicists got the upper hand, and the so- 7. The education of the females should be pushed up.
called ‘Macaulayan system’ of education was introduced • Lord Dalhousie, the then governor-general,
in India. attempted to implement the suggestions of Charles
• The system which Macaulay introduced simply aimed Wood. The Department of Public Instruction was
at educating the upper classes of India. The organized at the Centre in 1855.
government did not intend to spend money on the Education departments were established in provinces,
education of the masses. The education of a minority Inspectors of Schools were appointed, an agriculture
was sufficient for getting Indians into lower services institute at Pusa in Calcutta and an Engineering institute
of the government. at Roorkee in Uttar Pradesh were started, and affiliating
• It was only in modern Uttar Pradesh that Mr. James Universities were established at Calcutta, Chennai, and
Thomson, lieutenant governor during the period Mumbai. The process begun by Dalhousie continued
1843-53, attempted to educate the Indians in afterward and gradually, the indigenous system of
vernacular languages. Therefore, English education education was replaced by the Western system.
was limited to High Schools and colleges, while in THE HUNTER COMMISSION, 1882-83
lower grade schools, all subjects were taught through
• In 1870, the responsibility of education was
the medium of vernacular languages.
transferred to provinces that had limited economic
The motive of this effort was to train the Indians for resources. That also handicapped the Primary and
employment in the newly set up Revenue and Public High School education. Therefore, Lord Ripon felt the
Works Department, where the Englishmen could not be necessity of inquiring into the working of Primary and
provided worthwhile employment. High School education and appointed an Education
SIR CHARLES WOOD’S DESPATCH ON EDUCATION, Commission under W. W. Hunter in 1882 to review
1854: the progress of education in these fields. The
The next important step concerning English education in Commission submitted its report in 1883. Some of its
India was taken by Sir Charles Wood, the President of primary recommendations were :
the Board of Control in 1854. His Despatch on education 1. Primary education should be given priority. The
has been described as the Magna Carta of English government need not wait for voluntary help in this
education in India. The main recommendations of field. It should hand over the management of primary
Charles Wood were as follows : education to District and Municipal Boards, which
1. The education of the vernacular languages also were to be provided one-third of their expenditure on
needed attention because only through them the it by the government as grants-in-aid.
western education could infiltrate among the masses. 2. Two types of High Schools should be established
2. Primary schools should be opened in villages, and one, for providing literary education leading up to the
High Schools and affiliated colleges should be started entrance examination of the University and the other
at the district level in the cities. for preparing students for vocational education.
3. Voluntary associations should be encouraged to 3. The government, as far as could be possible, should
establish schools and colleges, and the government withdraw itself from the school and college education,
should grant them financial assistance. and every effort should be made to encourage
private enterprise in these fields by a system of
4. An education department, under a director, should be
liberal grants in-aid.
established in each province to supervise and
standardize education. 4. Female education, which was most inadequate
outside the Presidency towns, should be
5. Affiliating Universities, on the model of the London
emphasized.
University, should be opened at Calcutta, Chennai,
and Mumbai. The government accepted most of the
recommendations of the Commission, and education
developed with a marked speed after that. But more
52
MODERN HISTORY
than the government, several Indian philanthropic and ►GROWTH OF LEFT MOVEMENT
religious associations participated in its growth. It
resulted not only in the development of western • The Russian revolution of 1917 inspired Indian
education but also in oriental studies. Some teaching- revolutionary nationalists and moved them
cum-examining universities were also established in towards socialism.
the coming years, i. e., the Punjab University in 1882 • The failure of the non-cooperation movement further
and the Allahabad University in 1887. But the convinced them that Independence could not be
primary education yet remained neglected. Besides, acquired under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi.
female education also remained negligible.
• The Swaraj party also did not attract them. The
rising cost of basic necessities of life and growing
►DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDIAN unemployment.
PRESS DURING THE BRITISH RULE. • During the course of the first world war provided
• In the beginning newspapers and journals aimed to a proper atmosphere for the growth of socialist
cater to the needs of Europeans and the Anglo ideas. Some people started talking about class war,
Indians and were hardly a threat to company’s rule. economic inequality, fight against economic
But the company’s officers were apprehensive about exploitation, etc. Among them, a few were impressed
these newspapers exposing their misdoings to the by communism, and they thought of spreading
home authorities. They enforced pre-censorship of communist ideology with the help of Russia.
newspapers in 1799, and the regulating act of 1823 • They finally organized the Communist Party of India.
completely extinguished the freedom of unlicensed THE SOCIALIST PARTY OF INDIA
printing. But the new press act, 1835 of Metcalfe,
• The Socialist group of people originated within the All
liberated the Indian press. Before the revolt of 1857,
India Congress.
the press was fiercely involved in rallying the masses,
and the British were more apprehensive about press • They did not believe in class-war or in violent means
freedom. So, they enacted the licensing act of 1857 to attain their object, but they certainly aimed at
and the regulating act of 1867 to keep the press in establishing a socialist state in India by the
check. democratic process.
• Lytton’s vernacular press act of 1878 (gagging act) • They remained within the Congress and supported
prevented the vernacular press from criticizing the national movement.
government policies. Ripon repealed it in 1881. Later, • They organized labor unions and Peasants’
more stringent anti-press laws were enacted as the association and fought for their rights but limited
freedom movement gained momentum. their efforts to peaceful means.
Amendments to the IPC in 1897, the official secrets
• Among national leaders, Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru and
act of 1904, the Indian newspapers (incitement to
Subhash Chandra Bose supported them. But the
offenses) act of 1908, and the Indian press act of 1910
efforts of these socialists remained negligible.
are the classic examples. In 1921, on the
• While Jawaharlal Nehru bowed down before ideas of
recommendations of a press committee, the press
Gandhiji, Subash Chandra had to form a separate
acts of 1908 and 1910 were repealed.
party called the ‘Forward Bloc’.
• Indian Press (Emergency Powers) Act, 1931, to
• Many people, having faith in socialist ideas, left the
suppress propaganda for the Civil Disobedience
Congress and formed a separate organization called
Movement, and the restrictions during the Second
the ‘Congress Socialist Party’ under the leadership of
World War curtailed press freedom. Press Enquiry
Jai Prakash Narayan and Acharya Narendra Deo. This
Committee of 1947 recommended repeal of the
party emphasized the right of economic equality,
Indian Emergency Powers Act, 1931, amendments in
opposed the Act of 1935, and tried to avoid the
Press and Registration of Books Act, modifications in
partition of India by having a compromise with the
Sections 124-A and 156-A of IPC, among others.
Muslim League.
53
MODERN HISTORY
THE COMMUNIST PARTY OF INDIA Forward Bloc, and their youth-organizations. Their
• M.N. Roy was the first person who succeeded in purpose was to influence the policies of these parties
organizing peasants and labor in the provinces of from within and, thus, making them their
Mumbai, Bengal, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh and instruments.
finally, the Communist Party of India in 1924. • When other parties understood the game of the
• Efforts of S. A. Dange and his newspaper ‘Socialists’ in Communists, they turned them out from their parties.
Mumbai, efforts of Muzaffar Ahmad and Fazlul Haq • Russia was opposite to Britain in the beginning of the
and their newspaper ‘Navayuga’ in Bengal, and efforts world war-I but when Germany attacked Russia, it
of Gulam Hussain and his monthly magazine ‘Inqilab’ befriended Britain. The Communist Party of India
in Punjab contributed a lot towards spreading changed its color accordingly. It opposed the Indian
Communist ideas. government in the beginning, but when, later on,
• The Government was suspicious of them from the Russia changed sides, it cooperated with the Indian
very beginning and tried to suppress communist government and even opposed the ‘Quit India
ideology. Three critical cases were- Movement of 1942’. Therefore, it was defamed in
India.
• The Kanpur Conspiracy Case: Shaukat Usmani,
Muzaffar Ahmad, Nalini Gupta and S. A. Danga were • It also supported the demand of the Muslim League
charged with attempting to overthrow the for the partition of India and accepted that India was
government by violent means. Each of them was not one nation but a country inhabited by people of
imprisoned for four years. The case became a topic of different nationalities
discussion even outside India. AFTER INDEPENDENCE
• The Meerut Conspiracy Case: all important • After Independence, the Communist Party was
communist leaders were involved and were charged divided. It’s one group decided to function within the
by the government with conspiring to overthrow the limits of the Indian Constitution while the other group
government by violent means. Each of these leaders aimed at pursuing the goal of establishing a socialist
was given long-term imprisonment. state in India.
• The Peshawar Conspiracy Case: Those people who • In 1964, another party, Communist Party (Marxist)
had gone out of India during the Khilafat Movement was formed, which became more influential among
but had returned after training in Russia were the Communists.
involved in the Peshawar Conspiracy Case. They were • The Left Movement in India grew prior to
charged with conspiracy against the government and Independence but could not gain popularity among
were imprisoned for one to two years. the masses.
CAUSES OF FAILURE • It helped in organizing labor, supported their
• Its primary cause was its total dependence on the movements, attracted a good number of intellectuals,
dictates of the communist party of Russia. and enlightened people in matters of economic
• The Communist Party of India was a part of the justice.
‘Comintern’ (an international organization of the

Communists). ►WHY THE CONGRESS ACCEPTED
• The Communist Party of India pursued its dictates THE PARTITION
between the period 1828-34 and, therefore, lost the
sympathy of all political parties in India and Indian • The Congress changed its instances on the Partition
masses as well. from time to time. On April 2, 1942, the Congress

Working Committee criticized the secessionist
• The Communist Party opposed the ‘Civil
idea.
Disobedience Movement’ led by Gandhiji and lost
further its popularity. • But at the same time, the Congress committee said
that it could not compel the people of any territorial
• Its members were asked to infiltrate other
unit to remain in the Indian Union against their
organizations like Congress, the Socialist Party, the
declared and established will.
54
MODERN HISTORY
• Congress’s election manifesto of 1945 reiterated this was done with a view of colonial expansion and
principle, thus setting at naught the Jagat Narain requirements.
Lal’s resolution, adopted by the All India Congress
• Congress had already declared its resolution to
Committee (AICC) on May 2, 1942, which ruled out
the reorganization of states on a linguistic basis
liberty to any component State or territorial unit
and had even developed its organization on a similar
to secede. Rajaji’s formula, in March 1944, accepted
plebiscite on Partition in areas wherein the Muslim manner.
population is in absolute majority. • In 1917 a separate Andhra panel and in 1918, a Sindh
• On September 24, 1944, Gandhi himself offered panel was formed in congress.
Jinnah his plan for “two sovereign independent • After the Nagpur session of 1920, the regional
States” with a Treaty of Separation on defense,
councils of congress were reorganized on a linguistic
foreign affairs, etc. Thus, from 1940 onwards, the
basis. Gandhi and Nehru had also supported these
trend was unmistakably against India’s unity.
efforts.
• Both Gandhi and the Congress had accepted the
EARLY STEPS
principle of Partition, based on the consent of the
areas concerned. Time was fast running out on India’s • The constituent assembly formed a Linguistic
unity. state commission in 1948 under the chairmanship
• The British government’s statement on December of S. K. Dar to look in the matter of state
6, 1946, rejected the Congress' interpretation of reorganization on a linguistic basis. The commission,
the grouping formula and expressed its view that though, acknowledged the popular demand all over
there has never been any prospect of success for the India for the formation of states based on language
Constituent Assembly except upon the basis of the but emphasized more on the development of India as
agreed procedure. a nation.
• Should a Constitution come to be framed by the
• After Independence, all national leaders, along with
Constituent Assembly in which a large section of the
Nehru, thought that the reorganization of states on
Indian population had not been represented, His
the linguistic basis could be more destructive in the
Majesty’s Government could not, of course,
time when the nation is partitioned on a communal
contemplate as the Congress have stated they would
not contemplate forcing such a Constitution upon any basis and the violence it spawned and also when the
unwilling parts of the country. This gave Congress one partition has presented many socio-economic,
of two choices – unqualified acceptance of the administrative problems, the Kashmir problem and a
Cabinet Mission’s Plan or Partition. spoiled relation with Pakistan. The leaders believed
• It preferred the latter. Once again, Gandhi rejected that the issue of national integration should be
the Plan. But the direct action day observed by attended to above all others.
Muslim league and the following incidents of • Congress again formed a committee for this matter
Hindu-Muslim riot made Congress believe that
in December 1948 with Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabh
partition was the only option if otherwise there
Bhai Patel, and P. Sitaramiyyah as its members.
could be lasting peace even if British leave India. And
This committee was known as the J.V.P committee,
so Congress accepted the partition.
and it recommended against the reorganization of
states on a linguistic basis due to the existing issues
►REORGANIZATION OF STATES: of national integration, security, and defense.
REGIONAL ISSUES • But the Congress did not completely reject the
• The reorganization of states at the time of idea of state reorganization. In fact, it expressed the
independence of India was an important issue. possibility to reorganize the states on a linguistic basis
if such demands were persistent and if other lingual
• The administrative division of India was not done on
the lines of linguistic or cultural homogeneity, but it groups of that state also are in agreement.
55
MODERN HISTORY
VIOLENT STAGE OF MOVEMENT • Similar reorganizations should be done in northern
• Many demands came up like joint Karnataka, joint India, and four significant states should be formed
Maharashtra, Maha Gujarat, state for the Malchali from Hindi speaking regions-Madhya Pradesh, Uttar
language-speaking people, a separate state for the Pradesh, Bihar, and Rajasthan. There was little
Sikhs in Punjab etc. but the movement that took a recommendation regarding the eastern states.
fierce shape was for a separate Andhra state. • The formation of a separate Sikh state was not
• This state was to be formed from the Telegu speaking considered to be good, and also the permission to
regions included in the Madras presidency and divide the Bombay presidency on a linguistic basis
former Hyderabad kingdom. The JVP report and the was denied. However, the committee recommended
leaders of Madras too agreed for a separate Andhra forming Vidharba state by combining the Marathi
state, but there was no common agreement over the speaking regions of farther distances.
possession of the city of Madras. • The committee opposed the idea to form a separate
• When on 19th October 1952, Potti Shrimalu in Madras tribal state from Assam and Bihar.
started a hunger strike till death and died during it on • The recommendations of the committee were implied
15th December. With his death, the violence and with minor changes. The parliament in November
disorder were widespread at a scale which within two 1956 made the state reorganization act under which
days, made Nehru to declare the formation of a 14 states and 6 union territories were formed.
separate Andhra state. Following were the main points of the act:-
• On 1st October 1953, Andhra Pradesh was officially • The Telangana region of Hyderabad was included in
the first state of India to be formed entirely on a Andhra Pradesh.
linguistic basis. With this, the Tamil speaking state • A new state of Kerala was formed which was made by
also came into existence, but the name Tamil Nadu combining Cochin of Travancore and Malabar district
however, was not used until 1969. of Madras presidency.
FORMATION OF STATES • Some Kannada speaking regions from Bombay,
• With the formation of Andhra Pradesh, the demand Madras, Hyderabad, and Kurg were included in
to create other states on a linguistic basis started to Mysore.
rise up again. Keeping this in view, the government • The Bombay state was extended, and the kingdoms
formed a state reorganization committee in 1953 of Kutch and Saurashtra and the Marathi speaking
with Fazal Ali, K. M. Panicker, and Hridaynath regions of the Hyderabad kingdom. The Marathi
Kunjru as its member. All three of them were not speaking Nagpur division was also included.
from congress. The committee submitted its report in
FOLLOWING STATES WERE FORMED FROM THIS ACT
October 1955 with the following main points:-
• Andhra Pradesh.
• The linguistic basis is a very important factor for state
reorganizations from the point of administrative • Assam.
convenience and equality among people. But this is • Bihar.

not the only factor. Equal attention should be given
• Bombay - above mentioned regions were added into
to other factors as well, which pointed towards
it while its southern regions were included in the
national integration, stability, and security.
Mysore state. It was later split into Maharashtra and
• Reorganizations should be done over four major Gujarat in 1960.
languages of south-Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and
• Jammu and Kashmir.
Malayalam. The districts and the talukas should be
• Kerala.
reorganized on the basis of the majority of people
speaking different languages. • Madhya Pradesh - central India, Vindhya state, and
Bhopal state collectively formed this new state while
56
MODERN HISTORY
the Marathi speaking Nagpur division was included in (1) To enhance the productivity of the land by improving
the Bombay state. the economic conditions of farmers and tenants so
• Mysore - other than Kurg, the Kannad speaking that they may have the interest to invest in and
regions of southern Bombay state and western improve agriculture.
Hyderabad were included. In 1973, the name was (2) To ensure distributive justice and create an
changed from Mysore to Karnataka. egalitarian society by eliminating all forms of
• Orissa. exploitation.
• Madras -Malabar region from the former Madras (3) To develop a system of peasant proprietorship with
presidency was given to Kerala. While Kanyakumari, the motto of land to the tiller.
the southern district of Travancore-Cochin, was given (4) To transfer the incomes of the rich to many so that
to Madras state. The name was changed to Tamil the demand for consumer goods would be created.
Nadu in 1964. THE SALIENT FEATURES OF THE LAND REFORMS THAT
• Punjab - the Patiala region and the eastern Punjab WERE IMPLEMENTED ARE AS FOLLOWS:
state were merged to expand. • Abolition of intermediaries: Until Independence, a
• Rajasthan - Ajmer was included along with some large part of agricultural land was held by the
regions from Bombay state and central India. intermediaries under the zamindari, Mahalwari and
• Uttar Pradesh. Ryotwari systems. Due to this, the tenants were

burdened with high rents, unproductive cultivation,
• West Bengal.
and other forms of exploitation. Thus all the
• The committee had initially recommended the intermediaries between the government and the
formation of only three centrally administered tillers of the land were removed. These intermediaries
territories, but by the States reorganizations act 1956, were the zamindars or the jagirdars. Their land was
a total of six such territories were formed:- confiscated and was vested with the states.
• Andaman and Nicobar. • Tenancy reforms: After acquiring of the land, the
• Delhi. state government decided on the scale and mode of
compensation that should be paid to them. The ‘Fair
• Himachal Pradesh.
Rent’ was also fixed after taking due consideration of
• Lakshadweep, Minicoy and Amandiv were taken out
the nature of the land. The reforms gave due
from Madras state.
protection to the tenants by not allowing arbitrary
• Manipur. eviction of the tenants and making a safeguard
• Tripura. mechanism for that.
• The ceiling on Land Holdings: The Government fixed
►LAND REFORMS AFTER the maximum amount of land a person or family can
hold.
INDEPENDENCE
• Consolidation of Holdings: Due to the fragmentation
After independence, the Congress set up an Agrarian
of land, landholdings in many states were very small
Reforms Committee, also known as the Kumarappa
for commercial farming. So if a farmer has three
Committee. This committee made a detailed analysis
different small plots of land in different places, his
and made a comprehensive report for implementing
land could be made into one by either exchange or
land reforms in India.
purchase of land.
Moreover, according to the Planning Commission of
• Development of cooperative farming. In order to
India, the important objectives of land reform measures
overcome the issues of lack of financing by the
in India were:
Government and land subdivisions, the Government
57
MODERN HISTORY
encouraged cooperative farming. In this, the farmers
would pool in their resources and thus would gain
more when the crops would be sold due to larger
output and capital investment.
DRAWBACKS OF LAND REFORMS
Even though land reforms was implemented, there were

various loopholes in it that were exploited by the
landowners.
• They transferred their land to their relatives, and

some also evicted tenants with the pretext of tilling
the land themselves.
• Many people still own large areas of land under

‘Benami’ names.
• The small and marginal farmers in India are still

trapped in the vicious debt cycle of moneylenders.
Rural poverty still exists since the land ceiling, and
redistribution of the land was not implemented
properly.
• Many plantations like tea, coffee, etc. were exempt

from the land ceiling act.
• To fix the various loopholes in the land reforms, the

recommendations of the Central Land Reforms
Committee were implemented. For this purpose, a
family of five was made one unit, and the Land
distribution done gave priority to the landless
peasants, SC and ST communities.
58
Section-4
ORLD
ISTORY
►AMERICAN REVOLUTION continue to debate whether or not the American
Revolution was truly all that revolutionary.
WHETHER OR NOT THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION WAS
SOCIAL AND IDEOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF THE
TRULY ALL THAT REVOLUTIONARY
AMERICAN REVOLUTION
The American Revolution was a political revolution
On the one hand, the American Revolution was not a
that separated England’s North American colonies
complete social revolution such as the French
from Great Britain and led to the formation of the
Revolution in 1789 or the Russian Revolution in 1917.
United States of America. The Revolution was achieved
The American Revolution did not produce a total upheaval
in large part by the American Revolutionary War (1775-
of the previously existing social and institutional structures.
1783), which was fought between England against
America and its allies (France, Spain, and the Dutch It also did not replace the old powers of authority with a
Republic). new social group or class. On the other hand, for most
American colonists fighting for independence, the
The American Revolution embodied and reflected the
American Revolution represented fundamental social
principles of the Enlightenment, which emphasized
change in addition to political change. The ideological
personal liberty and freedom from tyranny among
backdrop for the Revolution was based on the concept of
other ideals. The American revolutionaries and the
replacing older forms of feudal-type relationships with
Founding Fathers of the United States sought to create a
a social structure based on republicanism and
nation without the shackles of the rigid social hierarchy
democracy.
that existed in Europe.
The American Revolution was responsible for
Although the American Revolution succeeded in
popularizing some of the most radical concepts of the
establishing a new nation that was built on the principles
Enlightenment including rule of law, liberty,
of personal freedom and democracy, scholars today
equality, and a government of the people. In his
59
WORLD HISTORY
Pulitzer Prize winning book, The Radicalism of the participating in the political and even at times the social
American Revolution, historian Gordon S. Wood argues spheres of society.
that the American revolutionaries’ dedication to making However, the Revolutionary War led to dramatic
equality one of the most important bedrocks of society changes in the lives of women who were able to
was “the single most powerful and radical ideological exercise political control during the boycott
force in all of American history.” campaigns against British goods. Furthermore, out of
The Revolution’s ideals of equality and freedom may not necessity, many women contributed to the war effort by
have included all segments of society at the nation’s running their husband’s farms or businesses, while the
inception; however, these Enlightenment principles men were off fighting for independence. Following the
planted a seed of reform that would continue to grow war, many American women started to protest against
over the course of America’s history. Throughout the their lack of civil and political rights.
nineteenth century, the abolition movement and similar
movements against religious intolerance and the
►FRENCH REVOLUTION
subjection of women became increasingly popular and
formidable issues in American society. CAUSES OF FRENCH REVOLUTION
By the first few decades of the nineteenth century, the a) The situation of Bankruptcy in France: the state
northern states had nearly all abolished the institution treasury in France was empty by 1786-88 mainly due
of slavery or enacted plans for gradual emancipation. to the activities of the higher social order, and the
king tried to tackle this by increasing the tax burden
POLITICAL EFFECTS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
on the third estate (common people with no
Politically, the American Revolution carried significant privilege); This proved to be a significant reason of
and historic consequences. The Revolution established revolt.
a republican form of government out of what had
b) Role of natural calamities: During the 1780's France
been a monarchical and colonial political system. It
was struck by several droughts and floods, and the
altered the position of American people from being
plight of the commoners was ignored by the royalty.
subjects of the British crown to citizens and political
participants of a republic. It also endowed the middle c) Impact of the American Revolution: French soldiers
segments of society with more political agency than they that had returned from America after the revolution
had ever previously experienced under British rule. proved to be a major vehicle of transfer of
During the colonial period, only a small number of white progressive ideas to French society.
men enjoyed the right to vote. Also, political d) Role of French philosophers: They made the French
participation was low. There were very few organized Revolution more than just an outbreak of violence.
political parties and wealthy merchants, lawyers or Grounding their arguments on Rationalism, the
planters, held most major political offices. thinkers argued that man was born to be happy and
As the American Revolution approached and political not suffer, as stated by the Church. This happiness
issues became heated, voter turnout increased. Political could be achieved by removing the prejudices
pamphleteering and propaganda became more popular prevailing in the society. Further, they focused on
and led to an increased knowledge of political events by Secularism as they either denied God or ignored him
more of the population. in their discussions. The Doctrine of Nature brought
the Clergy under attack by the thinkers.
During and after the American Revolution, political
offices became increasingly elected positions as It emphasized a need to study nature’s laws, and religion
opposed to governmental appointments. Following cannot help in this. Instead, it is the power of reason
the Revolution, average Americans began to call for that is key to nature’s understanding. Voltaire believed
expanded suffrage to include a wider portion of the that all belief was absurd as it was against the logic of
population. Of course, this political extension of freedom reason. Atheists and Materialists gained popularity
only applied to certain portions of the population and as it was emphasized that man’s destiny lay in his own
excluded all women, enslaved Africans, freed African hands. The principles of Laissez-Faire and No
Americans, and a large portion of poor white men from Taxation without Representation were stressed,
which brought the Nobility under criticism. Further,
60
WORLD HISTORY
the ideas of democracy were propounded by thinkers explanation of the separation of government
like Montesquieu and Jean Rousseau. powers.
ROUSSEAU • His early writings reveal Montesquieu as a liberal, a
• Rousseau articulated the idea of the 'social contract', deist, and a supporter of constitutional monarchy.
an unwritten agreement between governments and • He was less receptive to republicanism or democracy.
individuals. Like other intellectual giants of his age, Montesquieu
• He also articulated the concept of popular believed that the government was best left to
sovereignty, suggesting that the true power of educated and enlightened elites.
government was derived from the consent of the
• Common people, Montesquieu argued, were too
people. Popular sovereignty was a critical idea that
shiftless and poorly equipped to discuss either law or
was used to justify the American and French
the business of government.
revolutions.
• Montesquieu also believed that political systems must
• The revolutionaries embraced Rousseau's belief that
be organized so that those in government could not
political systems, while never perfect, must strive to
accumulate or abuse power. Montesquieu expanded
progress and improve. One of Rousseau's more
on this point in his best-known work, “The Spirit of
contentious claims was that private property was an
the Laws'.
impediment to good political leadership. Property
interests, Rousseau suggested distracted politicians • He compared different systems of government, with a
from their primary roles: representing the people and particular focus on how each system protected
ensuring morality. individual liberty. Expanding on ideas previously
• Rousseau also advocated the concept of civic explored by the English philosopher John Locke,
religion, a religion to worship God and uphold Montesquieu decided the best means of protecting
morality rather than served vested interests. individual liberty was through the separation of
government powers.
VOLTAIRE
• The different functions of government - executive or
• He returned to France in 1729 and published Letters
monarchical, legislative, and judicial - must be carried
on the English Nation. It caused considerable
out by different people and different departments.
controversy in France, comparing the English
The power of each branch of government must be
system with the French system and finding the
limited, ideally by a constitution.
latter wanting.
e) Role of French bourgeoisie: The increasingly
• Politically, Voltaire was no democrat. He had no
numerous and prosperous elite of wealthy
faith in the ordinary people, who he considered
commoners—merchants, manufacturers, and
apathetic and too concerned with trivialities.
professionals, often called the bourgeoisie—aspired
• Voltaire was particularly severe on organized religion,
to political power in those countries where it did not
which did not dominate or define English society as it
already possess it.
did in France.
f) Role of French Peasants: The peasants, many of
• Voltaire was also an advocate of religious tolerance.
whom owned land, had attained an improved
Throughout his life, he was a fierce critic of the
standard of living and education and wanted to get
Catholic church, condemning its endemic corruption
rid of the last vestiges of feudalism to acquire the full
and the greed and depravity of high ranking
rights of landowners and to be free to increase their
clergymen. Supporters of the church damned
holdings.
Voltaire as a heretical atheist, but like many other
g) Role of Monarchy: The French monarchy, no longer
philosophes, he was a deist.
seen as divinely ordained, was unable to adapt to the
MONTESQUIEU
political and societal pressures that were being
• He was an enlightened nobleman turned political exerted on it.
philosopher, responsible for articulating a clear
61
WORLD HISTORY
OUTCOMES/RESULTS/CONSEQUENCES OF THE nationalism, patriotism and democracy spread
FRENCH REVOLUTION throughout Europe.
• End of monarchy: The Revolution of 1789 sealed the

CONSEQUENCES/RESULTS OF FRENCH REVOLUTION
fate of monarchy, once for all. It paved the way for
Consequences of the French Revolution can be divided democracy. The cries of the constitution and
into 3 for better understanding, ie. Social, Political and
Parliament rent the air in Europe, and the kings were
Economic forced to grant them.
SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES • Independence for colonies in South and Central
• Large-scale emigration: In the short-term, France America: The wars with France weekend the
lost thousands of her countrymen in the form of European colonial powers like Spain and Portugal and
emigrants who wished to escape political tensions their colonies in South and Central America declared
and save their lives. The displacement of these themselves as independent. Finally, the French
Frenchmen led to a spread of French culture and revolution caused significant political turbulence,
ideas. which could not be controlled except by one great
• Feudalism abolished: The French Revolution man, and he was Napoleon Bonaparte.
abolished all elements of feudalism, including ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES
serfdom. The privileges of the clergy and the nobility
Capitalism became the new economic system.
also came to an end. Napoleonic Economic policies- economic unity under
• Social Reforms: The National Assembly, followed by Napoleon, continental policy, etc.
the National Convention. began several social and
economic reforms.
► WHAT WERE THE FACTORS
• It abolished slavery and imprisonment for debt.
INVOLVED IN THE RISE AND FALL
Women were guaranteed protection in their property
claims in common with men. New laws of inheritance OF NAPOLEON TO POWER?
were passed, by which all heirs were to inherit the A) THE FRENCH REVOLUTION:
property equally.
There is a common agreement that Napoleon was a
• Metric system: The Metric system was another effect product of the French Revolution, without which, he
of the Revolution, which was later adopted by the would have died a common man. Napoleon's rise to
whole of Europe and some Asian countries too.The power was greatly due to the progressive events of the
lands of the Church and the nobles were confiscated French Revolution. He exploited the opportunities
and these were bought by the middle classes who provided by the revolution to become Emperor of
now became politically powerful. France. The French Revolution contributed in the
POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES following ways: -
• Establishment of a New Order: A new order was 1. The revolution cleared off all the senior military
established based on the 'Declaration of the Rights Generals of the Noble class by 1792, especially during
of Man'. The Declaration possesses a significant place the reign of Terror. This created chance for a young
in the history of man. Artillery officer Napoleon to come to power.
• The idea of Republic: Although a permanent republic 2. The Revolution provided a chance for Napoleon to
could not be established in France, the French expose his abilities and military talents. i.e., in the
revolution marked an end of the ancient regime. The Italian campaign and Egyptian campaign. Although he
central theme of the French Revolution was "Liberty, failed in Egypt, he was considered a Hero, and it
Equality, and Fraternity". The new constitution increased his popularity.
proclaimed the doctrine of popular sovereignty as 3. The Government of the Directory that was too weak
enshrined in Rousseau's Social Contract. provided a power vacuum that Napoleon used to
• Spread of Nationalism: Napoleon's conquests had power.
such a great impact that the revolutionary ideas of 4. The revolution created the internal and external
rivalries through which Napoleon got a chance to
62
WORLD HISTORY
participate. He was appointed to guard the Directory THE REASONS FOR THE FALL OF NAPOLEON
government officials in the assembly against the Paris
A) NAPOLEON'S PERSONALITY
mob.
• Judgement error: In the first place, the haughty
5. Napoleon helped spread the Revolutionary Ideas of
nature of Napoleon greatly contributed to his
Equality, Liberty, and Fraternity, and by doing that, he
downfall. He had an ego about the inability of his
fulfilled the aspiration of the revolutionaries
judgment and did not pay due regard to the counsel
B) ROLE OF NATIONALISM of other seasoned diplomats and politicians. As a
The phenomenal victories of Napoleon against enemies result, often, his judgment failed him.
of France satisfied the nationalist hunger for the glory of • •Centralisation: Napoleon tried to concentrate
common Frenchmen. Following these victories, the everything in his own hands. No doubt he was an
masses became blind followers of Napoleon. intelligent person and was endowed with
C) HIS EDUCATION BACKGROUND AND THE ROLE OF exceptionally sharp imagination, but due to human
ENLIGHTENMENT limitations, he could not do everything by himself
• Napoleon's rise to power can also be attributed to his equally well.

education. He was educated at the Military Academy • Ambition: the soaring aspirations of Napoleon also
in Brienne and later in Paris in France. contributed to his downfall. He was very ambitious
• This exposed him to the writings of political and tried to extend his empire as far as possible. He
philosophers in history and widened his reasoning even nourished the ambitions of carving out a world
capacity and leadership skills.It was from a school empire.
that he developed his skills as an orator and the • Dictatorial tendencies: the destruction of
ability to convince people. revolutionary sentiments by Napoleon and their
D) NAPOLEON'S LUCK replacement by an autocratic rule in France was
disliked by certain sections of society, and they
• There were a number of events and opportunities
became suspicious of his intentions.
which Napoleon did not plan but favored his rise to
power. The Corsica Island was annexed to France a • Partiality: The benevolent and partial attitude
year before his birth, making Napoleon a Frenchman adopted by Napoleon towards his relations also
by birth. brought about his downfall. Most of the links he

elevated to important positions proved unworthy of
• Napoleon was lucky that his father fluked a
the trust reposed in them.
scholarship for him to study in the military academy
in Brienne and later in Paris. These, at times, were B) NATIONALISM
reserved for the children of nobles. The rise of nationalism in the various countries
• His luck made his escape from Egypt, where he would conquered by Napoleon also significantly contributed to
have been killed. The French Revolution took place his downfall. The people of these countries did not like
and swept away all senior military officers leaving a the autocratic attitude and coercive methods of
young Artillery officer with a chance to rise to power. Napoleon. They submitted to his authority as long as he
was powerful. But after his failure against Russia and
• He was lucky that the Directory government was
Spain, these countries became bold and began to defy
weak, and people had lost trust in them, and
his authority.
Napoleon was the immediate option.
C) THE CONTINENTAL SYSTEM
E) THE WEAKNESS OF THE DIRECTORY GOVERNMENT
• After the defeat of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, there
• The Directory government was the last government
was no one to oppose the dictates of the French
within the revolutionary period. Its weaknesses and
emperor except Britain.
unpopular ties paved the way for Napoleon's rise to
power. • Napoleon issued Berlin and Milan decrees for
imposing a continental blockade of the British Isles.
• Directory government had failed to provide a
This meant no British ship would be allowed to enter
government of authority to lead France at home.
European ports, and all counties of Europe would
Napoleon seemed to offer a solution.
63
WORLD HISTORY
stop trade with Britain. The purpose of this blockade D) SUPREMACY OF BRITISH NAVY
was to force Britain into submission. The supremacy of the British navy also significantly
• British response: However, Britain was prepared to contributed to the downfall of Napoleon. Napoleon
meet the challenge. The British navy blockaded all the failed to successfully enforce his continental system in
European ports. This meant if countries stopped the face of a strong English navy. The British navy also
trade with Britain, they would not be able to make proved quite helpful in carrying men and material for
sea-borne trade with anyone else. Thus, the issue war against Napoleon in different parts and thus
turned into one of Land power vs. Seapower. contributed to his fall.
• Spanish Ulcer: To ensure the working of the E) INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN

continental system, France had to exercise control The accomplishment of the industrial revolution in
over European countries. One by one, the countries England played no mean role in the downfall of
started disobeying Napoleon's command. When Spain Napoleon. Because of the industrial revolution, England
revolted against the system, the French army had to possessed sufficient finances with which she could fully
encounter much hostility. The French army crossed equip her armies and sustain the long struggle.
the border to deal with the revolt. Spain and Portugal Therefore, it has been asserted that Napoleon was not
were backed by Britain. The French army defeated in the Battle of Waterloo but by the textile mills
encountered many difficulties and finally gave up. The of Manchester and the steel furnaces of Birmingham.
war resulted in heavy French casualties. Later,
F) EXPEDITION TO RUSSIA
Napoleon complained that this was the "Spanish
ulcer," which killed him. Napoleon's expedition to Moscow significantly
contributed to his fall. Napoleon's military power, on
• Russian winter: Due to his continental policy,
which his rule rested, was much shattered because of
Napoleon faced revolts from other countries like
this expedition because a large number of his soldiers
Austria and Russia. To teach the Russian Tsar a
died either due to unbearable cold or attacks by the
lesson, Napoleon led an army of his finest men to
Russians. As a result, when his military power waned, his
capture the Russian capital. The Russians retreated
empire also collapsed.
but employed effective tactics to cut off the supplies.
When the French troops reached the Russian capital,
they found out that the Russian troops had already
►DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
burnt the city and no food and other supplies. By the
time they set off to France, the Russian winters set in, IMPERIALISM AND COLONIALISM
which cause many hardships and casualties to the • The core difference between colonialism and
French troops. Of the 610000 soldiers who went on imperialism is the idea compared to the practice or
the Russian expedition, only 20,000 could return to implementation of the ideas. So, imperialism serves
France. It was one of the greatest disasters in French as the underlying ideas, whereas colonialism is an
history. established form of imperialism.
• End at Waterloo: Powers like Austria, Prussia, and • Colonialism is part of Imperialism, and Imperialism is
Russia joined together to overthrow Napoleon. Britain a natural extension of Colonialism in the age of the
supported Spain and Portugal against Napoleon. industrial revolution. Imperialism has the essential
Finally, he was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in feature of the political acquisition of a foreign
1815. territory.
• The continental system also brought him into conflict • Thus, according to some authors, Militarism (which
with the Pope. The rejection of the continental implies invasion of territory for its annexation) is a
system by the Pope greatly infuriated Napoleon, and must for Imperialism or is a form of Imperialism
he annexed his empire and merged it with the French (because political acquisition can happen without
empire. The Pope, on his part declared Napoleon as vanquishing or invading a territory but by using it as a
an atheist. This turned all the Catholics against threat).
Napoleon, and he began to be hated as a godless
• In the case of imperialism, the state conquering
being.
completely takes the territory into their own territory
64
WORLD HISTORY
or empire. However, in the case of colonialism, the INCIDENTS PRIOR TO THE WAR
notion of the existing state is not dismissed, but that For a decade (1905-1914) before the outbreak of the
colonized territory is now under control and the First World War, Europe experienced a series of crises
benefit of the outside colonizing entity. but miraculously averted the breaking out of any major
• Colonialism is a term used to describe the settlement war till 1914.
of places like India, Australia, North America, Algeria, FIRST MOROCCAN CRISIS
New Zealand, and Brazil, which were all controlled by
• Morocco was the neighbor of French Algeria in north
the Europeans. Imperialism, on the other hand, is
coast Africa. Both France and Germany had a
described where a foreign government governs a
commercial interest in morocco. In 1905 the political
territory without a significant settlement. The
conditions in morocco were disturbed.
scramble for Africa in the late 19th century and the
American domination of Puerto Rico and the • France resolved to interfere in its affairs and complied
Philippines can be cited as examples of Imperialism. with the sultan, Abdul Aziz, to carry out reforms
calculated to into the situation. But, Germany
• In Colonialism, one can see a great movement of
opposed French intervention in the internal affairs of
people to the new territory and living as permanent
Morocco.
settlers. Though they lead a life as permanent
settlers, they still maintain allegiance to their mother • The German emperor Kaiser William II himself landed
country. Imperialism is just exercising power over the with forces in tangier and declared his support to the
conquered regions either through sovereignty or independence of the sultan. The German emperor‘s
indirect mechanisms of control. action suddenly led to an international crisis, known
as the first Moroccan crisis in 1905.
• Colonialism may be done by companies that secure
special trading privileges and set up trading posts. In • But the major war was averted due to the acceptance
contrast, Imperialism is done by the state through by France of the German demand for an international
government diplomacy to acquire territories, conference of great powers to settle the Moroccan
protectorates, and spheres of influence and to dispute. Accordingly, an international conference was
promote industrial trade and investments. arranged for Algeria in southern Spain in 1906.
• Coming to the origin of the two, Imperialism has a • Germany aimed to destroy the Anglo-French entente
more extended history than Colonialism. While of 1904. But throughout the deliberation of the
colonialism dates back to the 15th century, conference, Italy, Great Britain, and several other
Imperialism has its roots dating back to the Romans. powers supported France. Germany was isolated at
Colonialism had its origins when Europeans started to the conference. France established her protectorate
look outside their country, pursuing trade with other over morocco. This was a severe setback to
nations. Germany, which becomes all the more hostile to
England.
• The crisis intensified the old animosity between

►THE FIRST WORLD WAR
Germany and England and strengthened the
BACKGROUND friendship between France and England.
• Germany was the leading power in Europe both THE BALKAN CRISIS
militarily and economically during the first phase of
• The Anglo Russian cordiale of 1907 was a landmark in
the 19th century. international diplomacy, as it marked the end of a
• There was a great burst of imperialist expansion long period of hostility between the two countries.
amongst European powers to get access to new This aroused the suspicion of the Germans, and the
markets and resources. Europe had divided itself into Kaiser bitterly complained of the encirclement of
Germany.
two major alliance systems.
• So he wanted to strengthen the triple alliance.
1) The Triple Alliance=Germany + Austria + Hungary o
Austria, too, feared the Turkish regeneration due to
Italy
the Young Turk movement in 1908. So supported by
2) The Triple Entente= Britain + France + Russia Germany, Austria, Hungary annexed the two
65
WORLD HISTORY
provinces, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in1908, which join Germany. When this became a failure, she
was violent of the treaty of Berlin of 1878. entered into an alliance with Japan in 1902. In 1904
• Serbia bitterly protested against the action of Austria. Britain allied with France. In 1907 Russia joined
Russia supported Serbia. The dispute between Austria this alliance. This had resulted in Triple Entente.
and Serbia would have led to war but for the payment Thus Europe was divided into two camps. The secret
of compensation by Austria to Turkey for the loss of nature of these alliances brought about the war of
Bosnia and Herzegovina. Since the annexation was 1914.
accepted by Turkey, Russia kept quiet. MILITARISM
• But, the annexation resulted in extremely strained • The countries in Europe had been increasing their
relations between Serbia and Austria. The hostile armies and navies. This was the main reason for
attitude of the Serbians continued to threaten peace universal fear, hatred, and suspicions among the
in the Balkans. It was this crisis that ultimately nations of Europe.
triggered off World War I. • In Europe, England and Germany were superior in
AGADIR INCIDENT (SECOND MOROCCAN CRISIS) the Navy. There were competitions between these
• In 1911, a civil war broke out in Morocco. The sultan two countries in naval armaments. For every ship
of morocco appealed to France for help. Immediately, built by Germany, two ships were built by England.
France sent a naval force that landed in Morocco and NARROW NATIONALISM
occupied Fez, the capital. Germany protested against • Narrow Nationalism was also a cause for the war. The
the French intervention in morocco. It sent a gunboat love of the country demanded the hatred of another.
named panther to the port of Agadir, on the Atlantic For instance, the love of Germany demanded the
coast of morocco to safeguard the lives of German hostility of France. Likewise, the French people hated
nationals and German economic interests. the German people.
• Once again, a tense situation was created, and the • In Eastern Europe, narrow nationalism played a more
peace of Europe was threatened. This was known as significant role. The Serbians hated Austria-Hungary.
the Agadir incident or the second Moroccan crisis. The desire for the people of France to get back to
In this, Great Britain firmly supported France and Alsace-Lorraine was also a cause for the outbreak
strongly protested against the German military action. of the First World War. It was Bismarck who had
Germany was not prepared to risk a war with Great taken away Alsace-Lorraine from France and annexed
Britain. Consequently, the German warship was them with Germany in 1871.
withdrawn, and the war was thus averted.
• The result was that there grew animosities between
ST these two countries. It was this reason that forced
CAUSES OF THE 1 WORLD WAR
Germany to take steps to isolate France by making
SYSTEM OF ALLIANCES alliances with other countries.
• Before 1914 Europe was divided into two camps. To WILLIAM II, THE EMPEROR OF GERMANY
isolate France, Germany entered into an alliance with
• He was a cause for the First World War. He wanted to
Austria. Bismarck formed the three Emperors
make Germany a more substantial power. He was not
League by making an alliance with Russia.
prepared to make any compromise in international
• Later Germany did not care for Russia. Hence Russia affairs.
left. But Germany continued its alliance with
• He was mistaken in assessing Great Britain’s strength.
Austria alone. This was known as Dual alliance.
It was a misunderstanding of the British character by
After Italy joined this alliance, it became a Triple
William II that was responsible for the war.
alliance.
PRUSSIAN SPIRIT BY GERMANY
• In the meantime, Russia began to lean towards
France. In 1894 there came Franco-Russian alliance • It was also a cause for war. The Prussians were taught
against the Austro-German alliance. It was at this time that war was legal in the world. War was the national
England followed a policy of splendid isolation. She industry of Prussia.
also felt that she was all alone. First, she wanted to
66
WORLD HISTORY
• The younger generation of Germany was • The news of this murder shocked many countries.
indoctrinated with such a philosophy of war. Austria-Hungary was already sick of Serbia, and she
PUBLIC OPINION decided to take advantage of the new situation to

crush her. The murder of their crown prince and his
• The position of public opinion by the newspapers was
wife resulted in an ultimatum being sent to Serbia for
also a cause. Often, the newspapers tried to inflame
immediate compliance with specific terms. Serbia’s
nationalist feelings by misrepresenting the situations
reply did not pacify Austria-Hungary. Hence, Austria-
in other countries.
Hungary, backed by Germany, declared war on
• Ambassadors and cabinet ministers admitted the Serbia. Russia mobilized its forces in favor of Serbia.
senseless attitude of the leading newspapers in their
own countries.
►RESPONSIBILITY OF KAISER
DESIRE OF ITALY TO RECOVER THE AREA
WILLIAM II OF GERMANY FOR
• The Italians considered that these areas were
inhabited by Italians. But they were still part and FIRST WORLD WAR
parcel of Austria-Hungary. They cried for the PART-I
redemption of these territories.
• Kaiser William II came to the throne in 1888 after
• Italy also entered into a competition with Austria to Fredrich III. Bismark was at the helm of affairs at the
control the Adriatic Sea. As Austria was not prepared time of his assession. It was not surprising that the
to put up with the competition, there arose bitterness young Emperor, so imperious and full of ideas of
in the relations of these two countries. personal government, should fall out with Bismark,
THE EASTERN QUESTION the dictatorial old chancellor. Bismark had preserved
and strengthened the royal prerogative, and the
• The Eastern Question was also a factor for the war.
weapon he had forged was now turned against him.
This complicated the situation in the Balkans. The
misrule of Turkey resulted in discontentment. There • The sharp difference between the young Emperor
was a rivalry between Greece, Serbia, and Bulgaria for and the old Prime minister quickly appeared.
the control of Macedonia, which had a mixed PART-II
population. On the occasion of the Bosnian crisis,
• At the time of accession, he declared that he was
Russia supported Serbia. Pan Slavism also created
determined to keep peace with everyone but William
complications.
II discarded Bismark’s idea of Germany as a satiated
• The Bosnia - Herzegovina issue in the Balkans was country. He held that German people, as she was by a
also similar to the problem of Alsace-Lorraine. Bosnia vigorous Teutonic race, were capable of infinite
and Herzegovina were given to Austria-Hungary expansion. The successful issue of the Franco-
by the Congress of Berlin in 1878. This was Prussian War of 1870, followed by the founding of the
vehemently opposed by Serbia. A vigorous agitation Empire in 1871, gave her a new life and invested it
was started in Serbia to separate these provinces with all the arbor, energy, and audacity of youth. She
from Austria-Hungary and unite them with Serbia. made astonishing strides in developing her trade,
This created a rivalry between Serbia and Austria- commerce, and industries and began to look further
Hungary. This became very keen after 1909. Serbia ahead for expansion and the colonial empire. William
also received moral support from her big brother II identified himself fully with this new national
Russia (The Serbs and Russians belong to Slav Race). temper and became its most impetuous spokesman.
IMMEDIATE CAUSE • His grand idea was that the part which Germany
• The immediate cause was the assassination of Arch should play in international affairs must be in keeping
Duke Francis Ferdinand, who was heir to the with her power and importance among the nations of
Austrian throne. Arch Duke Francis Ferdinand and his the world. Her standing was not to be merely
wife were assassinated by Serbians in the Bosnian European but worldwide. She must emphasize her
capital Sarajevo when they paid a visit to this city on role as a World Power and take a leading part in world
28th June 1914. politics.
67
WORLD HISTORY
• This attitude made Germany participate against the is essential to Germany’s greatness. But in spite of
Boker rising in China, and it was symbolized in the this naval policy Great Britain was disposed to be
Kaiser’s remark that Nothing must go on anywhere in friendly to Germany as she had many outstanding
the world in which Germany does not play a part. To causes of friction with France and Russia and so
play this role, Germany must have a navy and must
England was suspicious of the Dual alliance. Hence
acquire new colonies and spheres of influence. Thus,
she tried to cultivated good relations with Germany.
world politics, expansion, and the navy became the
She agreed to the Kaiser’s proposal of ceding
three dominant notes of Kaiser’s foreign policy. This
Heligoland to Germany in exchange for Zanzibar,
policy led to situations full of danger.
encouraged German colonial empire and enterprise
PART-III
in Central Africa and even proposed an Anglo-German
• Kaiser’s alliance with Austria involved the complete Alliance.
breakdown of Bismarck’s system of alliances and led
• But the German Emperor sacrificed repeated
to diplomatic developments highly prejudicial to
Germany. The keynote to Bismarck’s policy had been opportunities of an alliance with Great Britain, and
to isolate France and to keep Russia in good humor. the end definitely antagonized hers. The first
But Kaiser William II wanted to strengthen the alliance revelation of this antagonism was made during the
with Austria-Hungary at the cost of Russian Boer War when Kaiser William II sent a telegram to
friendship. Heedless of the fact that Russian had a Paul Kruggers, the Boer leader, congratulating him on
predominant interest in the Balkans, he committed his temporary success against British forces. Thus he
Germany to the policy of furthering Austrian interest showed himself anti-British in his attitude. The
in the Near East and himself entered into sharp
development of the Berlin Bagdad Railway under
competition with the Czar of Russia for influence in
German auspices was also looked upon with great
Turkey.
apprehension by Great Britain. It involved a menace
• He allowed Bismarck’s reinsurance treaties with
to British interests and the Indian empire in the East.
Russia to lapse on the unsurpassed ground that they
Italy also showed symptoms of a considerable
contained an element of threat against Austria. He
weakening in her adherence to the Triple Alliance.
thereby drove Russia into the arms of France. The
Thus as a result of his mishandling of foreign affairs,
result of this mistaken policy was the conclusion of
William II began to lose the safeguards which
the famous Dual Alliance between France and Russia
(1891-93). Now France was no longer isolated, and Bismarck had provided for the safety of the German
Russia had been alienated. Empire and ultimately antagonized great powers.
PART-IV PART-VI
• Another important departure from Bismarck’s policy • German goods began to penetrate into every nook
was the zeal with which the German Emperor and corner of the world, and she began to demand a
embarked upon a policy of naval and colonial place under the sun. Thus having discarded
expansion. However, Germany had begun to acquire Bismarck’s policy of cautions continentalism, Kaiser
colonies under.
William II adopted a policy of aggressive imperialism.
• Bismarck was primarily a continentalist. Besides his
• He began to assert Germany’s position as a leading
diplomatic skill was quite equal to the task of alaying
world power. In 1895 he joined France and Russia in
the irritation caused in England by the appearance of
putting pressure upon Japan to give up the conquests
a rival and new aspirant to the colonial empire. But
Kaiser William II was a zealous imperialist, and his she had made of the Chinese mainland. In 1897, he
famous words our future lies on the water, touched took advantage of the pre-text afforded to him by the
Great Britain at her most tender point. murder of two German missionaries to compel China
PART-V to lease 202 miles of territory for 90 years named Kia-

Chao.
• His soaring ambition was to do for the navy what his
grandfather had done for the army. He said the ocean
68
WORLD HISTORY
►SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE SOFTENING OF RACIAL FEELINGS
• The world War probably played an essential role in

FIRST WORLD WAR
removing the racial bitterness also. Before 1914, all
First World War deeply affected the whole world, and its the countries were in the grip of evils of racial
consequences were very devastating. Its implications superiority and color-complex. The white people of
can be seen under the following points. Great Britain the black people of India and Africa etc.
RISE OF SOCIAL PROBLEMS due to the difference of color. The Germans and
French thought themselves to be superior to the
• World War produced some profound changes in the
peoples of other countries on the basis of their race.
social field also.
The situation after the war began to change.
• In social life, many problems were created. Millions
• The war was fought on the world level in which the
died or became crippled or disabled. Many families
people of almost all races took part on a large scale.
lost their only earning member,s thus making social
and economic issues for the members left behind. • The soldiers of Indian and Africa fought on the side of
Many young women became widows and thus the the British; consequently, they gained the sympathy
problem of severe family disharmonies. Since male of the latter, and therefore, the differences and racial
members died in large numbers, male-female ratio bitterness among them went on decreasing day by
got disturbed, and it took years to bring back the day. Fight on a common front and sharing common
society on rails and bring the social system under food, and encountering common difficulties brought
control. them nearer.
FREEDOM OF WOMEN RISE OF LABOUR & TRADE UNION
• During the course of the war, the demand for soldiers • The laborers had also played an essential role in the
to fight on the battlefield and to work in the industries war, for they had many weapons and other war
producing was material gradually increased. As a materials of different kinds. By their efforts, they had
result of this increasing demand for human labor, achieved a prominent position in the politics of their
many men of each country left their jobs and joined respective countries. After the end of the war, they
the army in order to meet the demand of put their demands before the Government to provide
combatants. The vacancies which occurred due to the them with political status and necessary facilities of
above reasons had to be filled up by women. life. Although the trade union movement had been
started before the war yet, the laborers directed their
• Up to that time, the women of most of the countries
full energies for making this movement successful
were confined to the walls of their homes. They knew
after the war.
nothing except their household duties. But this
situation changed suddenly due to the war. The • They also demanded through the trade unions that
women came out of their homes and began to work their role should be given due importance in the
in factories, mills, and offices. In this way, the scope of business administration, as well as in the
work for women was rapidly expanded, and they administration of the country. Thus, the reawakening
realized their capacity and importance. They worked a of the labor class was also an important consequence
lot for the economic development of their country, of the world War. Labour party of England succeeded
and side by side, they also took an active part in even in capturing powers in an imperialist and
political movements. The feelings of self-confidence, capitalist country. Labour parties got importance
self-determination, and courage grew in them. As a everywhere.
consequence of this change, the women demanded IMPETUS TO SOCIALIST IDEAS
equal status and rights with men. In this way, there
• The development of the concept of socialism was also
came a revolutionary and essential change in the lives
the gift of the war. It included the nationalization of
of the women and their social status was greatly
industries and the control of the state over them. As a
improved, and in most of the countries, equal rights
consequence of this concept, the interference of the
were given to women.
state in industrial matters increased very much.
69
WORLD HISTORY
• It undoubtedly increased the significance of the labor ►THE LEAGUE OF NATION
class. Consequently, housing, medical care, and
education were provided to them by the state. The
SUCCESS OR FAILURE
right of forming trade unions and to strike was also It was the first permanent international organization
conceded to the laborers. Thus the concept of whose principal mission was to maintain world peace.
socialism was strengthened considerably in all The League of Nations (LON) was founded in 1919 due
countries of the world. to the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World
SETBACK TO EDUCATION & POLICIES TO DEVELOP IT War.
• Another necessary consequence of the war which OBJECTIVES

affected the social setup of the continent was the a. To preserve the peace: preventing war through
great setback to education. Owing to the increasing collective security and disarmament, and settling
demand for the soldiers to fight at the battlefields, international disputes through negotiation and
many students joined the army. The military training arbitration.Further to abstain from war until three
was made compulsory to all. It adversely affected the months after arbitration.
progress of education
b. Handling other issues: Other issues in this and
• Most of the educational institutions had to suffer due related treaties included just treating native
to the decreasing number of students. Thus, the inhabitants, labor conditions, arms trade, global
advancement of knowledge and literature, and art health, prisoners of war, human and drug trafficking,
were adversely affected by the war. and protection of minorities in Europe.
• New National Policies followed the war to develop FEW SUCCESS OF LEAGUE OF NATIONS
education. US, UK, France, etc. took steps to promote
1. In the early 1920s, the League settled territorial
primary and secondary education.
disputes between Finland and Sweden over the Aland
DESTRUCTION OF CULTURE Islands, Germany and Poland over Upper Silesia, and
• The world war was destructive from a cultural point of between Iraq and Turkey over Mosul.
view. Owing to the compulsory military training and 2. The League combated the international opium trade
mandatory military service, the students had to leave and alleviated refugee crises in Russia with some
their educational institutions en masse. It probably success.
led to a considerable decrease in education.
3. The League of Nations acted as the umbrella
• Many scholars, poets, scientists, and others lost their organization for such agencies as the International
lives in the war. Many beautiful buildings that Labor Organization (ILO) and the Permanent Court of
occupied a prominent place from the cultural point of International Justice (predecessor of today’s
view were destroyed. In this way, the world war International Court of Justice, ICJ).
caused an immense loss to Literature, Art, and
4. It also provided a model for the future United
Culture.
Nations.
PROGRESS OF SCIENCE
REASONS BEHIND THE FAILURE OF LEAGUE
• The last but not the least important consequence of
1. The League was supposed to present the world and
the war was the progress made in the field of Science.
encompass all countries, but many countries never
The destructive aspect of the scientific inventions was
joined the organization.
openly demonstrated in the war by the great
• U.S.A never joined, Germany and the Soviet Union
scientists of the world.
were members, but only briefly: Germany joined in
• It was the first war in which deadly and destructive
1926 to exit the League after the Nazis came to power
poisonous gases, bombs, tanks, airplanes, and
in 1933.
submarines were used for the first time. Many
• When the League of Nations criticized Japan’s
scientific inventions were made in this field. A feeling
occupation of Manchuria, so Japan left the club in
of scientific competition arose among all countries to
1933.
create new inventions of science. In this way,
immense progress was made in science after the war.
70
WORLD HISTORY
2. The League didn’t have its armed forces and • The aristocrat class treated the peasants like slaves,
depended on members to act, but none of the giving them few rights under the law and treating
member countries were ready for another war and them almost like animals.
didn’t want to provide military support. DEFEAT OF RUSSIA IN THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
3. Pacifism was a significant problem: the League's two • In the late 1800s, Russia and Japan were imperialist
largest members, Britain and France, were very powers. They both competed for control of Korea and
reluctant to resort to sanctions and military actions. Manchuria.
4. The international relations of member countries • The two nations signed a series of agreements over
conflicted with the League’s requirements for the territories, but Russia broke them. In retaliation,
collective security. Japan attacked the Russians in 1904 and defeated
them.
5. Unable to act quickly: The council of the League of
Nations only met four times a year, and decisions had • Russia’s defeat at the hands of Japan, a small Asian
to be agreed upon by all Nations. country, lowered the international and domestic
prestige of Russia.
BLOODY SUNDAY
►THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
• A significant event leading to the Russian Revolution
• The Russian Revolution took place in 1917, during the took place in 1905. Many workers were marching to
final phase of World War I. the Tsar's palace to present a petition for better
• This Revolution replaced Russia’s traditional working conditions. They were fired upon by
monarchy with the world’s first Communist state. soldiers, and many of them were killed or injured.
This day is called Bloody Sunday.
• Although the events of the Russian Revolution
happened abruptly, the causes may be traced back • Change in perception Before Bloody Sunday, many
nearly a century. peasants and working-class people revered the Tsar
and thought he was on their side. They blamed their
• It led to the creation of the Soviet Union, and for the
troubles on the government, not on the Tsar. After
first time, Karl Marx’s idea of Socialism and the
the shootings, the Tsar was perceived as an enemy of
Proletariat revolution became a reality.
the working class, and the desire for revolution began
to spread.
 WHAT WERE THE CAUSES OF THE RUSSIAN
• Bloody Sunday provoked a wave of strikes and
REVOLUTION?
violence that spread across the country.
TSARIST RULE • In pressure, Tsar Nicholas II approved the creation of
• Before the revolution, Russia was ruled by a powerful the Duma, Russia’s first parliament. Its leaders were
monarch called the Tsar. The Tsar had total power in moderates who wanted Russia to become a
Russia. The Tsars believed in the divine right constitutional monarchy similar to Britain.
theory of kingship. • Crisis in agriculture: Russia’s agriculture was
• The divine right of kings is a political and religious primarily based on independent peasants. They did
doctrine of royal and political legitimacy. It asserts not own modern machinery. Russian agriculture
suffered from a cold climate. Russia’s agriculture
that a monarch is subject to no earthly authority,
season was only 4-6 months. So, the condition of
deriving his right to rule directly from the will of God.
agriculture in Russia was very poor.
• He commanded the army, owned much of the land,
• The famine of 1891 in Russia had left many peasants
and even controlled the church.
in poverty.
• Before the Russian Revolution, life for the working-
• The rapid industrialization of Russia also resulted in
class people and the peasants was very difficult. They
urban overcrowding and poor conditions for urban
worked for little pay, often went without food, and
industrial workers.
were exposed to dangerous working conditions.
71
WORLD HISTORY
• Poor conditions: There was also no running water, revolution. His name has become inseparable from
and piles of human waste were a threat to the health the revolution of 1917.
of the workers. Hence, the workers, in general, were • Final dent in the image: Huge causalities in World War
in an unhappy situation. I
CONTRIBUTION OF PHILOSOPHERS • In 1914, Nicholas II made the fateful decision to drag
• Just as the philosophers prepared the French Russia into World War I. In this, Russia was at war with
Revolution, the Russian writers and philosophers, too, Germany.
played a significant role in the Russian Revolution. • A huge Russian army was formed by forcing working-
• Writers and thinkers like Turgenev, Gorkey, Tolstoy, class and peasant men to join. Although the Russian
Bakunin, and Karl Marx, infused new ideas into the army had great numbers, the soldiers were not
minds of the Russians and such ideas helped to equipped or trained to fight. Many of them were sent
generate a deep hatred for the Tsarist regime among into battle without shoes, food, and even weapons.
the common people. Thus, a total of nearly five million men lost their lives.
RISE OF SOCIALISM AND IMPACT ON RUSSIA These were heavy losses, and mutinies began to
occur in the Russian army. Nicholas II was blamed for
• To unite the socialist parties in various countries into
all these crises.
an international organization, a Congress was held in
Paris in 1889, the centenary of the French Revolution • As this discontent grew, the State Duma issued a
of 1789. warning to Nicholas to grant a constitutional form of
government. Nicholas ignored them. As a result,
• As a result, the Second International (an organization
Russia’s Tsarist regime collapsed a few months later
of socialist and labor parties) was formed. It marked a
during the February Revolution of 1917.
new stage in the history of socialism.
THE FEBRUARY REVOLUTION
• On the first of May 1890, millions of workers all over
Europe and America struck work and held massive • The people of Russia first revolted in early 1917. The
demonstrations. Since then, the first of May is revolution began when several workers decided to
observed as the international working class day all strike. Many of these workers got together during the
over the world. strike to discuss politics. They began to riot.
SCENARIO IN RUSSIA • The Tsar, Nicholas II, ordered the army to suppress
the riot. However, many of the soldiers refused to fire
• In Russia, when the workers’ organizations were set
on the Russian people, and the army began to mutiny
up they were dominated by Marx’s ideas on socialism.
against the Tsar.
• In 1883, George Plekhanov, a follower of Marx,
• After a few days of riots, the army turned against the
formed the Russian Social Democratic Party. This
Tsar. The Tsar was forced to give up his throne, and a
party, along with many other socialist groups, was
new government took over.
united into the Russian Social Democratic Labour
Party in 1898. • The government was run by two political parties: The
Petrograd Soviet (representing the workers and
• However, the party was soon split over questions of
soldiers) and the Provisional Government (the
organization and policies. One group which was in
traditional government without the Tsar).
the minority was called the Mensheviks.
BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION
• The majority party was called the Bolsheviks. The
leader of the Bolsheviks was Vladimir Ilyich • Over the next several months, the two sides ruled
Ulyanov, popularly known as Lenin. Russia.
• He is regarded as one of the most outstanding • One of the main factions of the Petrograd Soviet was
leaders of the socialist movement after Marx and a group called the Bolsheviks. They were led by Lenin
Engels. and believed that the new Russian government

should be a Marxist (communist) government.
• He devoted himself to the task of organizing the
Bolshevik Party as an instrument for bringing about a • In October of 1917, Lenin took full control of the
Government in what is called the Bolshevik
72
WORLD HISTORY
Revolution. Russia was now the first communist CREATED FEAR FOR CAPITALISTS
country in the world. • It created havoc in the minds of the capitalists
worldwide as the Revolution made an irresistible
 CONSEQUENCES OF THE RUSSIAN
appeal to the proletarians.
REVOLUTION
• This resulted in the promotion of welfare activities
GLOBAL IMPACT by the capitalists and the adoption of labor
• The Russian revolution of 1917 opened up a fresh reforms.
chapter in human civilization. The importance of this • In the long term, it indirectly contributed to the
revolution is no less than the French revolution of beginning of the cold war between Russia and the
1789. United States in the post-Second World war.
• The impact of the french revolution was confined to
Europe, but the influence of the Russian Revolution ►BISMARCK’S IDEAS OF GERMAN
was global.
UNIFICATION
• It encouraged the oppressed and suffering people of
the world to combine and fight for freedom. In 1862, when Bismarck was appointed Minister by the
President of Prussia, he had no illusion in his mind about
• It Generated the wave for socialism and communism.
the magnitude of the task force before him. During his
CREATION OF USSR: Frankfurt years, he had studied the problem of German
• It led to the birth of the Union of the Soviet Socialist unity with considerable realism and detachment. He
Republic (USSR). For the first time in the history of the developed a few ideas for the making of Germany.
world, a socialist state was created. A TRUE NATIONALIST
• Production and distribution were hereafter controlled • The only sure foundation for a great state is egoism.
by the state.
• Bismarck had fully realized the fact that the great
• Private ownership of the means of production and obstacle to any increase of Prussia’s power was the
private profit-making were no more allowed. pre-eminence of Austria and Prussia within the Bund
• The land was taken away from the landlords and was impossible. He wrote, “Germany is too small for
redistributed among the peasants. both of us. Both plough the same contested field.” He
upheld that one of the two must leave the German
FIVE-YEAR PLANNING
system, and it must be Austria.
• The Five-Year Plans were conceptualized and
• He did not doubt in his mind about the need for a war
implemented for the first time in the world.
with Austria. “Only war will put right the clock of
• Karl Marx’s philosophy implementation.
German development,” said Bismarck.
• The affairs of the Soviet Union were keenly observed
• He told the Prussian Liberals in the Parliament when
by the rest of the world as it was the first
they opposed the Army bill. “Germany does not look
implementation of the philosophy preached by Karl
to Prussia’s liberalism but to her power. Not by
Marx.
speeches and majority votes are the great questions
• Under the forceful impact of Marxian-Leninism, of the day decided but by blood and iron.”
Communist parties were founded in different parts of
• He ardently believed that Germany could be united by
the world.
the Prussian monarchy. It had been the Prussian
IMPACT ON INDIA kings and not the Prussian people, who had made
• The Indian nationalist struggle derived great stimulus Prussia great. This historical fact must be preserved.
from the Russian revolution. In India, labor The Prussian crown must not be a powerless one like
movements were started. the English crown.
• Influenced political thoughts, and post-independence • He believed in Prussia and Prussianism. By Prussia, he
India adopted a model of development based on Five meant the integrity of Prussia, which must not be lost
Year Plans (FYPs). in Germany. “Prussia will not be Germanised, but
Germany will be Prussianised, said he. Political
73
WORLD HISTORY
egoism was necessary for the awakening of national treaty of 1853. Bismarck ruled out the Austrian
sentiment. objection on the ground that no state could sacrifice
DEEP UNDERSTANDING OF NATIONALIST FACTORS its vital interests for a promise given under pressure.
He induced the members of the Zollverein to support
• Bismarck was aware that a significantly less number
the Franco-Prussian Commercial treaty. This treaty
of German states did not trust Prussia and Prussian
cemented Prussian friendship with France.
militarism. But he was determined to ignore their
sentiments. He wanted to wreck Austrian popularity INCLINATION TOWARDS RUSSIA
and dominance in the Bund. His object was to make • Bismarck took all possible steps to improve Prussia’s
Prussia pose as the leader of German nationality. relations with Russia. He got a considerable
• Bismarck was an exponent of Realpolitik. He was opportunity when Poland revolted against Russia in
ready to use freely, power, and diplomacy without 1863. England and France were sympathetic to the
caring for morality for the greater end, the unity of Poles. Austria also joined the Western powers to put
the German state. The term Realpolitik meant political pressure on Russia to grant independence to the
opportunism. Poles. Bismarck used this opportunity to buy Russia’s

friendship. He made a secret treaty with the Czar by
ONSLAUGHT AGAINST AUSTRIA
which both the governments promised to help each
• Bismarck discharged his first onslaught against other crush the Polish rising. Prussia mobilized the
Austria through diplomacy. Austria submitted a plan Prussian army in East Prussia to threaten the Poles.
of reform of the constitution of the Bund in 1862. She Bismarck viewed the Polish question purely from
mobilized the support of the middle German states Prussia’s interest. He overlooked the suffering of the
for the plan. Poles and their legitimate claim to be free.
• Bismarck found that if this reform plan was accepted, MASTERSTROKES OF FOREIGN POLICY
then it would prevent his own plan of uniting
• The Russo-Prussian Convention on Poland has been
Germany under Prussia. He put diplomatic pressure
praised as a masterstroke of Bismarck’s policy. It
on Austria in order to induce her to withdraw the
gained for Prussia Russia’s valuable neutrality during
proposal. But Austria was adamant. In order to
the difficult years of the Austro-Prussian and Franco-
discredit Austria in the Bund, Bismarck submitted a
Prussian wars. But his long-established view is now
more progressive proposal of reform based on the
discarded by historians on the strength of records
universal franchise of the German people and the
found in German archives. Bismarck did not reap
formation of National Verein (National Union).
absolute good by this treaty. He had to face the bitter
Bismarck’s radical plan amazed the members.
hostility of Western powers, particularly France.
Austria’s moderate became unpopular. It was
Gortehakoff, the Russian minister, also did not like
defeated by a majority vote. Bismarck’s real object
the treaty. He was aware of the unprincipled and
being served, he ceased to repeat his radical proposal
selfish policy of Bismarck. The net result of the treaty
to reform. The net result was that the Bund remained
was that Bismarck could show the Czar that Prussia
as weak and unworkable as before.
was his friend while other powers were his enemies.
ISOLATION OF AUSTRIA
FINAL STEPS TOWARDS UNIFICATION
• Bismarck now pursued a plan to isolate Austria. He
• Austria made yet another desperate attempt to
knew that friendship with Napoleon III was an
reform the constitution of the Bund. She invited a
essential condition for isolating Austria in Europe. A
Congress of the German princes at Frankfurt. King
free trade treaty was concluded between France and
William of Prussia was cordially invited to join the
Prussia in 1862. The Franco-Prussian treaty could be
Congress. William was not yet well disposed to
effective if it was approved by the members of the
Bismarck’s policy of “blood and iron and favored
Zollverein.
peaceful reform of the German constitution. Bismarck
• Austria tried hard to influence the members of the apprehended his master’s feeling. He tried to prevent
Zollverein to reject the treaty. She also rightly pointed his master from attending the Congress. He raised
out that the Franco-Prussian commercial treaty of the plea that Prussia had not been consulted by
1862 was against the Austro-Prussian Commercial Austria before summoning of the congress. She has
74
WORLD HISTORY
been treated as one among many and not a • The unification of Germany was mainly the work of
predominant power. This has lowered Prussia’s Bismarck, but Cavour was helped by Mazzini’s
prestige. William was hostile to Bismarck’s followers and by Garibaldi, etc.
suggestions. But at last, the king yielded. The iron will • Cavour got help from outside agencies like Garibaldi
of Bismack prevailed. and his volunteers, but Bismarck did everything
• Prussia’s absence in the Frankfurt Congress led to its himself solely depending upon his intelligence and
failure. Bismarck prevented Austria from reforming military power.
the Bund. Austria’s inability to reform the constitution • Cavour accomplished the task of unification of Italy by
of the Bund made her unpopular among the lesser making Sardinia Piedmont powerful, which was weak
German states. Prussia mobilized these factors to before. Prussia had already achieved a part of
wreck the Bund and unify Germany under Prussia. economic unification by establishing Zollverein. It
facilitated the task of Bismarck.
►COMPARISON BETWEEN • Cavour had to struggle against Pope and Austria, and
BISMARCK AND CAVOUR Bismarck had to face the opposition of minor states
of Germany.
SIMILARITIES
• Cavour got much help and cooperation from his
• Both of them unified their nations. emperor, Victor Emmanuel, but Bismarck could
• Both of them were patriots and shrewd diplomats. cooperate only with his emperor, William I.
• Both had to face troubles until 1848 A.D. • Cavour followed liberal ideals but was conservative.
• Both of them accomplished the unification of their • Cavour got help from France, but Bismarck got
respective countries through military power and opposition.
shrewd diplomacy.
• Both of them achieved their ends, taking one state as ►COMPARISON BETWEEN THE
their object. Bismarck took Prussia, and Cavour
considered Sardinia Piedmont as an ideal.
ITALIAN & GERMAN UNIFICATION
• Both of them had to fight Austria to gain their ends. SIMILARITIES
• Both of them sought help from outside the country • The unification of both countries was effected
for the accomplishment of their tasks. simultaneously in the 19th Century (1870 and 1871).
• Both of them were the Prime Minister of their • Both countries were divided into smaller states
countries. before their unification. Despotic rule prevailed, and

there was a complete lack of unity. The government
• Both believed the end justifies the means.
was jealous of each other, and their quarrels made
DIFFERENCES them weak.
• Bismarck was a conservative, but Cavour was a • The majority of people in both countries were eager
democrat. for national unification.
• Bismarck could create such circumstances in which he • Both were influenced by the French Revolution (1789),
became successful by adopting the policy of blood Napoleon Bonaparte’s conquests, and extension in
and iron. In contrast, Cavour could mold those countries. He established in both these
circumstances to his favor, and then he achieved countries included in his empire a uniform
success. governmental system and paved the way for
• Bismarck had great faith in the military power in unification by bringing about an end to equality.
which Cavour’s confidence was a little shaky. • The Vienna Congress of 1815, which was helped after
• Cavour considered himself an Italian first and then Germany’s downfall at Waterloo, had again disunited
the inhabitant of Piedmont Sardinia, but Bismarck the two countries. In both countries, liberal ideas
loved to call himself a Prussian first. He wanted to were spreading very rapidly. Austria suppressed the
overawe entire Germany by the power of Prussia feelings of liberalism, and national unification in both
75
WORLD HISTORY
the countries and both came to consider Austria as • In Italy, except for Piedmont, Austria had her control
the biggest obstacle in the way of their unification. over a major part of Italy, whereas in Germany,
Both countries defeated Austria and accomplished Austria was only the formal head of the German
the task of unification on the basis of nationalism. Confederation. In such a situation, Italy had to wage a
much more tough struggle.
• Both countries were influenced by the French
revolution of 1830 and 1948. Impressed by this • The perspective of Cavour was broader as compared
revolution, to that of Bismarck. He considered himself first an
Italian and only secondly a native of Piedmont or
• Patriots in both countries tried for national
Sardinia. In contrast, Bismarck considered himself
independence and unification, but they did not
foremost a Prussian and Later a German. Cavour was
achieve much success.
not much worried about the identity of Piedmont in
• The task of national unification in both countries was the process of Italian unification. The complete the
completed only after the downfall of France. task of unification, he merged Sardinia into Italy,
• In both the countries, the chief ministers of dominant whereas Bismarck gave greater importance to Prussia
states, e.g., in Italy, the Prime Minister of Piedmont in comparison to the rest of Germany. He annexed
viz. Cavour and in Germany, Prussian Chancellor the other German states to Prussia and thus
Bismarck played the most significant role. completed the task of unification. He used to say
Sardinia went towards Rome and Germany towards
DIFFERENCES
Berlin.
• Italian unification was much difficult because, in
• Cavour gave greater importance to nationalism and
contrast to Germany, she was divided into much
liberalism than power, army, or sword, whereas
smaller states, and there was no organization in them
Bismarck believed that German unification was
at all. In many Italian states, foreign rulers were
possible only through Blood and Iron. That is why he
ruling.
followed such a policy. Bismarck did not consent the
• In Italy, Pope was presented as religious power. He races inhabiting various parts of Germany to carry out
occupied a considerable part of Italy. He had the task of unification. He did not even take help from
particular influence over the Catholics of Europe and German patriots. In many ways, he did not care at all
over these European states who were sympathetic about the lower house of the Prussian parliament. As
towards the Catholics. He was desirous of maintaining against the Cavour affected plebiscite in many states
his independent authority, and he was the most and got the consent for their joining Italy and kept up
powerful and the biggest obstacle in the way of Italian content with Italian patriots. They were also
unification. consulted.
• The formation of the Rhine Confederation by • From one point of view, Bismarck’s position in
Napoleon on 1 August 1806 had laid the foundations Germany was more complicated. Cavour had no open
of German unification. In 1815 Metternich had support from two major great patriots. Mazzini had
increased the number of Germany states to 39 but inculcated among the Italian people the feeling of
had woven them into a loose sort of federation patriotism and nationalism through his works and
appointing Austria its head. In 1834 some German writings. Their secret societies were giving their co-
operation for the task of unification. Garibaldi
states had worked towards economic unity by
conquered the states of Sicily and Naples through his
forming a customs union, Zaljerin. The feeling of unity
sword and gave them to Piedmont. Many states of
existed a Germany from before.
Central Italy gave their consent through Plabiscite and
• The task of Italian unification was affected by further consolidated the unification. After Cavour’s
Piedmont, which was a relatively weaker state. In death, Victor Immanuel II conquered Rome and other
contrast, in Germany, it was affected by Prussia, Papal states and, thus, completed the unification of
which was a powerful state; therefore, the effecting Italy. Bismarck did not get any such co-operation. He
unification did not need the help of other states. He had to quell revolts in many states and had to impose
only required that they should not become an his wishes on them forcibly.
obstacle in his way.
76
WORLD HISTORY
• Bismarck was not a liberal. He was not in favor of a • Armed with Soviet rifles and tanks, North Korea
Constitutional Government in Germany. Cavour was crossed the 38th parallel on June 25, 1950; the war
of more liberal views and favored constitutional was underway.
monarchy. He did not care at all about the feeling of • President Harry Truman of the USA viewed the
the people and parliament. He was in favor of military situation as more than just a war between two
powers and a powerful military. nations.
• He feared the North Korean strike was the first step in

►THE KOREAN WAR an international communist takeover led by the Soviet
BACKGROUND Union.
• The end of the Second World War meant peace and • The President and other top officials saw the conflict
prosperity for Americans and many other people as an opportunity to declare war against communism.
around the world. But, for the Koreans, it represented Therefore, with support from the United Nations, the
difficulty. United States moved to establish peace and remove
the communist invaders from South Korea.
• Korea was part of the Japanese empire throughout
the first half of the 20th century. WHY DID THE US GET INVOLVED IN THE KOREAN
WAR?
• When Japan fell during the Second World War,
Koreans were suddenly free and hoped to finally • The USA wanted to contain communism. And in this
decide the fate of their own country. Most Koreans process, it developed the 'domino theory' - the idea
campaigned for a unified state. that, if one country fell to communism, others would
follow like a row of dominoes.
• However, the United States and the Soviet Union had
different ideas. The Soviets wanted to expand the • Truman was worried that if Korea fell, the next
sphere of communist influence into Korea. country to fall would be Japan, which was very
important for American trade.
• The United States countered by encouraging the
establishment of democracy. • This was probably the most important reason for
America’s involvement in the war.
• Additionally, the United States stressed the
importance of containment, which is a foreign policy • The Americans believed that the USSR was behind the
used to prevent the spread of communism. North Korean invasion. And they were determined to
stop Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union.
• This disagreement eventually led to the Korean War.
• The United States believed it could win and believed
The Korean War was the first battle of the Cold War and
that China would not intervene.
the first significant proxy war fought between the United
States and a Soviet communist supported enemy. • They also hoped to take advantage of the USSR’s
boycott of the UN to get the UN to agree to military
HOW DID THE WAR START?
help for South Korea.
• At the Potsdam Conference in 1945, the Allies (the
WHY DID CHINA GET INVOLVED?
USA, Britain, France, etc.) decided to split Korea into
two parts at the 38th parallel. • China’s leader, Mao Tse Tung, was alarmed by the
actions of the UN and the USA. China feared an
• North Korea became a Soviet-supported communist
American invasion.
regime under the leadership of Kim Il-sung; South
Korea became a U.S.-supported democratic state • Mao did not want “rollback” to succeed. North Korea,
under Syngman Rhee. as a communist country, provided a buffer zone for
China.
• After the division of Korea, Kim Il-sung looked to unify
the nation. WHY DID THE USSR GET INVOLVED?
• He garnered support from the Soviet Union and • It was part of Soviet ideology to spread communism.
China to launch an invasion in South Korea and • Stalin wanted to see communism expand as long as
remove those who supported Syngman Rhee's he did not get involved in a ‘hot war’ with the USA.
appearance of democracy.
77
WORLD HISTORY
• A successful takeover of South Korea would increase fear in the West was that China would emerge as a
the USSR’s influence in Asia. third superpower.
WHAT WAS THE IMPACT OF THE WAR? HOW DID THE WAR END?
• After the war, North Korea and South Korea remained • The Korean war of the early 1950s had never formally
divided. Families were broken up by the war and lived ended, and an uneasy truce has prevailed for well
on opposite sides of the demilitarized zone, unable to over half a century.
visit or even communicate with each other. • What established the truce was the Korean Armistice
• The impact of the Korean War on the civilian Agreement, which was signed in July 1953
population was especially dramatic. HOW WAS THE PEACE CAMPAIGN EXECUTED?
• Korean civilian casualties - dead, wounded, and • India played a significant role in bringing the Korean
missing - totaled between three and four million conflict to an end. Through K.M. Pannikar
during the three years of war (1950-1953). (Ambassador to China), Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai
• The war was disastrous for all of Korea, destroying communicated his views to the UN.
most of its industry. • Nehru’s Special Envoy to the USA, V Krishna Menon,
• North Korea fell into poverty and could not keep up played a significant role.
with South Korea's economic pace. • Both Nehru and Menon realized that this was only a
• The Korean War seemed to confirm the view of a partial victory, and more needed to be done to bring
worldwide communist conspiracy and ensured that the Soviets and the Chinese on board.
the Cold War spread to Asia. • Stalin’s death in March 1953 was a crucial turning
• The war also strengthened the determination of the point. Thereafter, signals from the communist camp
USA to contain communism on a worldwide scale. were that a quick end to the hostilities would not be
• The war established the pattern whereby if one unwelcome.
superpower was directly involved, the other was • Menon submitted another proposal, which was not
indirectly associated. acceptable to the Americans who came up with their
• It was the first time the two superpowers, the United version.
States and the Soviet Union, had fought a proxy war • But they agreed to merge their resolution with
in a third country. Menon’s to move things forward. This was then to
• The temporary division of Korea along the 38th lead to the Armistice Agreement.
parallel was a success for the policy of containment, ESTABLISHMENT OF NNRC

as communism did not spread into South Korea • One of the follow-up actions to the Armistice
• In 1954, SEATO (South East Asian Treaty Organisation) Agreement was the establishment of a Neutral
was set up as a copy of NATO. Communism had been Nations Repatriation Commission (NNRC).
prevented in South Korea, and the UN was seen as a • NNRC was to decide on the fate of prisoners of war
success. from both sides and India was chosen as the Chair of
• However, the war revealed that China was no longer the NNRC.
weak and was prepared to stand up to the West. The
78

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Section-1 ►HARVEST FESTIVALS AND ITS IMPORTANCE 24

Art & Architecture ►BHAKTI MOVEMENT AS SOURCE OF SOCIAL AND

►RELIGIOUS PHILOSOPHY OF JAINISM 10 ►RAJA RAM MOHAN ROY 30

►TWO SECTS OR SCHOOLS OF JAINISM 10 ►SUBHASH CHANDRA BOSE 31

►BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE DURING SATVANA RULE 20

►DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLASSICAL AND FOLK DANCE 20

►QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT 47 ►SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR 43

►DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDIAN PRESS DURING THE BRITISH

►GROWTH OF LEFT MOVEMENT 53

►WHY THE CONGRESS ACCEPTED THE PARTITION 54

►REORGANIZATION OF STATES: REGIONAL ISSUES 55

►LAND REFORMS AFTER INDEPENDENCE 57

Modern Indian History and Freedom Struggle

• Significant events, personalities, issues

• The Freedom Struggle - its various stages

Post Independence India

• Post-independence consolidation and reorganization within the country.

• Redrawing of national boundaries

THEME 1: INDIAN CULTURE

THEME 2: MODERN INDIAN HISTORY, PERSONALITIES AND FREEDOM STRUGGLE

2019 Examine the linkages between the nineteenth • Champaran satyagraha

of national identity. massacre

2016 Explain how the Uprising of 1857 constitutes an partition

important watershed in the evolution of British

2016 Discuss the role of women in the freedom struggle

2016 Highlight the differences in the approach of

2015 How different would have been the achievement

2015 It would have been difficult for the Constituent

2014 The third battle of Panipat was fought in 1761.

2014 Examine critically the various facets of economic

2014 In what ways did the naval mutiny prove to be the

2013 Defying the barriers of age, gender and religion,

2013 Several foreigners made India their homeland and

2013 In many ways, Lord Dalhousie was the founder of

2013 Discuss the contribution of Maulana Abul Kalam

THEME 3: POST INDEPENDENCE INDIA

2013 Write a critical note on the evolution and independence

significance of the slogan "Jai Jawana Jai Kisan".

2013 Analyze the circumstances that led to the Tashkent

2013 Critically examine the compulsions which

THEME 4: WORLD HISTORY

to preserve their cultural identity over there? {outcomes/results/consequenc

compare with that in India at present? • Social implications of the first

2013 "Latecomer" Industrial revolution in Japan involved

2013 Africa was chopped into states artificially created

2013 American Revolution was an economic revolt

2013 What policy instruments were deployed to contain

• Some of the examples of early rock paintings sites

OF HARAPPAN CITIES upon agriculture as well as trade Commerce was

• In the early medieval period, a new form of

• In north India, Ujjain and Mathura were important

►TWO SECTS OR SCHOOLS OF  JAINISM

► IMPORTANCE OF court poets.eg. Harshacharita of Banabhatta.

• Local histories written on different regions of our

ARTS caves. Then, with the arrival of Gupta architecture,

sculptures. Brahmeshvara temple, Orissa, Deogarh, Jhansi, and

►NAGARA STYLE OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

►DRAVIDA STYLE OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE