History of Rajasthan,

India & World

and
Art & Culture

Drishti Publications
(A Unit of VDK Publications Pvt. Ltd.)

641, First Floor, Dr. Mukherjee Nagar, Delhi-110009

Telephone: 011-47532596, 8750187501

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www.drishtiias.com
 CONTENTS
ART & CULTURE
1. Arts in India 3-6
? Mughal School of Painting 4
2. Architecture in India 7-23
? Indus Valley Architecture 7
? Comparison: Rock-Cut and Structural Architecture 11
? Temple Architecture 12
3. Literature in India 24-32
? The Vedas 24
? Vedangas 24
? Brahmanas 25
? Aranyakas 25
? Upanishads 25
? The Ramayana and the Mahabharata 26
? Puranas 26
? Buddhist and Jain Literature 26
? Prakrit 26
? Other Sanskrit Literature 26
? Dravidian Literature 27
? Tamil or Sangama Literature 27
? Earliest Tamil Works 27
? Ten Poems: Pattupattu 27
? Malayalam Literature 29
? Persian and Arabic literature 29
? Tarikh-ul Hind 29
? Chachnama 29
? Taj-ul-Masir 30
4. Religious Movements in Ancient and Medieval India 33-38
? Introduction 33
? Buddhism 33
? Christianity 33
? Hinduism 33
? Islam 33
? Jainism 33
? Confucianism 34
? Judaism 34
? Sikhism 34
? Religious Movements 34
 (vi)

? Sufism 37
? Advent of the Sufis in India 37
? Chisti Silsilah 37
? Suhravardi Silsilah 38
? Other Silsilahs 38
5. Religious Philosophy in Ancient and Medieval India 39-44
? Philosophical Systems 39

ANCIENT INDIA
1. Prehistoric Period 3-5
? Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age 3
? Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age (10000-6000 BCE) 4
? Neolithic Age (6000-4000BCE) 4
? Metal Age (Chalcolithic Culture) 5
2. Indus Valley Civilization 6-13
? Geographical Extent 6
? Salient Features of Indus Civilization 7
? Decline of Harappan Culture 9
? Significance 10
? Important Sites of Harappan Culture 10
3. Vedic Age 14-21
? Original Home of the Aryans 14
? Tribal Conflicts 14
? Vedic Literature 14
? Rig Vedic Age or Early Vedic Period (1500–1000 BCE) 15
? Later Vedic Period (1000–600 BCE) 18
4. Mahajanapadas 22-27
? Rise of Mahajanapadas 22
? Mahajanapadas 22
? Republics and Monarchies 25
? Rise of Urban Centres 27
5. Rise of Magadha and Pre Mauryan Empire 28-31
? Causes of Magadhan Success 28
? Pre Mauryan Empire 29
? Persian and Greek Invasions on India 30
6. Mauryan Empire 32-41
? Origin of the Mauryas 32
? Foundation of the Empire 32
? Mauryan Dynasty (321-185 BCE) 32
 (vii)

? Ashoka’s Policy of Dhamma 34

? Edicts of Ashoka 36
? Later Mauryas (232–185 BCE) 37
? Central Administration 37
? Provincial Administration 39
? Mauryan Economy 39
? Mauryan Society 40
? Art and Architecture 40
? Disintegration of the Empire 41
? Analysis 41
7. Post Mauryan Period 42-46
? Sunga Dynasty (185–73 BCE) 42
? Kanvas (73–28 BCE) 42
? Satavahanas (60 BCE–225 CE) 42
? Foreign Invasions in Northwest India 44
8. Sangam Age 47-50
? Sources of Sangam Age 47
? Political History 47
? Sangam Polity and Administration 48
? Sangam Society 49
? Sangam Economy 50
? End of the Sangam Age 50
9. Gupta Age 51-57
? Sources 51
? Important Gupta Rulers 51
? Gupta Administration 54
? Social Life 55
? Economy 55
? Art and Culture 56
? Science and Technology 57
10. Post Gupta Period 58-66
? Pushyabhuti Dynasty 58
? Pallavas 61
? Chalukyas 65

MEDIEVAL INDIA
1. Early Medieval Empires 3-9
? Rashtrakutas (755-982 CE) 3
? Gurjara-Pratihara 4
? Pala dynasty 5
? Tripartite Struggle 6
? The Great Cholas 6
 (viii)

2. Age of Conflict (1000-1200 CE) 10-15

? Developments in West and Central Asia 10
? Political Condition of India on the Eve of the Turkish Invasion 11
? Early Rajput Kingdoms 12
? Invasion of Turks 13
? Causes of the Defeat of the Rajputs 15
3. Delhi Sultanate-I 16-20
? Delhi Sultanate 16
? The Slave Dynasty (1206-1290 CE) 17
4. Delhi Sultanate-II 21-35
? The Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320 CE) 21
? Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414 CE) 27
? Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451 CE) 34
? Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526 CE) 34
5. Mughal Empire-I 36-40
? Babur (Reigned 1526-1530) 36
? Humayun (Reigned 1530-1556) 38
6. Rise of Afghans – The Surs 41-44
? Afghan Theory of Kingship 41
? Sher Shah Suri 41
7. Mughal Empire-II 45-51
? Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar (Reigned 1556-1605) 45
? Jahangir (Reigned 1605-1627) 49
? Shah Jahan (Reigned 1627-1658) 50
8. Mughal Empire-III and the Rise of Marathas 52-56
? Aurangzeb 52
? The Maratha Empire under Shivaji 56
9. Administration under the Mughals 57-64
? Polity 57
? State Administration 58
? Military Organisation 60
? Judicial Administration 60
? The Mansabdari System 60
? Revenue Administration 62
10. Vijayanagar and Bahmani Kingdoms 65-72
? Vijayanagar Kingdom 65
? Bahmani Kingdom 69
? Deccan Sultanates 70
 (ix)

MODERN INDIA
1. India in the 18th Century 3-12
? Decline of Mughal Empire 3
? Emergence of Regional States  6
? Invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali 11
2. Advent of the Europeans 13-20
? The Need to Discover New Routes to India 13
? Arrival of Portuguese in India 13
? Arrival of Dutch in India 16
? Arrival of the British in India 17
? Arrival of Danes in India 19
? Arrival of French in India 20
3. Rise and Consolidation of British Power 21-37
? Factors of Success 21
? Anglo-French Rivalry 21
? Acquisition of Bengal  24
? Anglo-Maratha Relations 27
? Anglo-Mysore Relations 29
? Anglo-Sikh Relations 30
? British Policy of Subsidiary Alliance 31
? Dalhousie’s Doctrine of Lapse 32
? British Policy towards Princely States 32
? British Power and Neighbouring Countries 33
4. Economic and Administrative Policies under the British 38-49
? Stages of British Colonialism 38
? Land Revenue Systems During British Rule 38
? De-Industrialization 42
? Drain of Wealth 43
? Development of Modern Industries in India 45
? Administrative Machinery 45
? Introduction of Railways 48
5. Socio-Religious Reform Movements 50-69
? Causes of Social and Cultural Awakening 50
? Socio-Religious Movements & Reformers 51
? Sikh Movements 58
? Movements for Emancipation of Women 59
? Islamic Reform Movements 60
? Movements for Upliftment of Untouchables 62
? Reformative Movements 64
? Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar and Depressed Classes Movement 64
 (x)

6. Peasant, Tribal and Other Movements 70-82

? Peasant Movements 70
? Notable Peasant Movements 70
? Tribal Revolts 77
? Other Movements 80
7. Revolt of 1857 83-88
? Sepoys Revolts: Pre-1857 83
? The Revolt of 1857 83
8. Rise of Indian Nationalism 89-99
? Reasons for Growth of Nationalism 89
? Early Political Associations (1838-1885) 91
? Circumstances Leading to the Foundation of the Congress 92
? The Indian National Congress 93
? The Moderate Phase (1885-1905) 94
9. Indian National Movement (1905-1916) 100-109
? The Extremists 100
? Partition of Bengal & Swadeshi Movement 102
? Foundation of All India Muslim League (1906) 105
? Post 1909 Developments 106
10. Emergence of Gandhi 110-116
? Gandhi’s Early Life in South Africa 110
? Gandhi’s Satyagraha Movements in India 110
? Gandhi and Rowlatt Act (1919) 111
? Khilafat Movement 112
? Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM) 113
11. Revolutionary Extremism 117-123
? Early Phase (Before 1920) 117
? Later Phase (After 1920) 121
? Evaluation of Revolutionary Extremism 122
12. Freedom Struggle in the 1920s and 1930s 124-135
? Swaraj Party 124
? Other Political Parties and Movements 125
? Simon Commission (1927) 125
? Nehru Report (1928) 126
? Civil Disobedience Movement 127
? Gandhi’s Harijan Programme 131
? Provincial Elections (1937) 131
? Indian Working Class and National Movement 132
 (xi)

13. Freedom Struggle in Princely States 136-138

? All India States Peoples’ Conference (AISPC) 136
? Indian National Congress and the Native States 136
14. Freedom with Partition 139-149
? Demand for Pakistan 139
? Second World War & its Impact on India 139
? Cripps Mission (1942) 141
? Quit India Movement 142
? Indian National Army (INA) 144
? C.R. Formula (1944) 146
? Wavell Plan (14th June 1945) 146
? General Elections in India (1945) 147
? Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) 147
? Constituent Assembly and Direct Action Day 148
? India Attains Independence 148
15. Important Developments during British Raj 150-160
? Development of Education 150
? Press in India 155
? Labour and Factory Acts 159
? British Famine Policy 160
16. Governor Generals & Viceroys 161-165
? Governors of Bengal 161
? Governor Generals of Bengal 161
? Governor Generals of India 162
? Viceroys of India 164
17. Post Independence Consolidation & Reorganisation 166-181
? The Colonial Legacy 166
? Integration of Princely States 167
? The case of Colonial Enclaves 169
? Reorganization of Indian States after Independence 169
? Challenges to Consolidation 171
18. Significant Events and Developments Since Independence 182-190
? Bhoodan and Gramdan 182
? Congress After 1947 182
? Congress After 1964 184
? Foreign Policy 184
? Economic Reconstruction Since Independence 185
? The Mandal Commission Report 186
? Ramjanmabhumi Movement and Rise of Majoritarian Politics 188
 (xii)

HISTORY AND ART & CULTURE OF RAJASTHAN

1. History of Rajasthan 3-37
? Major Landmarks in the History of Rajasthan from Pre-Historic Time to Late of
18th Century 3
? Maurya And Rajasthan  5
? Different Names of Ancient Regions of Rajasthan  5
? Major Ancient Civilizations of Rajasthan 5
? Important Ancient Civilizations  6
? Major Sources of Rajasthan’s History  9
? Important Dynasties of Rajasthan 13
? Major Wars of Rajasthan 23
? Major Saake & Jauhar of Rajasthan 25
? Administrative and Revenue System of Dynasties 26
? Major Social and Cultural Issues of Rajasthan 29
? Famous Historical Places of Rajasthan 30
? Important Historical Personalities Of Rajasthan 34
? Miscellaneous 36
2. Freedom Struggle of Rajasthan and Major Events 38-57
? Historical Background of the Freedom Struggle in Rajasthan 38
? The Revolution of 1857 39
? Tribal Movements in Rajasthan 42
? Peasant Movements in Rajasthan 44
? Public Awareness and Political Awakening in Rajasthan  47
? Major Prajamandal Movements in Rajasthan  52
? Political Integration in Rajasthan  55
? Major Events of Rajasthan (17th-20th Century) 56
3. Heritage of Rajasthan 58-115
? Performing and Fine Arts in Rajasthan 58
? Painting 63
? Classification or School of Rajasthani Painting 65
? Folk Painting 70
? Mural Painting 71
? Modern Painting of Rajasthan 71
? Handicrafts and Architecture in Rajasthan 72
? Fairs and Festivals of Rajasthan 92
? Folk Music in Rajasthan 97
? Folk Dances of Rajasthan 100
? Folk Dramas of Rajasthan 104
? Folk Instruments of Rajasthan 107
? Rajasthan’s Folk Singer and Communities associated with Music  112
 (xiii)

4. Culture, Traditions and Heritage of Rajasthan 116-122

? Culture of Rajasthan  116
? Tradition and Heritage of Rajasthan 119
5. Religious Movements, Lok-Devtas and Major Saints of Rajasthan 123-143
? Socio-Religious Reform Movement in Rajasthan 123
? Religion and Community of Rajasthan 127
? Major Folk Gods (Lok Devtas) of Rajasthan 134
? Major Saints of Rajasthan 141
6. Important Works of Rajasthani Literature and Dialects of Rajasthan 144-155
? Rajasthani Language 144
? Works of Rajasthani, Folk and Modern Literature 145
? Personalities Related to Rajasthani Literature 151
? Dialects of Rajasthan 152
? Terminology 153
7. Important Tourist Destinations of Rajasthan 156-174
? Classification of Tourist Destinations 156
? Major Tourist Sites and Circuits of Rajasthan 158
? Nature of Tourism in Rajasthan 170
? Tourism as an Industry 170
? Impact of the Tourism Industry on the Economy 174
8. Major Personalities of Rajasthan 175-190
? Historical Personalities of Rajasthan 175
? Personalities of the Independence Movement of Rajasthan 180
? Role of Women in the Freedom Struggle of Rajasthan 187
? Immortal Martyrs of Rajasthan 189

WORLD HISTORY
1. Renaissance and Reformation 3-5
? Renaissance  3
2. Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution 6-12
? Age of Enlightenment 6
? Important Personalities 6
? Industrial Revolution 7
3. American Revolution 13-15
? Causes of the American Revolution 13
? Impact of the American Revolution 14
4. French Revolution 16-20
? Background of the French Revolution 16
? Causes of the French Revolution 16
? Course of the Revolt 17
? Impact of the French Revolution 18
 (xiv)

5. Colonialism and New Imperialism 21-41

? Colonization of the World 21
? Rise of the Nation-States 24
? Unification of Germany 25
? Unification of Italy 26
? American Civil War 27
? Decolonization 29
? New Imperialism 31
6. First World War 42-50
? Causes of the First World War 42
? Events Preceding the War 43
? The Outbreak of War 44
? Course of the War 45
? End of the War 47
? Consequences of the War 49
7. Interwar Years 51-64
? Europe During the Period 51
? Attempts of Mitigation 51
? Franco-German Relations 53
? USSR vs. Europe 54
? New Nation-States 55
? Rise of Fascism and Nazism 56
? The Policy of Appeasement 57
? Failure of the League of Nations 59
? Asia During the Interwar Period 61
8. Second World War 65-68
? The Outbreak of the War 65
? Impact of the War 66
9. Post Second World War 69-86
? Formation of United Nations 69
? The Cold War Phase 70
? Consolidation of the Soviet and American Bloc 70
? The Non-Aligned Movement 73
? Period between 1953 & 1962 73
? The Breakdown of the Soviet Union 74
? Spread of Communism Outside Europe 76
? Conflict in the Middle East 79
? Other Developments 83
Practice Questions for Prelims 1-8
Practice Questions for Mains 9-10
 5 Religious Philosophy in
Ancient and Medieval India

PHILOSOPHICAL SYSTEMS systems uphold the authority and supremacy of the Vedas
while unorthodox or the heterodox did not believe in the
Indian philosophy is very rich, ancient and has its roots authority of the Vedas.
in the Vedic period. The great rishis or sages of India lived a
Orthodox Systems: Nyaya, Vaiseshika, Samkhya, Yoga,
secluded life in the forests and meditated on the ultimate truth
Mimamsa (Purva-Mimamsa), and Vedanta (Uttar-Mimamsa).
or the nature of reality.
Heterodox Systems: Jainism, Buddhism and Charvakas.
They expressed their revelations in hymns. Gradually, the
systematized collection of these hymns led to the compilation
of the Vedas and the Upanishads. Orthodox Philosophical Systems
Indian philosophy is distinctly spiritual in its approach. Samkhya
The Indian philosophy takes a comprehensive view of life and
the universe. For an Indian philosopher, philosophy is not Founder: Kapila
merely an intellectual pursuit, but a way of life too. The Indian
philosopher tries to apply and exemplify the philosophy in Basic Idea
his life. The tenets and teachings of the philosophy are also It is one of the major orthodox Indian philosophies.
reflected in the life of the followers of the philosophy. The classical formulation of Samkhya philosophy is found in
Thus, India witnessed mass followers of different Īśvarakṛṣṇa’s Sāṅkhya-Kārikā. Samkhya accepts Perception,
philosophies and religions at different points of time. Inference, and Verbal Testimony as the source of valid
Philosophy has been an integral part of the life of Indians. knowledge.
Four Purushartha The Sāṅkhya analysis of causation is called Satkaryavada
according to which the effect is present in its cause. It is
The Vedic tradition recognizes four basic ends or normally explained as the view that the effect already exists
purusharthas of human life. They are as follows: in its cause prior to its production.
z Dharma: The word ‘dharma, has its origin in the Sanskrit It is an atheistic philosophy. It is also a dualistic philosophy
word, ‘dhr’ which means ‘to sustain’ or ‘to support’. which believes in the existence of two types of entities, i.e.,
Dharma sustains or maintains life and lays down duties Prakriti and Purusha. Both are eternal and independent of each
and obligations for man. Dharma is variously translated other. Prakriti is material and active in nature while Puruṣha
as duty, faith, righteousness, justice, ethics, morality etc. is conscious and inactive. According to Samkhya, creation
z Artha: Artha means material wealth and it is considered comes into being due to the conjunction of the Prakṛiti and
important for the overall happiness and well-being of Puruṣha(s). Prakṛiti is generally equated with nature or matter,
an individual. In a broad sense, it refers to man’s while Puruṣha may be equated with the soul or person.
professional activities, job, business, wealth, property, Prakriti constitutes three guṇas or qualities-sattva,
etc. that are helpful to live a good life. rajas and tamas. Sattva (essence) is the principle of light and
z Kama: ‘Kama’ in the broader sense means desire. Man goodness and produces pleasure. Rajas are the principle
has a desire for numerous things and seeks pleasure in of energy and passion, while Tamas (darkness) appears as
various activities and material objects. Man derives inactivity and dullness. An imbalance in the intertwined
pleasure from sexual relation and material objects like relationship of these three dispositions causes the world to
food, drink etc. evolve from Prakriti. Everything in this world is a manifestation
z Moksha: It means liberation or total freedom from the of Prakriti except Purusha.
sufferings of life or the cycle of life and death. It is Prakriti, though material and unconscious in nature,
considered as the ultimate goal of life. is purposeful and is said to function for the purpose of the
individual Puruṣhas.
Indian Philosophy
The Vedas are the oldest scriptures in the world and the
Liberation
Indian philosophical systems are broadly classified on the basis According to Samkhya, leaving the cycle of rebirth and
of acceptance of the authority of the Vedas. The orthodox transmigration is the way to final emancipation or liberation

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History of Rajasthan, India & World and Art & Culture

from suffering. This can be achieved through the realization Nyaya

of the fundamental difference between Prakriti and Purusha.
According to Samkhya, ignorance is the root cause of bondage Founder: Gautama or Akspada
and suffering. The self is eternal and pure consciousness, but
due to ignorance, the self identifies itself with the material and Basic Idea
physical body and its constituents. Once the self becomes free It is important for its analysis of logic, correct thinking
of this false identification and the material bonds through real and the means of acquiring true knowledge. Its principal text,
knowledge, salvation is possible. Liberation is the negation of Nyaya-sutra is attributed to Gautama. Nyaya is allied to the
pain in Samkhya and not the manifestation of bliss. Vaiseshika system. It holds that there are four valid means of
knowledge, i.e. perception (pratyaksha), inference (anumana),
Yoga comparison (upamana), and verbal testimony (shabda).
Founder: Patanjali Nyaya holds that the self is an individual substance,
eternal and all pervading. Nyaya’s theory of causation is called
Basic Idea
Asatkaryavada that believes that the effect does not pre-exist
Patanjali propagated his philosophy of Yoga in his great in its cause and effect is a new creation. Nyaya recognizes God
work – Yoga-Sutra. Yoga is largely based on the Samkhya as the creator, maintainer and destroyer of the world.
philosophy. They are two sides of the same coin. Samkhya is
a theory while Yoga is the practice to actualize it. Thus, Yoga Liberation
presents a method of physical and mental discipline.
The ultimate aim of Nyaya is to enable one to bring an end
Samkhya is an atheistic philosophy while Yoga has a
to human suffering, which results from ignorance of reality.
theistic tradition and believes in God. Yoga holds that there is
Liberation is brought about through right knowledge.
one Supreme Purusha (God) who is above all purushas.
According to Nyaya, liberation is the state of pure
Liberation
existence. It is freedom from all pains and pleasures. One can
The system of Yoga presents a practical path for the
attain liberation through tattva-jnana (true knowledge) of self
realization of the self. Yoga provides a path to release Purusha
and all other objects of experience.
from Prakriti by means of physical and mental discipline. One
can attain salvation through meditation and physical discipline.
Vaiseshika
Physical exercises and various postures called asanas are
prescribed to attain salvation. Founder: Kanada
The important aspect of the Yoga philosophy is the Basic Idea
Astanga Yoga, which sets out the eight (aṣṭa) limbs (anga)
The Vaiseshika School gives importance to the discussion
of the practice of yoga. The eight limbs are:
of ultimate constituents or elements of the universe. It accepts
z Yama: Abstention from evil-doing, such as harming
only perception and inference as the source of valid knowledge.
others, telling falsehoods, stealing etc.
Vaiseshika is a pluralistic realism that explains the nature of the
z Niyamas: Cultivation of good habits such as personal
hygiene, studying religious texts, observing austere vows world through seven categories or Padarthas such as Dravya
and feeling content in life. (substance), Guna (quality), Karma (action),
z Asana: It is a discipline of the body and adopting Samanya (universal), Vishesha (particular), Smavaya
comfortable postures such as padamasana, virasana etc. (inherence) and Abhava (nonexistence). The substances
z Praṇayama: It is the regulation of breath performed (Dravya) recognized by Vaiseshika are earth, water, fire, air,
through different ways. akasha, space, time, soul and mind.
z Pratyahara: It refers to the withdrawal of the mind from Vaiseshika is known for its atomistic theory of creation.
sense objects. According to this theory, the world originates and decays due
z Dharana: It is a form of concentration in which one fixes to association or dissociation of the four atoms, i.e., earth, air,
one’s mind on an object. water and fire. However, it is the God that provided motion
z Dhyana: It is a form of meditation characterised by the to these atoms in the creation of this world. Vaisheshika also
steadfast contemplation of the object without any believes in Asatkaryavada (effect does not pre-exist in its cause)
disturbance. and contends that every effect is a fresh creation or a new
z Samadhi: It is the final step in yoga and there is beginning. Vaiseshika recognizes God as the supreme, perfect
absorption in the self.
and eternal.

40 Drishti Publications
 8 Sangam Age

The neolithic phase of South India was succeeded by the reference to the kingdoms of the Tamil country. However, the
Megalithic cultures (1200 BCE–300 BCE) which was followed Sangam literature is the major source of information about
by the Sangam age. The Sangam Age refers to the period in the southern kingdoms. There were frequent conflicts among
the early history of south India when a large number of poems the three polities which gave larger scope to the Sangam poets
in Tamil were composed by a number of authors. The Age to compose poems on war. Each of the Sangam dynasties had
extended from around 300 BCE to 300 CE and constitutes an a royal emblem– carp for the Pandyas, tiger for the Cholas and
important development in the history of South India. However, bow for the Cheras.
there is no unanimity among the scholars about the chronology
of the Sangam age. Cheras
The term ‘Sangam’ refers to an assembly or “meeting The Cheras ruled over parts of modern Kerala and Tamil
together” of Tamil poets. According to Tamil legends, three Nadu with their capital at Vanji. The history of the Cheras was
Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) popularly called marked by a continuous fight with the Cholas and the Pandyas.
Muchchangam were convened in ancient Tamil Nadu. These z The Pugalur inscription of the first century CE refers to
Sangams flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandyas. three generations of Chera rulers. Padirruppattu also
provides information on Chera kings.
Three Sangams
z Perum Sorru Udhiyan Cheralathan, Imayavaramban Nedum
z The first Sangam was held at the then Madurai. It is Cheralathan and Cheran Senguttuvan were the famous
believed that it was attended by Gods and legendary rulers of this dynasty.
sages. However, no literary work of this Sangam is
available.
z The second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram. It was
attended by several poets and a large mass of literature
was produced in this meeting. But all the literary works
had perished except Tolkappiyam.
z The third Sangam at Madurai was founded by
Mudathirumaran. It was attended by a large number of
poets who produced a voluminous literature, but only
a fraction of it survived.

SOURCES OF SANGAM AGE

z Sangam literature
z The Asokan inscriptions
z The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga
z The excavations at Arikkamedu, Poompuhar, Kodumanal
and other places
z The writings of Greek authors like Megasthenes, Strabo, The Cheras, Cholas and Pandya Dynasties
Pliny and Ptolemy
z Cheran Senguttuvan who belonged to 2nd century CE was
the greatest Chera king. His younger brother was Ilango
POLITICAL HISTORY Adigal, the author of Silappatikaram.
The Tamil country was ruled by three dynasties namely z Senguttuvan is known for his expedition to the Himalayas.
the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas during the Sangam Age. He is believed to have crossed the Ganges and defeated
Ashoka mentions the three kingdoms in the Major Rock Edict many north Indian monarchs, which might be an
II. The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavelea also provides exaggeration.

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History of Rajasthan, India & World and Art & Culture

z Senguttuvan introduced the Pattini cult or the worship of Pandyas

Kannagi as the ideal wife in Tamil Nadu. The stone for
The Pandyas ruled over the present day southern Tamil
making the idol of Kannagi was brought by him after his
Nadu with their capital at Madurai. The Pandyas are famous
Himalayan expedition. The consecration ceremony was
for patronising the poets and scholars of the Tamil Sangams.
attended by many princes, including the Gajabhagu II from
z The earliest kings of the Pandyan dynasty were
Sri Lanka.
Nediyon, Palyagasalai Mudukudumi Peruvaludhi and
z Senguttuvan was succeeded by Perunjeral Adan who was Mudathirumaran.
a contemporary of the great Chola king Karikala. z There were two Neduncheliyans. The first one was known
z The Chera power declined after second century BCE. The as Aryappadai Kadantha Neduncheliyan (the one who won
Cheras are known for their liberal patronage to Tamil poets victories over the Aryan forces). He was responsible for
and the promotion of trade with the Romans. The Chera the execution of Kovalan for which Kannagi burnt Madurai.
had many ports along the western coast of India such as z The other was Talaiyalanganattu Cheruvenra
Tondi and Muziris. Muziris in particular, was the centre of Neduncheliyan. He was praised by Nakkirar and Mangudi
Indo-Roman trade. Maruthanar. He wore this title after defeating his enemies
at the Battle of Talaiyalanganam, which is located in the
Cholas Tanjore district. By this victory, Neduncheliyan gained
The Chola kingdom of the Sangam period extended from control over the entire Tamil Nadu.
modern Tiruchi district to southern Andhra Pradesh. Their The Pandyan rule during the Sangam Age began to decline
capital was first located at Uraiyur (famous for cotton trade) due to the invasion of the Kalabhras. The last famous Pandyan
and then shifted to Puhar. king was Uggira Peruvaludhi. The Pandyan kings profited from
the trade with the Roman Empire. They are known to have
z It is believed that in the middle of the second century BCE,
sent embassies to the Roman emperor Augustus. The Pandyan
a Chola king named Elara conquered Sri Lanka and ruled
ports such as Saliyur and Korkai in particular were great centres
over it. of trade and commerce.
z However, a clear history of the Cholas begins in the second
century CE, with the famous king and a great warrior Minor Chieftains
Karikala. Karikala means, ‘The man with the charred leg’. Pari, Kari, Ori, Nalli, Pegan, Ay and Adiyaman were the
Pattinappalai portrays his early life and his military minor chieftains who played a significant role in the Sangam
conquests. He was a contemporary of Perunjeral Adan, period, particularly by giving patronage to Tamil poets. Thus,
the Chera king whom he defeated. they were known as Kadai Yelu Vallalgal. Although they were
z In the Battle of Venni he defeated the mighty confederacy subordinate to the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers, they were
consisting of the Cheras, Pandyas and eleven minor powerful and popular in their respective regions.
chieftains. This event is mentioned in many Sangam poems.
z Vahaipparandalai was another important battle fought by SANGAM POLITY AND ADMINISTRATION
him in which nine enemy chieftains submitted before him. Hereditary monarchy was the form of government during
z Karikala’s military achievements made him the overlord of the Sangam period. The king was the centre of administration.
the whole Tamil country. He founded Puhar which was a The kingdom was called Mandalam and the Chola, the Pandya
great centre of trade and commerce. The Cholas and the Chera were the original major mandalam. The
maintained an efficient navy. Trade and commerce mandalam was divided into Nadus (provinces).
flourished during his reign and period. He was responsible z The king also used to take the advice of his minister, court-
for the reclamation of forest lands and brought them under poet and the imperial court or avai.
cultivation thus adding prosperity to the people. z The king was assisted by a large body of officials who were
z He also built Kallanai dam across the river Kaveri and also divided into five councils.
constructed many irrigation tanks. z They were ministers (amaichar), priests (anthanar), military
z The Chola power declined rapidly under Karikala commanders (senapathi), envoys (thuthar) and spies (orrar).
successors. The elder son of Karikala ruled from Uraiyur z The administration of nadus or provinces was generally
while the younger one from Puhar. The last great Chola carried on by hereditary chiefs.
ruler after Karikala was Nedunjelian who was ultimately z The Ur denoted a town. It was variously described as a
killed in battle. The Cheras and the Pandyas extended at big village (perar), a small village (sirur) or an old village
the cost of the Cholas. (mudur).

48 Drishti Publications
 3 Rise and Consolidation
of British Power

Initially, the Company acquired the territory just to promote which could challenge the domination of Europeans,
and protect their commercial interests. Soon, the Britishers especially the English. Also, the rivalry among the native
realised internal feud in local politics of which they can take states was used, promoted and exploited by the Europeans
advantage and, in the process, secure their interests. But, the to achieve their interests. The British faced a divided India
British Parliament after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 which lacked a central leadership and was fragmented in
assumed a greater role in policy formulation of the Company several polities. On the other hand, the British were filled
and sought to acquire territories and establish an empire. with zeal for materialist goal to achieve national glory.
Subsequently, the administrators sent by the British z Weak Successors: Indian states, though had leaders like
government worked to advance the desired goal. Administrators Ranjit Singh, Haider Ali, Tipu Sultan and Marthanda Verma,
like Lord Wellesley adopted aggressive application of the their successors lacked the vision and energy of their
subsidiary alliance system to extend British dominion in India. predecessors. In contrast, the English had second line
With the conclusion of the Battle of Plassey and Buxar, the leaders like Sir Eyre Coote, Lord Lake and Arthur Wellesley –
East India Company emerged as a key player in Indian politics. who were well versed with the policies of their predecessors.
With substantial resources of Bengal, the English sought to z Military Superiority: The firearms used by the English,
increase their influence and protect their progress against their which included muskets and cannons, were better than the
competitors such as the French and Dutch. In addition, the Indian arms both in speed of firing and in range. On realising
18th century is characterised as a period of aspiring States to this, many Indian rulers such as Tipu Sultan and Ranjit Singh
claim their supremacy. Under these circumstances, conflict imported European arms and employed European officers
was evident. to train their troops, but unfortunately most of the native
It was under these conflicts that the Company found ways military officers and the ranks could not match the discipline
to interfere in internal matters of native kingdoms, such as the of English officers and soldiers. The prosperous trade of
Carnatic wars. The consolidation of a Company to an Empire Indian Ocean enabled the Company to pay rich dividends
broadly followed the method of demanding concession, to their shareholders and also finance the English wars in
interfering in internal matters and challenging the authority, India. The material progress supplemented the military
waging war, and annexing the territories. affairs in India and also in the sea.
z Priority to Skill: The British sidelined caste, clan and personal
FACTORS OF SUCCESS ties in matters of employment and promotion in both army
Inspired by the vision of creating an all India empire, the and civil administration which ensured efficient functioning
British devised their political, economic, social and foreign policies. of their institutions. However, in sharp contrast the case was
z Robust Finances: Loyalty of the officers and soldiers were opposite in the case of most of the Indian states.
ensured through a regular system of payment of salaries
and a strict regime of discipline. In comparison, most of ANGLO-FRENCH RIVALRY
the Indian rulers did not have enough money to pay salaries
By the mid of the 18th Century, the rivalry between the
regularly as evident from the fact that the Marathas
European companies left English and the French East India
employed their troops to collect revenue or chauth for the
payment of salaries. Overwhelming dependence on Companies as the two important rivals in India. Soon, the
mercenaries compromised defence of the empire as they political and economic ambitions of the French came into
could turn rebellious in the face of luring offers. With the direct confrontation with the British interests and led to several
conclusion of the Battle of Plassey, access to rich revenue Anglo-French confrontations also known as Carnatic wars.
of Bengal enabled the Company to maintain large z In 1740, the political situation in south India was chaotic.
contingents of troops and pay them regularly. Nizam-ul-Mulk of Hyderabad was old and fully engaged
z United Front: The Indian States were in a constant scuffle with the Marathas in the western Deccan while his
with each other and Europeans. The decline of Mughal subordinates were speculating consequences of his death.
Empire and defeat of Marathas in the Third Battle of z Further south, the Coromandel coast had no strong ruler
Panipat further aggravated the crisis of central power instead there was the remnant of the old Vijayanagara empire

Drishti Publications 21
History of Rajasthan, India & World and Art & Culture

in interior Mysore, Cochin and Travancore in the Malabar In 1748, with the death of Nizam-ul-Mulk of Hyderabad and
coast, and on the east the small states of Madura (Madurai), the release of Chanda Sahib (the son-in-law of Dost Ali, who
Tanjore (Thanjavur) and Trichinopoly (Thiruchirapally). was the Nawab of Carnatic) by the Marathas in the same year,
z The decline of Hyderabad marked the incursion of English ensued succession disputes leading to the Second Carnatic war.
and on the pretext of Maratha kingdom of Tanjore, the
Peshwa of Pune too interfered. Contenders
z Nasir Jung for Nizamat or Governorship of Deccan and
First Carnatic War (1746-48) Anwar-ud-din for of Nawabship of Carnatic – both of them
The first Anglo-French war emerged in the Carnatic (i.e., supported by the English.
the Coromandel coast and its hinterland) as an extension of z Muzaffar Jung for Nizamat and Chanda Sahib for Nawabship
the Austrian War of Succession which had started in March of Carnatic – supported by the French.
1740. Subsequently, the English under Barnett seized some of The combined armies of Muzaffar Jang, Chanda Sahib and
the French ships. the French defeated and killed Anwarud-din at the Battle of
z France retaliated by capturing Madras in 1746 with the aid Ambur (near Vellore) in 1749.
of Admiral La Bourdonnais, the French governor of Mauritius. z Muzaffar Jang became the subahdar of the Deccan, and
This marked the beginning of the first Carnatic War. Dupleix was appointed governor of all the Mughal
z Eventually, the English were compelled to appeal for help territories to the south of the River Krishna.
against the French. z However, Muzaffar’s reign was short as he was soon killed,
z Battle of St. Thome: On the banks of the River Adyar, forces and Salabat Jung (3rd son of Nizam-ul-Mulk) became Nizam.
of the French and Anwar-ud-din, the Nawab of Carnatic z A French contingent under Bussy was stationed in
fought each other. Hyderabad to secure French interests.
 A small French army under Captain Paradise defeated z Territories near Pondicherry and also some areas on the Orissa
the strong Indian army under Mahfuz Khan. Coast (including Masulipatnam) came under French control.
 The conflict revealed that even a small disciplined army
z Muzaffar Jung and Chanda Sahib were able to capture Arcot
could easily defeat a much larger Indian army. while Nasir Jung’s subsequent death allowed Muzaffar Jung
 Further, this war adequately brought out the to take control of Hyderabad.
importance of naval force in the Anglo-French conflict z In 1751, however, Robert Clive led British troops to capture
in the Deccan. Arcot, and successfully defend it. The war ended with the
z Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle: The first Carnatic war came to Treaty of Pondicherry, signed in 1754, which recognised
an end with the termination of hostilities in Europe. The Muhammad Ali Khan Walajah as the Nawab of the Carnatic.
Austrian War of Succession ended with the signing of the z By 1752, Muhammad Ali executed Chanda Sahib.
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle and as per the terms of this treaty,
Madras was returned to the English and in turn French Impact
regained their territories in North America.
z The French authorities, annoyed at the heavy financial
Second Carnatic War (1749-54) losses that Dupleix’s policy involved, decided to recall him
in 1754.
Important Terms z Godeheu succeeded Dupleix as the French Governor-
Nizam was the title of the ruler of the princely state General in India. Godeheu adopted a policy of negotiations
of Hyderabad. with the English and concluded a treaty with them.
z In official terminology, he was referred to as subahdar z The English and the French agreed not to interfere in the
or provincial governor of the Deccan. quarrels of the native princes. Also, each party was left in
z His stature was closer to the Mughal Emperor as he possession of the territories actually occupied by them at
acted like an independent king the time of the treaty.
z He held several Nawabs (semi-autonomous rulers) z According to historians, the fear of serious repercussions in
under him. America prompted the French to suspend hostilities in India.
Nawab title was bestowed by the reigning Mughal z It also became evident that Indian authority could be
Emperor to semi-autonomous Muslim rulers of a subdivision subordinated to advance foreign interests as evident in
of a princely state. Often this was accompanied with grants the case of Nawab Muhammad Ali of Carnatic and Nawab
and large jagirs. Salabat Jang of Hyderabad.

22 Drishti Publications
 3 Heritage of Rajasthan

Cultural and natural heritage are living examples of the  Shaivite sculptures
creativity of man and nature. These heritages are common  Vaishnava Sculptures
for of the whole society beyond the borders of the countries  Buddhist sculptures
and are not only part of our common past, but they also play z Gupta period sculpture
an important role in building a sustainable global society.
z Post-Gupta period sculpture
Rajasthan holds an important place in India due to its rich
z Pre-medieval period sculpture
heritage. The architecture, sculpture, painting, handicraft and
folk art make this heritage proud and rich. Forts, temples, z Medieval period sculpture
palaces, stepwells and other buildings located at different sites z Later-medieval period sculpture
in Rajasthan present a coordinated picture. With the passage of z Rajput period sculpture
time and prosperity, the elements of excellence, spaciousness z Rajput-Mughal period sculpture
and subtlety in the architecture were incorporated here. Here, z Later Rajput-Mughal period sculpture
the diversity of architecture is the main feature. z Shunga and Kushana Sculpture: During the Shaka-Kushan
period, the idols of deity began to take on an explicit shape.
PERFORMING AND FINE ARTS IN RAJASTHAN Other sculptures found in this period are as follows:
All the man-made things (visible and invisible) of the  Sculptures of Yaksha-Yakshini: In the Shunga-Kushan
world are the result of the creative capacity of the human period, the idols of God began to be formed. The idols
mind. One result of this creativity is sculpture. The art and of Yaksha-Yakshini are also considered in the form of
culture of Rajasthan is colourful. The history of sculpture here God. Even today, in the local villages, they are being
is about four and a half thousand years old. In the course of considered as ‘village-gods (devta)’.
the discovery of many civilizations that flourished in Rajasthan, ‰ They have heavy rings in their ears, a turban on
during the excavation, sculptures of different periods have their head, surplice on their shoulders and arms,
been found from ancient times to the present. The idols found a heavy necklace around their neck, a flat triangular
here are classified according to their ages. Statues of stone, necklace on their chest, etc.
metal, marble, wood and clay have been found in these idols. ‰ These idols were always in the posture of blessings,
These idols have been found at many places in Rajasthan, that is, the right hand in abhaya mudra and the left
which include statues of gods and goddesses, Yaksha-Yakshini, holding the pot of nectar.
animal-bird, Jain, Buddhist, activities of common people, etc. ‰ Discovered site in Rajasthan: A huge 8 feet 8 inch
Sculpture Art in Rajasthan: The chronological introduction ‘Jakh Baba’ statue in quadrilateral form (engraved
of Rajasthan sculpture art is as follows: from front to back) has been found at Noh in
z Traditional Sculpture Bharatpur. Other places where the statues of
z Folk Sculpture Yaksha-Yakshini were found are Noh, Veeravai,
z Contemporary Sculpture Sogar, Peernagar, etc., are preserved in the museum
of Bharatpur.
Contemporary Sculpture ‰ Huge statues were made in the Shunga period, later
on the Mrunmayi (molten) idols started being made.
Traditional sculpture ‰ These idols were worshiped in those times. Due to
Sculpture has been the specialty of India. It has been their inspiration, the origin and birth of the idols
changing according to the chronology. We have been getting of various sects, Brahmin, Buddhism and Jainism
evidence of the prosperity of this art in Rajasthan in which took place.
examples from Shunga period and Kushan period to idols of ‰ After the Yaksha, the idols of Kuber started coming
mughal period are found. into existence. They got a prominent position in all
z Shunga period and Kushan period sculpture the sects. Such kinds of innumerable idols started
 Statues of yaksha-yakshini being made in Rajasthan.

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 Heritage of Rajasthan

z Shaivite idols: These are idols of male deity and linga deity  Near Pushkar at Nand (Ajmer) there is a Kushan period
form of Shiva which have been found mainly in the Shivling, in which four figures, i.e., Vasudeva, Ekanesha,
northern part of India. Rajasthan has a unique contribution Vishnu and Balarama are sculpted in the lower part of
to Shaiva sculpture, mainly of Bharatpur region influenced Vishnu.
by Brajmandal.  The plaque found from Pilibanga (Ganganagar) is made
 In Rajasthan, Shunga-Kushan Shivling has been found of chalk and in the hands of the two-armed Vishnu, a
from places like Choma, Bhandpura and Gamdi in mace and a wheel are present.
Bharatpur region from the point of view of Shaivism. z Buddhist Sculptures: Buddhism originated in India,
 By the time of the later Kushan period, the manifestation whereas it has developed mainly in the Ganga-Yamuna
of the human form of Shiva Deity starts appearing. In the Doab region of northern India. It flourished during the
northern part of Rajasthan, the art material of Rangmahal, Maurya and Kushan period. The influence of this religion
Munda, etc., is important from this point of view. reached Mathura from Magadha, but gradually it spread
 The huge (10 feet 6 inches long) terracotta of one-faced to many areas of the whole of India, including some areas
Shivalinga obtained from Rangmahal is a beautiful of Rajasthan. Bairath/Viratnagar (Jaipur) was its main
combination of male deity along with linga deity in the centre. Two inscriptions of Ashoka have been obtained
face of Shivalinga which is giving human form to Shiva. from here.
 In this period, along with both the deity forms of Shiva,
 The First Inscription: Now preserved in Kolkata-proudly
the making of idols of other deities of Shiva’s family
mentions Ashoka’s allegiance to the three jewels of
had also started.
Buddhism-Buddha, Dharma and Sangha. This is famous
 Durga (sitting on lion) who is in the form of a four-
for the name ‘Bhabru inscription’.
armed goddess, holds a shield and a thunderbolt in
 Second Inscription: This inscription obtained from
her upper hands and holds the tongue of the demon
Mahishasura with her lower left hand was also Bairath is engraved on Bhima’s dungaree.
depicted. The plaque of Kartikeya has been found from  Mauryan circular Buddhist temple, polished pieces of
Rajasthan. Along with this, the plaque of the goddess stupa-chhatra and ruins of Vihara-monastery have
made of clay soil has been found from Malav Nagar been found in Bairath.
(Tonk), both are notable examples of Shunga art.  Buddha statues have also been found from other
z Vaishnava Sculptures: Vaishnava sculptures found from places, the important ones are Noh (Bharatpur), Lalsot,
Rajasthan belong to the later Kushan period and the early Madhyamika (Chittor), Raidh (Tonk), etc.
Gupta period. Here, mainly Vishnu plaques obtained from
Malvanagar (Tonk), Pilibanga (Ganganagar), Sambhar Gupta Period Sculpture
(Jaipur) are prominent. Among these, the panels obtained z The deity idols became the epitome of vitality and
from Sambhar are made of stone while the panels obtained captivating beauty during the Gupta period. This era is
from Pilibanga and Nagar are made of chalk soil. called the golden age of all Indian arts and sculpture. This
 It has been found in the evidence obtained from the era contains the refined form of the creativity of the human
inscriptions that the worship of Samkarsana-Vasudeva mind, because at this time Indian culture was manifested
(Krishna-Balram) was prevalent in the Shunga period in its unique form in the form of art, literature, music, etc.
in the ancient Madhyamika, i.e., the city. There was a The lifeless stones had become loquacious in this era. The
tradition of worshiping by placing deity idols or symbols idols were mainly decorated in various forms, such as
associated with them on the platform. happiness, variety of hairstyle, liveliness in expressions,
 The statue of Chaturbhuji Vishnu found at Amer gentle face, art and bright halo, etc.
Museum and Nagar (Tonk) has a simple wheel (chakra)
z Rajasthan was not a direct part of the Gupta Empire, but
in the left hand and a large mace (gada) in the right
the new trends of this period are also visible in the
hand. The deity has been described as a chaturbhuji
sculptures of Rajasthan.
(having four hands) in both the plaques obtained from
the excavation of Naliyasar Sambhar displayed in the z Idols of Vishnu were found mainly at Mandore (Jodhpur),
Amer Museum itself. In addition, the image of the first Mukundara and Charchauma (Kota), Gangadhar (Jhalawar),
plaque is headless, a mace in the hand and the lower which belongs to the Gupta period. The best art of the
hand is in Abhaya mudra. On the other hand, there is Gupta period was discovered at Roopvas (Bharatpur),
a crown in the second plaque, a chakra in the left upper which is of having Chakra in the two-arm of Vishnu and
hand and a conch (shankh) in the lower hand. The sign the Sarpfana Balarama Revati. Vishnu idols have also been
of the mace is in the residual form on the right hand. found from Bhinmal (Jalore), Hemavas (Pali).

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 5 Religious Movements, Lok-Devtas
and Major Saints of Rajasthan

Religion and spirituality, both beautifully intertwined, are as child marriage, untouchability, sati practice) prevailing in
indeed a way of life in Rajasthan. Geographical conditions, the society. They emphasised on widow-remarriage, female
entry of Islam and the Ottoman invasion, medieval political education, the abolition of caste system, etc.
transition, Bhakti movement of North India, etc., also agitated
the common people in Rajasthan. Conservatism, ostentation Effects of Renaissance on Society
and muslim influence gave birth to such saints and thinkers z Social reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Dayananda
who propounded the natural form of Bhakti and wished for Saraswati and Swami Vivekananda, etc., tried to provide a
the welfare of the living beings without the discrimination new perspective to the people through various movements.
of caste and creed. Such thinkers were given the status of In this work, the followers of Sanatana Dharma also did not
saints, lok devi-devtas (folk deities) among people and they lag behind. Rishikul also had to be opened by them to
started worshipping them and started following their teachings protect the mythological principles. Therefore, in this way,
in their daily lives. Jambhoji, Jasnath Ji, Lal Das, Charandas, the wave of renaissance started among the people by the
Dadu, Mavji, Sant Ram Charan, etc., are prominent among
Sanatana Dharma followers and social reformers.
these saints. Karni Mata, Kalika Mata, Jwala Mata, Shila Mata,
z Widow homes, schools and hospitals were opened by
Sugali Mata, etc., are worshipped as Lok Devis and Tejaji,
social reformers to educate the public about their ideas.
Gogaji, Mallinath Ji, Pabuji, Harbuji, etc., as Lok Devtas.
z Formation of ‘Deccan Education Society’ in Maharashtra by
Prarthana Samaj in 1884, ‘Servants of the People Society
SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM
(1921)’ by Lala Lajpat Rai in Punjab and ‘Servants of India
MOVEMENT IN RAJASTHAN Society (1905)’ by Gopal Krishna Gokhale in Pune took place.
The criticism of the evils prevalent in the society and z Such institutions created an ambience of education in the
religion all over India started in the Middle Age. At the same whole country and instilled a sense of patriotism and self-
time, the wave of ‘Renaissance’ started in India and it also confidence among the people.
affected Rajasthan. Movements started all over the nation
against these evils. The objectives of these movements were Renaissance and Social Consciousness in Rajasthan
to stop religious conversions, to curb the orthodoxy and z The caste system was prevalent in Rajasthan since ancient
growing dictatorial attitude of Brahmins. The promoters of times which remained till the end of the 18th century. The
such reformist movements were – Dadu Dayal in Rajasthan; upper class and other communities of Rajasthan have been
Kabir and Ramanand in Uttar Pradesh; Nanak in Punjab; antiquated (old-fashioned), superstitious and conservative.
Namdev, Ramdas, Tukaram in Maharashtra; Ramanuja in South They didn’t favor the change in the system which had been
and Jayadeva and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu in Bengal. All these there since ancient times. Therefore, in Rajasthan, the
social reformers believed in divine unity. They opposed idol reforms against these stereotypes were taking place at a
worship and caste system. very slow pace. Till the beginning of the 19th century, these
In the 19th century, some social reformers came forward evils were prevalent in Rajputana. Among these evils were
against the customs, superstitions and evils prevailing in the Sati practice, Mausoleum practice, the practice of Female
society among whom Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Dayananda Slaughter, Slave practice, Jauhar and Saka, Slave-Maid,
Saraswati and Swami Vivekananda, etc., were prominent. Along Sacrifice practice, etc. Along with these, evils like mismatch
with initiating many reform movements, they also established marriage, purdah system, illiteracy, polygamy and buying
some institutions, which are as follows: and selling of girls were also prevalent.
z Raja Ram Mohan Roy: Establishment of Brahmo Samaj (1828) z Expenditure of money was also common for these evil
z Dayananda Saraswati: Establishment of Arya Samaj (1875) practices prevalent in Rajasthan such as death feast, dowry
z Swami Vivekananda: Establishment of Ramakrishna Mission in marriage involved a lot of money. Therefore, the
(1897) situation of economic crisis continued in the society.
These people worked tirelessly for religious and social z When British rule started in Rajasthan, the officials noticed
reforms. They made people cognizant of the social evils (such these evils prevailing in the society. Some conscious officers

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History of Rajasthan, India & World and Art & Culture

took actions against these evils prominent among whom z In 1843, after the death of Maharaja Man Singh of Marwar,
were Captain Ludlow, Colonel Sutherland, Captain Burton, ‘Captain Ludlow’ became distraught after seeing one of
Colonel Shakespeare, Wilkins, etc. his queens and four concubines committing sati and with
z These officers started making laws against these evils by the help of Sukhram Bhatt, he prepared the feudatories of
pressurizing the then rulers. Jaipur state to stop the Sati practice.
z Along with it, the tireless efforts of social reformers, saints z In Jaipur, this practice was declared illegal on 26th April,
and religious persons played an important role in ending 1846 with the help of the Regency Council. It was
these evils. considered a punishable offence.
z The ‘All India Women’s Council’ made its contribution in z This practice ended in 1847 in Dungarpur, Banswara, Tonk,
improving the condition of Indian women. At the same Bharatpur, Jaisalmer, Sirohi and Pratapgarh.
time, every year from 1888, Congress started a convention z In 1848, this practice was declared illegal in Jodhpur and
regarding national social reform. Kota.
z In Rajasthan, some evils had taken root in such a way that z In 1860, it was ended by the Maharana of Mewar due to
efforts were made on a war footing to eradicate them. British pressure.
z In 1987 (probably the last case in the entire nation), it was
Malpractices of Rajasthan and their Prevention ended by the State government declaring it completely illegal.

Jauhar and Saka Girl Slaughter

z This practice of Jauhar and Saka had been prevalent in z In Rajasthan, this practice was mainly prevalent in the
Rajputana since ancient times. It was similar to the Sati Rajput society (ruling classes).
practice. z The reason behind this evil is that the honor of the family
z Under the Jauhar practice, when the hope of victory of the is considered to be attached to the girl. If the honor of the
war was over, to protect their modesty and chastity from girl was violated, then the honor of the family was also
the enemy, the brave women used to commit self- considered violated and at the same time, the problem of
combustion by jumping into the firepit lit in the fort. marriage and dowry also remained. This practice brings
z Inspired by this practice only, in the Saka practice the shame to the sensibilities. In short, this practice started due
Rajputs used to attack aggressively on the enemy in heroic to family prestige, egotism, poverty and superstition, etc.
wars. This practice had started due to circumstances. z British officials played an important role in eradicating this
z This practice cannot be considered right from the human evil practice also. They made an important contribution in
point of view but in the then society, it was considered a persuading the rulers and disseminating instructions like
high humane act. prohibition of girl slaughter.
z In 1834, for the first time, girl slaughter was declared illegal
Sati Practice in Kota. In 1844, in Jaipur, Udaipur and by 1850, this evil
z This practice has also been prevalent in Rajasthan since practice was declared illegal in the entire Rajputana.
ancient times mainly in Rajput society. This practice is so z Along with the British officials, social reformers also
old that it has been mentioned in Puranas and religious cooperated in this and gradually, the voice for the respect
texts also. of women started rising.
z In Sati practice, when the husband dies, his wife burns herself Domestic Slavery
along with his pyre. This process is also called ‘Sahgaman’.
z This practice was prevalent in Rajasthan from ancient times
z This practice had become so widespread that on the death
till nearly the 19th century. This practice was mainly
of a woman’s husband, she had to commit self-immolation
prevalent among the Inspectors and Rajputs because when
under pressure. If she did not do this, then she would be
a girl was married, there was also a practice of sending
given the lowest status in the society and the rest of her
women in dowry. Therefore, from these women, the
life would have become like hell.
illegitimate children of the Inspectors and Rajputs were
z It is also mentioned in the Ghatiyala inscription in 861 AD. born who only became the domestic slaves.
z Initially, women used to cooperate voluntarily but this z For the very first time, in 1926, in Jodhpur, this practice
practice also started increasing due to the continuous wars. was declared illegal. At the same time, some educated
z Some scholars called it suicide. classes (jagirdars) took steps to free the domestic slaves
z Raja Ram Mohan Roy and William Bentinck took steps by providing them facilities for leading a normal life.
against this practice. After that, it started decreasing. z This practice almost ended after independence.

124 Drishti Publications