HL Functions Notes 1

HL Functions Notes
1 Relation
Definition 1: A relation is a set of ordered pairs.

Definition 2: The domain is the set of first elements in the ordered pairs for a
relation; i.e. "the values that x can take".

Definition 3: The range is the set of second elements in the ordered pairs for a
relation; i.e. "the values that y can take".
Example: For the relation, A = {(2 , 4) , (3 , 5) , (4 , 6)},
The domain = {2 , 3 , 4} and the range = {4 , 5 , 6}.

Note: Interval notation used in IB assessments.

• x ∈ [−2 , 5] is the same as −2 ≤ x ≤5 .
• y ∈ ] 0 , 10 [ is the same as 0 < y <10 .

1.1 Methods for Showing a Relation

Example: The relation, A = {(2 , 4) , (3 , 5) , (4 , 6)}, could be shown:

1. As a set of ordered pairs (as above).

2. As an arrow diagram (shown on the right).

3. As a Cartesian graph (shown on the right).

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HL Functions Notes 2

1.2 Types of Relations

1. One-to-one 2. Many-to-one

3. One-to-many 4. Many-to-many

Note: A graph is one-to-one if every horizontal line crosses the graph only once.

2 Functions
Definition: A function is a special type of relation where the domain elements
are unique.

2.1 Methods of Showing a Function

Functions can be shown:
1. As a relation (see above).
2. Using "set builder" notation; e.g. A = {(x , y ): y = 2 x+1 ; x , y ∈ ℝ } .
3. Using "mapping" notation; e.g. A : x → 2 x+1 , x ∈ ℝ .
4. Using "image" notation; e.g. A (x ) = 2 x+1 , x ∈ ℝ .

2.2 Testing for a Function

1. Unique domain elements in ordered pairs.
2. One arrow from the domain elements in an arrow diagram.
3. On a Cartesian graph, a vertical line drawn anywhere, cuts the curve only once.
This is sometimes called the "vertical line test".

Note: For the "Types of Relations" above, one-to-one and many-to-one are functions.
One-to-many and many-to-many are not functions.

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HL Functions Notes 3

2.3 Continuous Functions

Definition: A graph is continuous if it has no breaks in it.

There are three types of breaks:

x ( x − 1)
1. Holes For example, y = , where x≠0 .
x
This is the same as y = x−1 , but is missing the point on the y-axis.
∣ x∣
2. Jumps For example, y = .
x
1
3. Fundamental For example, y = , where x≠0 .
x

2.4 Periodic Functions

Definition: A function is periodic if it exhibits translational symmetry.
That is, it repeats itself over a given period.

Example: y = sin x above is a periodic function with period = 2 π .

2.5 Odd Functions

Definition: An odd function is one that has symmetry about the origin under a
rotation of 180o.
That is, f (−x) = − f (x ) , for all x .

Example: y = sin x above is an odd function.

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HL Functions Notes 4

2.6 Even Functions

Definition: An even function is one that has reflective symmetry in the y-axis.

That is, f (−x) = f ( x) , for all x .

Example: y = cos x above is an even function.

2.7 Piecewise Functions

A function may be defined by a different rule over different subsets of the domain.

Example: Sketch the graph of f (x ) given below.

, x<0

{
1
f (x ) = −1 , 0≤x<1
x , x≥1

3 Terms / Vocabulary for Graphs

• Intercepts The points where the graph crosses the x and y axes.

• Asymptote A line or curve that the graph gets closer and closer to.
Note: A graph may or may not cross its own horizontal or oblique
asymptote, but never its vertical asymptote.

• Stationary points The point(s) where the tangent to the graph is horizontal. These are
sometimes called turning points.

• Point of inflection A point on the graph where the graph crosses its tangent. This point is
where you have a change in curvature.

Note: A point of inflection does not need to be a stationary point. All cubic graphs have a
point of inflection and have odd symmetry about this point.

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HL Functions Notes 5

4 Combining Graphs
4.1 Addition: ( f +g )( x) = f ( x) + g (x )
2 1
Example: Sketch the graph of y = x + .
x
Using a table of values, we get:

x −2 −1 0 1 2
y 3.5 0 undefined 2 4.5

We need to explore what is happening between −1<x<0 and 0<x<1 .

1 2 1
f (x )=x 2 g ( x)= ( f +g )(x )= x +
x x

4.2 Multiplication: ( f g )( x ) = f ( x) × g ( x)
Example: Sketch the graph of y = ( x−2) × ( x+1) .

f (x )=x−2 g ( x)= x+1 ( f g)( x)=( x−2)(x+1)

Note: To the right, both linear graphs are positive, so their product will be positive.
To the left, both linear graphs are negative, so their product will also be positive.
At the points where the linear graphs are zero, their product will also be zero.

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HL Functions Notes 6

f f ( x)
4.3 Division: ( )( x) =
g g (x )
Example: Diagram A below shows the graphs of f and g .
f
On Diagram B, sketch the graph of .
g

Steps: 1. Draw vertical lines where f = 0 .

f
These give the x-intercepts of .
g
2. Draw vertical lines where g = 0 .
These give the vertical asymptotes
f
of .
g
3. Determine which regions the graph
f
of can be drawn using the sign
g
of f divided by the sign of g .
4. Use common sense to sketch an
f
approximation of the graph of .
g

Solution:

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HL Functions Notes 7

4.4 Rational Functions

a x+b
To sketch the graphs of rational functions in the form y = ,
c x+d
follow this procedure.
Steps: 1. Find the y-intercept by making x = 0 and find the value of the expression.
2. Find the x-intercept by making y = 0 ; that is, a x+b = 0
and solving for x .
3. Find the vertical asymptote by making the denominator, c x+d = 0
and solving for x .
4. Find the horizontal asymptote by dividing the x-term in the numerator by
x-term in the denominator.

Note: Step 4 above, for rational functions involving non-linear numerators and
denominators, will require dividing the numerator by the denominator to find other
asymptote(s). These other asymptote(s) could be horizontal or oblique.
This skill, of dividing one algebraic expression by another algebraic expression, will be
taught in the next topic, Algebra.
2 x+1
Example 1: Sketch the graph of y = .
x−3
1
Solution: Step 1: Make x = 0 . Therefore, the y-intercept = − .
3
1
Step 2: Make y = 0 . Therefore, the x-intercept = − .
2
Step 3: Make denominator = 0 . Therefore, vertical asymptote is x = 3.

Step 4: Divide x-terms

( )
2 x . Therefore, horizontal asymptote is y = 2.
x

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HL Functions Notes 8

2x −6
Example 2: Consider the function f (x ) = .
x +1
a) Find the asymptotes of y = f ( x) .
b) Find the x and y intercepts of y = f ( x) .
c) Sketch the graph of the function.
1
d) Describe the transformations which transform y = into
x
y = f ( x) .
Solutions:
2x
a) Horizontal asymptote is given by y = = 2 (dividing the x-terms).
x
Vertical asymptote is found when x + 1 = 0 ; therefore, x = − 1 .
b) y-intercept occurs when x = 0, therefore, y-intercept = − 6 .
x-intercept occurs when y = 0, that is, 2 x − 6 = 0 . Therefore, x-intercept = 3 .
c)

d) 2x− 6
f (x) = x+1
2(x + 1) − 8
=
x +1
−8
= +2
x+1
1
Therefore, y = is transformed to y = f ( x) under a vertical stretch with scale factor 8,
x
followed by a reflection in the y-axis, followed by a translation through
−1
2( ).

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HL Functions Notes 9

4.5 Composition: ( f ∘ g )( x) = f (g ( x))

Definition: Given two functions, f (x) and g ( x) , we define the composite
function ( f ∘ g)( x) = f (g ( x)) .
2
Example 1: Given f ( x ) = 2 x+1 and g ( x) = x :
i) Find ( f ∘ g )( x) .
ii) Find ( g ∘ f )( x) .
Solutions: i) ( f ∘ g )( x) = f (g ( x))
= f (x 2 )
= 2( x 2)+1
∴ ( f ∘ g )( x) = 2 x 2 +1

ii) ( g ∘ f )( x) = g ( f ( x))
= g (2 x+1)
= (2 x +1)2
∴ ( g ∘ f )( x) = 4 x 2+4 x+1

Example 2: Given f ( x ) = 2 x+3 and ( f ∘ g )( x) = 4 x+5 , find g ( x) .

Solution: f (g ( x)) = ( f ∘ g )( x)
2( g (x ))+3 = 4 x+5 Substitute g(x) into f(x)
2( g ( x )) = 4 x+2 Subtract 3 from both sides
4 x+2 Factorise numerator and cancel common
g ( x) = factor
2
∴ g ( x) = 2 x+1

Example 3: Given f ( x ) = 3 x+1 and ( g ∘ f )( x) = 6 x+7 , find g ( x) .

Solution: Let g ( x) = a x+b
g ( f ( x)) = ( g ∘ f )( x)
a (3 x+1)+b = 6 x+7 Substitute f(x) into g(x)
3 a x+(a+b) = 6 x+7
3a = 6
∴ a = 2
(a+b) = 7
∴ b = 5
∴ g ( x) = 2 x+5

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HL Functions Notes 10

4.6 Inverse of a Function

To find the inverse of a function f :
1. Swap ordered pairs.
2. Reverse arrows in an arrow diagram.
3. Reflect the graph of f in the line y = x .
4. When written in the form y = f ( x ) , swap the x's and y's , then make y the
subject again.
−1
Example: Find the inverse, f ( x) , of y = √ 3 x+1 .
x = √ 3 y+1 Swap the x and y .
2
x = 3 y+1 Square both sides.

x2 − 1 = 3 y
2
∴ y = x − 1 This is the inverse, f
−1
( x) , of the function y = f ( x) .
3

5 Transformations
5.1 Translation
Example: y = f ( x ± a) represents a horizontal translation of f (x ) .

•
0 ( )
If + a , then the graph of f (x ) is translated −a ; which is a steps in the
negative x-direction (to the left).

• If − a , then the graph of f (x ) is translated ()

a
0
; which is a steps in the
positive x-direction (to the right).

Example: y = f ( x) ± b represents a vertical translation of f (x ) .

•
b ()
If + b , then the graph of f (x ) is translated 0 ; which is b steps in the
positive y-direction (upwards).

• If − b , then the graph of f (x ) is translated ( )

0
−b
; which is b steps in the
negative y-direction (downwards).

Example: y = f ( x−a)+b represents a translation of a

b () for f (x ) .

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HL Functions Notes 11

5.1.1 Quadratics
Example 1:

The graph on the right shows the graph of y 1 = x 2 (in red),

and the graph of y 2 = ( x−2)2+1 (in black).

The graph of y2 represents a translation of 2

1 () for the graph
of y1 .

Example 2:

Find the vector of translation that translates the graph of y = x 2 onto the graph of
y = x 2−6 x+5 .

y = x 2−6 x+5
= x 2−6 x+9−4 Completing the square

= (x−3)2−4

Therefore, the translation vector is ( )

3
−4
.

5.1.2 Cubics
Consider the graph of the cubic function drawn below.

This graph is an odd function that has rotational symmetry about the origin, which is also its
point of inflection.

Its equation is of the form,

y = x ( x − p)( x+ p)
= x ( x 2 − p 2)
= x 3− p2 x

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HL Functions Notes 12

Example:

Let y 2 = x 3−6 x 2+5 x+4 . The graph of y2 is a translation of the cubic graph y1 ,
where y1 has rotational symmetry about the origin. Find the equation of y1 and the

()
translation vector a that maps y 1 onto y 2 .
b

y 2 = x 3−6 x 2 +5 x+4
∴ y = ( x−a)3−6 ( x−a)2+5( x−a )+4 Substitute x with ( x−a)

= x 3−3 a x 2+3 a 2 x−a 3−6 x 2+12 a x−6 a 2 +5x−5 a+4 ☼

Since y1 is of the form

0 = −3 a x 2−6 x 2 3 2
x − p x and has no x
2

term.
∴ a = −2

Substituting a =−2 into

⇒ y = x 3+6 x 2 +12 x+8−6 x 2−24 x−24+5x+10+4 ☼ above
= x 3−7 x −2
y+2 = x 3−7 x

∴ y 1 = x 3−7 x

Therefore, y 1 maps onto y 2 under a translation of ( )

2
−2
(see graphs below).

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HL Functions Notes 13

5.2 Reflection
Given the function y = f ( x ) , then:

• y = f (−x) reflects the graph in the y-axis.

• y = − f (x) reflects the graph in the x-axis.

5.3 Stretches
Given the function y = f ( x ) , then:

• y = a f ( x) stretches the graph in the y-direction by a scale factor of a .

1
• y = f (a x) stretches the graph in the x-direction by a scale factor of .
a

5.4 Modulus
Given the function y = f ( x ) , then y = ∣ f ( x) ∣ reflects all parts of the graph below
the x-axis, above the x-axis.

y = f (x) y = ∣ f ( x) ∣

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HL Functions Notes 14

5.5 Common Graphs

You should be familiar with and recognise all of the common graphs shown below.

y = x y2 + x2 = r2 y = x2 y = x3

1
y = y = ln x y = ex y = √x
x

BL/CdK - OFS HS - September 2013