Bible Verse:

Numbers 1:1-54 ESV / 22 helpful votes

The Lord spoke to Moses in the wilderness of Sinai, in the tent of meeting, on the first day of the second
month, in the second year after they had come out of the land of Egypt, saying, “Take a census of all the
congregation of the people of Israel, by clans, by fathers' houses, according to the number of names, every
male, head by head. From twenty years old and upward, all in Israel who are able to go to war, you and
Aaron shall list them, company by company. And there shall be with you a man from each tribe, each man
being the head of the house of his fathers. And these are the names of the men who shall assist you. From
Reuben, Elizur the son of Shedeur
Core Values:
Competence, Character, Unity, Spirituality, and Accountability
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Module 1
INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICAL ANALYSIS WITH SOFTWARE APPLICATION
Learning Objectives
By the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Define statistics
2. Determine the uses of statistics
3. Identify major areas of statistics
4. Discuss variables and data
5. Identify level of measurement
6. Apply Likert scale
7. Explain Population and Sample
8. Discuss sampling techniques

Introduction
Statistics is a mathematical body of science that pertains to the collection, analysis, interpretation or
explanation, and presentation of data, or as a branch of mathematics. Some consider statistics to be a distinct
mathematical science rather than a branch of mathematics. While many scientific investigations make use
of data, statistics is concerned with the use of data in the context of uncertainty and decision making.

Why you need to use statistics

Much of everyday life depends on making forecasts, and business can’t progress without being able to audit
change or plan action. In your research, you may be looking at areas such as purchasing, production, capital
investment, long-term development, quality control, human resource development, recruitment and
selection, marketing, credit risk assessment or financial forecasts or others. And that is why the informed
use of statistics is of direct importance to you while you are collecting your data and analyzing them. If
nothing else, your results and findings will be more accurate, more believable and, consequently, more
useful. Some of the reasons why you will be using statistics to analyse your data are the same reasons why
you are doing the research. Ignoring the possibility that you are researching because the project or
dissertation element of your qualification is compulsory, rather than because you very much want to find
something out, you are likely to be researching because you want to:

 measure things;
 examine relationships;
 make predictions;
 test hypotheses;
 construct concepts and develop theories;
 explore issues;
 explain activities or attitudes;
 describe what is happening;
  present information;
 make comparisons to find similarities and differences;
 draw conclusions about populations based only on sample results.

Two major areas of statistics:

1 Descriptive Statistics -
2 Inferential Statistics

Descriptive statistics is concerned with quantitative data and the methods for describing them. (‘Data’
(facts) is the plural of ‘datum’ (a fact), and therefore always needs a plural verb.) This branch of statistics
is the one that you will already be familiar with because descriptive statistics are used in everyday life in
areas such as government, healthcare, business, and sport.
Descriptive Statistics is about:
• Collecting
• Organizing
• Summarizing
• Presenting data in textual, tabular, Graphical and pictorial

Inferential statistics makes inferences about populations by analyzing data gathered from samples and deals
with methods that enable a conclusion to be drawn from these data. Inferential statistics starts with a
hypothesis and investigates whether the data are consistent with that hypothesis.

Inferential Statistics is about:

• Hypothesis testing
• Determining relationship and differences
• Making inferences and predictions

Variables
A variable is any characteristics, number, or quantity that can be measured or counted. A variable may also
be called a data item. ... It is called a variable because the value may vary between data units in a population,
and may change in value over time.

For instance, sex is a variable; it can take two values: female or male.

Age, reading materials available at home, student’s attitude towards mathematics are also
examples of variable.

Types of Definition Example

Variable
Discrete Has limited number of values and cannot be decimal  Number of children
or fraction in the family
 Number of students
in a class
 Number of citizens
of a country
Continuous Has infinite number of values and can be decimal or  Monthly income
fraction  Age
 Weight
 Height
 Nominal A nominal variable is a qualitative variable where no hair color,
ordering is possible or implied in the levels. nationalities, names
of people

Ordinal On the other hand, an ordinal variable is a quantitative financial happiness

variable with an order implied in the levels. level on a scale of 1-
10
Independent Is a variable assumed to affect the dependent variable  Salary
( predictor, cause)  time
Dependent Is a variable assumed to be affected by independent Teaching
variable (response, criterion, effect) Performance

DATA
Data are individual pieces of factual information recorded and used for the purpose of analysis. It
is the raw information from which statistics are created. Statistics are the results of data analysis - its
interpretation and presentation. ... Often these types of statistics are referred to as 'statistical data'.
How is data collected?
Data collection methods
Surveys, interviews and focus groups are primary instruments for collecting information. Today,
with help from Web and analytics tools, organizations are also able to collect data from mobile devices,
website traffic, server activity and other relevant sources, depending on the project.

What are the tools of data collection?

Data collection tools refer to the devices/instruments used to collect data, such as a paper questionnaire or
computer-assisted interviewing system. Case Studies, Checklists, Interviews, Observation sometimes, and
Surveys or Questionnaires are all tools used to collect data.

LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT
Level of measurement refer to ways in which variables/numbers are defined and categorized. ...
The four scales of measurement are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.

Level Definition Example

Ratio Represents quantity with equality of units GPA, Weight, height
and it has true zero point
Interval Represents quantity with equal units but Intelligence quotient,
the zero point is arbitrary. temperature, measurement of
sea level
Ordinal Numeric variables that stands for relative Size of t-shirt, socio economic
ranking classification, educational
qualification
Nominal Categorical data or numbers that are used Sex, Civil status, SSS number
as quantifiers or names

LIKERT SCALE
Likert scales are the most broadly used method for scaling responses in survey studies.
Survey questions that ask you to indicate your level of agreement, from strongly agree to strongly
disagree, use the Likert scale.

How do you calculate Likert scale data?

First method: To determine the minimum and the maximum length of the 5-
point Likert type scale, the range is calculated by (5 − 1 = 4) then divided by five as it is the
greatest value of the scale (4 ÷ 5 = 0.80)

Therefore, the range of values of a five-point Likert scale is (interval is 0.8):

4.20 – 5.00
3.40 – 4.19
2.60 – 3.39
1.80 – 2.59
1.00 – 1.79

The range of values of a four-point likert scale is (interval is 0.75):

3.25 – 4.00
2.50 – 3.24
1.75 – 2.49
1.00 – 1.74

Example:

The Likert Scale

Total Number of Participants (N) = 28
5 4 3 2 1 Weighted
(5.00-4.20) (4.19-3.40) (3.39-2.60) (2.59-1.80) (1.79-1.00) Mean
Needs
Excellent Very Satisfactory Satisfactory Fair Improvement

\\\\ - \\\ \\\\ - \\\\ \\\\ \\\ \\

8 10 5 3 2 3.678 V.S
5x8 4 x 10 3x5 2x3 2x1
103
40 + 40 + 15 + 6 + 2 = = 3.678
𝑁=28

Population and sample

A population is a complete set of people with a specialized set of characteristics, and a sample is a
subset of the population. ... The study population is the subset of the target population available for study.
The study sample is the sample chosen from the study population.
Sloven’s Formula in Determining the Sample Size
Sloven Formula is used to calculate the sample size (n) given the population size (N) and a margin of
error (e). It is computed as n = N / (1+Ne2).
𝑵
n=
𝟏+𝑵𝒆𝟐

Supposed the population is 36,000

The sample size from the given population can be computed using Slovin’s formula
𝟑𝟔,𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟑𝟔,𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟑𝟔,𝟎𝟎𝟎
Sample n = = = = 395 ( no. of respondents)
𝟏+𝟑𝟔,𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒙 .𝟎𝟓𝟐 𝟏+(𝟑𝟔,𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒙 .𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟓) 𝟏+𝟗𝟎

Sampling Techniques

A. Probability Sampling – It is a sampling technique in which every individual in a population has an

equal chance of being selected to be a member of the sample.
1 The Random Sampling. This type of probability sampling selects a sample using the concept of
the lottery method. For instance, if you compute 200 samples out of 1,000 subjects, you may write
 down the names or numbers on pieces of papers up to 1,000. These papers will be placed in a box
and will then be mixed by shaking the box. Then you can start drawing the names until you obtain
the 200 samples.
2 Systematic Sampling. This type of probability sampling selects sample units by drawing every
𝑛𝑡ℎ element of a series representing the population. For example, if N = 100 and n =10, the samples
may be selected by dividing the total number of the population by the desired sample size. Thus,
N/n = 100/10 = 10𝑡ℎ . The sample 10 units would therefore be the 10 people holding the following
numbers: 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 and 100.
3 Stratified Random Sampling. This type of probability sampling selects a sample when the
population is segmented into groups or sections called stratifications or strata. For instance, in a
college student population, the stratifications are sex (female and male), courses being taken such
as BSEE, BSED, BSCSA, BSN, etc. and curricular years of the students such as first, second, third
and fourth years.

Example. Suppose a study of the values of the school personnel of a school division of the public schools
is to be conducted. Total school personnel is 4,551 broken down as follows: teaching personnel 3,376 where
1,311 are male and 2,065are female: non-teaching personnel are 1,175 where 478 are male and 697 are
female.

Required:
𝑛𝑡 = total sample

4,551
Solution : n =
1+4,551 (0.03)2
n = 893
The personnel are stratified into teaching and non-teaching, and male and female and so the
sampling proportion must be computed.
𝑛 893
Sampling proportion (%) = = x 100% 19.62%
𝑁 4,551

The sampling proportion of 19.62% may be rounded to 20% for convenience of computations.

PERSONNEL Male 20% Female 20% Total 20%

Teaching 1,311 262 2,065 413 3,376 675
Non-Teaching
478 96 697 139 1,175 235
Total 1,789 358 2,762 552 4,551 910 (𝑛𝑡 )

Therefore the total sample is equal to 910 school personnel, composing of 358 males and 552 females.

B. Non-Probability Sampling – Picking the sample in this type of sampling does not require a random
process. The sample respondents are selected for a certain purpose of the study. The sample’s validity is
based on the soundness of the judgement of whoever makes the choice.
1 Purposive Sampling – Sample respondents are selected based on certain criteria laid down by the
researcher. For example, a researcher might want to find out whether owners of boarding houses in
Tarlac City comply with building fire regulations. Instead of interviewing the owners of all
boarding houses in Tarlac City, he can purposely choose to interview the owners of ages 40 and
above who are females.
2 Quota Sampling – Population is segmented into subgroups then judgement is used to select
respondents from subgroups based on specified proportion. This is the non-probability version of
Stratified sampling.
3 Convenience /Accidental Sampling – Respondents are selected due to their accessibility and
availability. For example, a researcher might want to find out the popularity of a certain candidate
in senatorial election. He may choose his respondents within his barangay since this is more
convenient for him.
 4 Snowball Sampling. Subsequent respondents are selected based on referral of the previous
respondents.

Summary:

 Business can't progress without being able to audit change or plan action. And that is why the
informed use of statistics is of direct importance to you. If nothing else, your results and findings
will be more accurate, more believable and, consequently, more useful.
 Quantitative data and the methods for describing them are the focus of descriptive statistics. Since
'data' (facts) is a plural of 'datum' (a fact), you'll be familiar with descriptive statistics because
they're utilized in everyday life in fields like government, health care, business, and sports, you'll
be familiar with this branch of statistics.
 Inferential statistics uses data from samples to create inferences about populations, as well as
methods for drawing conclusions from these data. Inferential statistics begins with a hypothesis
and then looks into the data to see if it supports it.
 The term "variable" refers to any number, amount, or quantity that can be counted or quantified. A
data item can also be referred to as a variable. ... It's called a variable because the value can change
over time and between data units in a population, as well as between data units in a population.
 A Likert scale is a rating scale used to assess opinions, attitudes, or behaviors. Likert scales are
popular in survey research because they allow you to easily operationalize personality traits or
perceptions.
 A sample is a subset of a population, and a population is a group of people with a specific set of
characteristics. ... The study population is a subset of the target population that can be used to
conduct research. The sample picked from the study population is known as the study sample.
 There are two main methods of sampling: Probability sampling and non-probability sampling. In
probability sampling, respondents are randomly selected to take part in a survey or other mode of
research. For a sample to qualify as a probability sample, each person in a population must have an
equal chance of being selected for a study, and the researcher must know the probability that an
individual will be selected.
 Non-probability sampling is when a sample is created through a non-random process. This could
include a researcher sending a survey link to their friends or stopping people on the street. This
type of sampling would also include any targeted research that intentionally samples from specific
lists such as aid beneficiaries, or participants in a specific training course.

Exercise:
1. Why is it a practice in research to get the sample as respondents of the study rather than the
population?
2. Are there instances where the researchers is not allowed to get the sample because the study
needs the entire population as respondents?
3. Make a research on other sampling techniques not mentioned in this module. Discuss and give
examples.

References:

Statistics with Computer applications. Priscilla S. Altares et al.

Support materials:

https://www.geopoll.com/blog/probability-and-non-probability-
samples/Investopediahttps://www.investopedia.com › ... › Financial Analysis