Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2022) 29:49429–49438

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-20797-8

SHORT RESEARCH AND DISCUSSION ARTICLE

Decomposition analytics of carbon emissions by cement

manufacturing – a way forward towards carbon neutrality
in a developing country
Rizwan Rasheed1   · Fizza Tahir1 · Muhammad Afzaal1 · Sajid Rashid Ahmad2

Received: 12 August 2021 / Accepted: 9 May 2022 / Published online: 18 May 2022
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2022

Abstract
Carbon emissions have emerged as an alarming and complex issue causing a long-lasting debate over climate change in the
construction, building, and industrial sectors. There is tremendous growth in the construction and building industry, espe-
cially in low-middle-income developing countries, that involves rising production and consumption of cement and energy.
As such, a growing amount of carbon emissions is becoming a serious challenge for developing economies. This study has
assessed the driving factors that influence the critical levels of carbon emissions by employing Kaya identity and logarithmic
mean Divisia index (LMDI) decomposition models in the growing cement manufacturing sector of a low-medium develop-
ing county, Pakistan, from 2005 to 2020. The results portrayed a typical trend of carbon emissions which are summarized
as follows: (a) From 2006 to 2010, a slight increase is shown; (b) a slight decrease in the trend during 2011–2013; (c) from
2014 to 2018, there is a rapid rebound in the trend; and (d) a slight decline in 2019–2020. While the resultant mean values
regarding the growth of the cement sector (6.34%), labor productivity (12.03%), energy structure (0.06%), energy intensity
(− 0.63%), and carbon intensity (− 0.87%) have deliberated that these are the driving factors for carbon emissions by the
cement industry in a developing economy. This study will provide an insight to the policymakers of developing nations so
that they can efficiently monitor their carbon emissions and design and implement effective mitigation strategies. Ultimately,
they would be able to shift to carbon–neutral technologies and renewable-alternative energy sources to achieve sustainable
economic growth and a cleaner environment.

Keywords  Climate change · Carbon–neutral building · GHG emissions · Eco-construction · Sustainable development ·
Sustainability

Introduction countries deliberately emit greenhouse gas emissions to

boost their economic expansion and enhance human welfare
Climate change is arguably the most profound challenge that (Mahasenan et al. 2003; Rasheed et al. 2020). The green-
has drawn the attention of academic researchers and poli- house gases concentration has increased rapidly to 386 ppm
cymakers. The current generation is the first to experience since the start of this century, compelling that 90% of these
the consequence of human-induced climate change on the emissions are attributable to human activities (Rodrigues
natural system (Loarie et al. 2009). Despite knowing their and Joekes 2011; Devi et al. 2017).
negative impacts on human health and the global system, The threats of adverse consequences of climate change
are evident. This interest received the attention of interna-
Responsible Editor: Philippe Garrigues tional efforts that started at the United Nations Conference
on Environment and Development (UNCED), 1972, and
* Rizwan Rasheed reached a milestone of the Paris Climate Agreement. Under
[email protected]; [email protected] this, the nations agreed to reduce the global greenhouse
1
Sustainable Development Study Centre, Government emissions and limit the global temperature increase to 1.5
College University Lahore, Lahore 54000, Pakistan ℃ (Glanemann et al. 2020). The construction and building
2
College of Earth & Environmental Sciences, University sectors are the major contributors to the carbon emissions.
of the Punjab, Lahore 54000, Pakistan Among these, the most energy-intensive sector and major

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 49430 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2022) 29:49429–49438

emitter of greenhouse gasses is the cement industry (Zeb Markewitz et  al. 2019). Wang et  al. (2013) identified
et al. 2018). It accounts for around 7% of the global carbon the driving factors for carbon emissions and presented
emissions, where each ton of Portland cement releases 1 ton a carbon emission inventory for the Chinese cement
of carbon dioxide (Bakhtyar 2017). The cement production industry. Oral and Saygin (2019) examined the Turkish
releases ­CO2 emissions directly and indirectly. Direct ­CO2 cement industry’s carbon emissions and applied simula-
emissions are emitted during clinker production, and indi- tion techniques for future energy consumption. Similarly,
rect ­CO2 emissions are released from the burning of fossil Mikulčić et al. (2013) applied the simulation methods
fuels and higher electricity consumption (Attari et al. 2016; for reducing ­CO2 emissions from the cement industry in
Shahzad et al. 2017). Croatia. Liu et al. (2007) examined the emissions from
Mostly, Portland cement is manufactured and utilized all 36 industrial units from 1998–2005 based on decompo-
around the world (Dunuweera and Rajapakse 2018). The sition analysis (LMDC). Apart from these studies, a lot
cement manufacturing process employs three basic steps: of attention is required for the less developing nations
raw mix, clinker production, and pure cement. The raw like Pakistan. With air pollution becoming the biggest
materials consisting of a combination of limestone, cement concern in Pakistan, the cement industry as one of the
rock, shale, clay, sand, and iron ore are converted to small primary sources of emission requires attention in terms of
pieces of 0.39 inches in diameter by crushing, blasting, and environmental sustainability. Some studies have employed
drilling machines. These small pieces are grounded and the index decomposition analysis (IDA) – Logarithmic
blended with cement proportions (homogenized) (Habert Divisia Index Model (LDIM) for analyzing the ­CO2 emis-
2013). In this step, electricity consumption is the source sions in various sectors (Dai and Gao 2016; Olanrewaju
of carbon emissions. In the next step, the raw mix is heated 2018; Fatima et al. 2019; Wang et al. 2011). It is a well-
at 1500 ℃ in a kiln, producing a clinker which is rapidly organized method for analyzing the relative impacts of
cooled (Gao et al. 2016). It is the basic material required for changes in industrial emissions and energy consumption.
making cement composed of rounded nodules in size range It is widely used because of its perfect imposition, abil-
of 1–25 mm. The breakdown of calcium carbonate and con- ity to handle zero values, and consistency in aggregation
sumption of fossil fuel and electricity generates greenhouse (Zhao et al. 2017).
gas emissions (Ali et al. 2011). Finally, gypsum is added to While against this backdrop, to the best of our knowl-
the clinker, and both are grounded to form a pure blended edge, no research studies are available on the emissions
cement. The fuel products are dispatched in bulk or bags to analytics of the cement industry of Pakistan. Therefore, the
the consumer. The fuel emissions and electricity consump- current study is a novel investigation aimed to holistically
tion are the main sources of carbon emissions in the final analyze the carbon emissions of the cement industry of a
step (Mikulčić et al. 2016; Abdul-Wahab et al. 2016). low-middle-income developing country. This study will
As a consequence, the complex energy flows make it fill the relevant research gaps by provision of an account
complicated to investigate the carbon inventory of the of carbon emissions from cement production in develop-
cement industry. Therefore, during the last two decades, ing countries like Pakistan. That would be highly assistive
efforts have been made to establish guidelines. In view for future trend analysis and environmental management.
of this, IPCC developed carbon accounting guidelines for The specific objectives of the current study are;
countries (IPCC 2006). Similarly, “The Cement and Energy
Protocol,” released in 2011, provided a carbon accounting i. investigation and identification of driving factors asso-
method for cement production (CSI 2011). Cement has a ciated with carbon emissions by the cement industry
direct relation to economic growth. The world production of Pakistan using the Kaya identity (KI) method.
of cement was 4.1 billion metric tons in 2020. Pakistan has ii. quantification and analysis of energy structure effect,
a well-developed cement industry, ranking among the top energy intensity effect, labor productivity, and carbon
5 exporters and the 14th largest cement producer (Memon intensity effect based on logarithmic mean Divisia
et al. 2012). According to statistics, 5.21 million tons of index (LMDI) to determine the varying levels of car-
cement has been produced in 2020. The average economic bon emissions.
growth has increased by 22% since 2019. During the Paris
Climate Summit, Pakistan’s Nationally Determined Contri- Considering the importance of the cement industry
bution (NDC) has committed to reduce 20% emissions by towards sustainable building and development for tomor-
2030 and the share of renewable energy has increased with row, the potential outcomes of this research will persuade
a total electricity output of 31.4% in 2015 (Raza et al. 2019). policy efforts in developing countries to reduce their ­CO2
Several studies and literature are available for the emissions and contribute toward unified global efforts to
assessment of carbon accounting in the cement industry achieve carbon neutrality and sustainability.
in different countries (Cai et al. 2016; Zhang et al. 2017;

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2022) 29:49429–49438 49431

Methodology are owned by the government and private sectors. Govern-

ment has 5 plants, whereas the private sector has 24 plants,
Figure 1 has summarized the overall methodology employed reflecting that huge investment is carried out in the pri-
for this study which is further illustrated in the following vate sector. This initiative has changed the perspective and
sections. broaden the horizon of the cement industry. Among these,
24 industrial units are operational (Ali et al. 2015; Hijazi
and Bin Tariq 2006). Figure 2 has portrayed the cement
Narrative of Pakistan’s cement industry production plants in Pakistan. Table 1 has further illus-
trated that Lucky Cement Limited is the largest producer
Pakistan’s cement industry is considered as a flourish- and exporter of quality cement in Pakistan, followed by
ing industry fulfilling the local market needs and export- Bestway Cement Limited, D.G Khan Cement Limited, and
ing cement to neighboring states (e.g., Iraq, Sri Lanka, Maple Leaf Cement Factory. The cement sector production
Afghanistan, India, and UAE). The cement industrial units has been recorded as approximately 65 million tons in the

Fig. 1  Overview of the methodology adopted for the study

Fig. 2  Operational cement production plants in Pakistan

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 49432 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2022) 29:49429–49438

Table 1  Production capacities and various manufacturing technologies-processes employed by cement plants in Pakistan
Name of cement plant Production capacity (Mt) Manufacturing process Technology-process employed

Clinker Cement

Askari Cement Limited, Wah 1,050,000 1,102,500 Dry process Pre-heater, classifier
Dewan Hattar Cement Limited, Hattar 1,080,000 1,134,000 Dry process Pre-heater, pre-calciner, and vertical mill
Bestway Cement Limited, Hattar 1,170,000 1,228,500 Dry process Pre-heater, pre-calciner, and vertical mills
Bestway Cement Limited, Farooqia 2,835,000 2,976,750 Dry process Pre-heater, pre-calciner, and vertical mills
Fecto Cement Limited, Sangjani 780,000 819,000 Dry process Pre-heater, pre-calciner, and ball mills
Fauji Cement Company Limited, Fateh Jang 3,270,000 3,433,500 Dry process Vertical mills
Askari Cement Limited, Nizampur 1,620,000 1,701,500 Dry process Pre-heater, vertical roller mill, and classifier
Cherat Cement Company Limited, Nowshera 4,320,000 4,536,000 Dry process Pre-heater, roller press, and ball mill
Kohat Cement Company Limited, Kohat 4,778,571 5,017,500 Dry process Pre-heater and vertical roller mills
Maple Leaf Cement Factory Limited, Daudkhel 5,400,000 5,670,000 Dry process Pre-heater, pre-calciner, vertical roller mills, and ball
mills
Bestway Cement Limited, Kalar Kahar 1,950,000 2,047,500 Dry process Pre-heater, pre-calciner, and vertical mills
D.G.Khan Cement Limited, Chakwal 2,010,000 2,110,500 Dry process Pre-heater, pre-calciner, and vertical mills
Bestway Cement Limited, Chakwal 3,428,571 3,600,000 Dry process Pre-heater, pre-calciner, vertical mills, and ball mills
Gharibwal Cement Limited, Jehlum 2,010,000 2,110,500 Dry process Vertical mill
Dandot Cement Limited, Jehlum 480,000 504,000 Dry process Data not available
Flying Cement Limited, Lilla 1,140,000 1,197,000 Dry process Pre-heater, pre-calciner, and vertical roller mills
Pioneer Cement Limited, Khushab 4,333,571 4,550,250 Dry process Classifiers and vertical roller mills
Lucky Cement Limited, Pezu 6,485,714 6,810,000 Dry process Pre-heater, pre-calciner, and vertical roller mills
D.G.Khan Cement Limited, Hub 2,760,000 2,898,000 Dry process Pre-heater, pre-calciner, and vertical roller mills
Attock Cement Pakistan, Lasbela 2,852,857 2,995,500 Dry process Pre-heater, pre-calciner, and vertical mill
Power Cement Limited, Dadu 3,210,000 3,370,500 Dry process Vertical roller mills
Lucky Cement Limited, Indus Highway, Karachi 4,666,667 4,900,000 Dry process Pre-heater, pre-calciner, and vertical roller mills
Thatta Cement Limited, Thatta 549,600 577,080 Dry and wet process Pre-calciner, pre-heater, and ball mill
Dewan Cement Limited, Dhabeji 1,680,000 1,764,000 Dry process Pre-heater, pre-calciner, and vertical mill

fiscal year 2020. The cement sector has witnessed some Data sources
major developments, such as the installation of a waste
heat recovery system. The major players are interested in For calculating the energy consumption and ­CO2 emissions in
expanding cement production capacities. The projected the cement sector of Pakistan, we acquired the data from Paki-
expansion would enhance the total cement production in stan Economic Survey (2019–2020), Pakistan Statistical year-
Pakistan to approximately 81 billion tons in the upcoming book (PBS 2019). The study covers the period for 2005–2020.
years. Total energy consumption data are in million tons of oil equiva-
The data in Table 2 shows the trend of the cement lent (Mtoe). Carbon dioxide emission data are in metric tons,
industry in Pakistan along with cement production, GDP GDP is in percentage (%), and the population (labor) is in mil-
growth rate, energy consumption using fossil fuels, and lions. Due to data limitations, the variables are taken in differ-
natural gas for the period of 2005–2016. During the fis- ent measurements. However, when the decomposition analysis
cal year 2020, the industry produced 63.63 million tons is applied, all the variables are converted into % for the evalu-
of cement prior to the COVID-19 crisis. The imports ation. The data (Table 2) was further analyzed using extended
and exports were reported at 47.81 million tons. The Kaya identity (KI) and logarithmic mean Divisia index (LDMI)
proportion of GDP growth has been on a declining trend decomposition models, as illustrated in the following sections.
which matches the economic transitions in the govern-
ment policies. The energy consumptions of the sector Extended KI method
are based on fossil fuel (natural gas and coal) and elec-
tricity, whereas C­ O 2 emissions have increased due to Kaya identity (KI) is a widely employed technique proposed
technological advancement and increased labor produc- by Kaya and Yokobori (1997). Kaya identity is an extended
tivity effect (Jaffar et al. 2014; Raza et al. 2019; Raza and improved form of the IPAT model which relates the
and Shah 2020). human impact on the environment (I) to the product of

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Table 2  Trend of cement Year Cement production Percentage growth in Fossil fuel consumption Natural gas
industry in Pakistan from 2005 (million tons) cement sector (%) (metric tons) (Mm cft)
to 2020: cement production and
energy consumption details 2005 17.91 27.10 3807.2 13,383
2006 20.83 13.50 3342.8 15,335
2007 30.50 22.49 4451.2 14,686
2008 37.68 17.64 6186.9 12,736
2009 42.28 6.09 5001.8 7305
2010 45.34 10.49 5007.8 1944
2011 42.37  − 8.43 4617.1 1378
2012 44.64 2.93 4456.9 1266
2013 44.64 5.07 4129.9 586
2014 44.64 1.17 3669.2 522
2015 45.62 2.44 5553.8 831
2016 45.62 10.09 5845.3 497
2017 46.39 4.49 7470.8 583
2018 66.27 11.14 9603.3 886
2019 59.74  − 5.45 1500.0 387
2020 63.63 1.74 6000 *

*
 No data is available

population (P), affluence (A), and technology (T). It quanti- (Li et al. 2014; Ma et al. 2018). The full description of
fies the man-made ­CO2 emissions at all scales using the four these parameters is depicted in Table 3. Based on Eq. (i),
driving factors. A number of studies have witnessed the appli- a relationship as presented in Eq. (ii) has been established.
cation of the Kaya identity in different fields (Liu and Wang
CE = ES × EI × LP × CI (2)
2017; O’Mahony 2013; Štreimikienė and Balezentis 2016 and
Lin and Long 2016). In this study, a modified form of the KI ΔCtot is the total change in carbon emissions from the base
method is used which is expressed in Eq. (i). The description year (2005) to year “T” under the LMDI method. The total
of the parameters used (Eq. i) is depicted in Table 3. difference ( ΔCtot ) is decomposed into different components,
as shown in Eq. (iv).
Ef E GDPc C
CE = × c × × (1)
Ec GDP LP Ec ΔCtot = C2005 − C0 (3)

Additive analysis by LDMI decomposition model ΔCtot = ΔCes + ΔCei + ΔClp + ΔCci (4)

The changes in total carbon emissions are attributed to the

After having KI analytics, (LMDI) decomposition addi-
driving factors; energy structure effect ( ΔCes ), energy inten-
tive model is further applied. This decomposition model
sity effect ( ΔCei ), labor productivity effect ( ΔClp ), and carbon
has a sound theoretical framework and convenience of
intensity effect ( ΔCci ) and further calculations are portrayed
adaptation for various environmental monitoring aspects
in Eqs. (iii) to (viii).

Table 3  Definition Parameter Description

of parameters for the
decomposition analysis CE Total ­CO2 emissions in Pakistan’s cement industry
Ef Proportion of fossil fuel consumption of cement industry in j province
Ec Total energy consumption of cement industry in j province
GDPC The percentage growth rate of Pakistan’s cement industry in j province
LP Labor population in the cement sector of j province
C Carbon emissions of cement enterprises in j province
ES Energy structure
EI Energy intensity
LP Labor productivity
CI Carbon intensity

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 49434 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2022) 29:49429–49438

∑ ESt The carbon emissions have increased up to 17.22% from

ΔCes = wj,k ln (5) 6.70% in 2005. This shows that energy demand in Paki-
j,k ES2005
stan has grown the fastest and consumption-induced car-
bon emissions have increased dramatically. While there is
∑ EI t
ΔCei = wj,k ln (6) an agreement on the fact that industrialization is directly
j,k EI 2005
related to environmental pollution, and the production of
Portland cement (clinker) produces the highest carbon
∑ LPt emissions during the cement production process due to the
ΔClp = wj,k ln (7)
j,k LP2005 high usage of carbon fuels (Gartner 2004). Currently, coal
is the primary energy source for consumption in Pakistan’s
∑ CI t cement industry (Kurup and Jenkins 2008) , considered
ΔCCI = wj,k ln (8)
j,k CI 2005 as a cheap option for utilization. Benhelal et al. (2013)
predicted that the recent trend of carbon emission is associ-
whereas the final resultant (mathematical relationship), as ated with outdated industrial equipment that emits higher
depicted in Eq. (ix), is called the logarithmic mean. emissions. These figures have deliberated that reducing
t
Cj,k 2005
− Cj,k coal usage and developing a low carbon economy is just
wj,k = (9) a social consensus. The current trend of higher economic
t 2005
lnCj,k − lnCj,k growth is also considered as the main driving force (Khan
and Majeed 2019).

Energy structure effect

Results and discussion
The energy structure effect is the ratio of the proportion
This section presents the results and discussion of four of fossil fuels to the total energy consumed in Pakistan’s
decomposed driving factors: (i) energy structure effect, (ii) cement industry. Figure 4 has revealed that there is a fluc-
energy intensity effect, (iii) labor productivity, and (iv) car- tuating trend regarding the energy structure effect during
bon intensity effect so to portray the changes in cumulative the selected study time period. The years 2010–2011 and
carbon emissions. 2017–2018 have shown much larger fluctuations. By observ-
ing the trend, it is quite evident that the energy structure
Analysis of cumulative carbon emissions effect has remained significantly negative throughout the
time period. As such, the pattern of energy consumption
Figure 3 illustrates the trend of carbon emissions by cement by Pakistan’s cement industry is not changed so far. The
production for the period of 2006–2020. The carbon emis- energy structure has positive and negative effects, but con-
sions have considerably grown during the analysis period. sidering the overall impact of energy structure, it inhibits the

Fig. 3  Carbon emissions by
cement production in Pakistan
(cumulative effect of four driv-
ing factors is represented)

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2022) 29:49429–49438 49435

Fig. 4  Effect of three factors

(carbon intensity, energy inten-
sity, and energy structure) on
carbon emissions is represented

per capita carbon emissions. The results correlate with the the cement production sector (Ghulam and Jaffry 2015).
study of Yasmeen et al. (2020). Zameer and Wang (2018) Similarly, the revolution of renewable-alternative energy
highlighted that energy consumption is highly dependent on projects and coal-power plants under CPEC will directly
natural gas and coal for electricity production in the cement affect economic growth positively. While if conventional
industry. Hence, this close association correlates with the coal-based power generation will be deployed that will
proportion of coal consumption. While during 2010–2015, impact the carbon emissions negatively (Lin and Raza
the consumption of coal decreased due to an increase in 2019; Mirza and Kanwal 2017).
prices which is also reflected in the trend analysis of energy
structure. Carbon intensity effect

Energy intensity effect Pakistan’s cement industry has experienced a steady and
reasonable growth rate since its inception. While this
This factor is analyzed in terms of contribution toward growth factor also caused an increased trend in terms of
the reduction of carbon emissions by the cement produc- carbon dioxide emissions due to the reliance of industry
tion sector of middle-income countries like Pakistan. The on conventional fossil fuels for its energy needs. The rel-
total fuel mix of Pakistan consists of oil, coal, and gas, ative impacts of carbon intensity are depicted in Fig. 4.
while industrial sectors also heavily rely on these sources The carbon intensity proportion shows that since 2006
with fractional use of renewables. The negative trend is to 2014, a negative trend is followed, being favorable in
associated with higher energy prices, interest rates, less reducing emissions. The comparative analytics presents
allocation in projects, and competitiveness with market a notable increase in the emissions by approximately
players. It is clearly evident by Fig. 4 that energy intensity 3% for the period of 2015–2018. Whereas a gradual
has depicted a rapid decline after 2009 and later by the decline in the carbon intensity has been recorded dur-
period of 2010–2020, the energy intensity, i.e., associ- ing 2019–2020 and the COVID-19 restrictions imposed
ated with the carbon emissions, becomes further negative. in Pakistan led to a significant decrease in the emissions,
Such decline in emissions is due to the fact that during imposing a positive change in the natural environment.
this period, a number of renewable projects (including It is clearly portrayed that the carbon intensity of any
solar power) have been installed under the China-Paki- fuel being employed is a major driver towards raising
stan Economic Corridor (CPEC) joint project which are ­C O 2 emissions. As such, the higher carbon-intensive
contributing to a positive change. Energy efficiency is fuels, per capita GDP, increase the per capita carbon
a restraining factor, and the carbon emissions would be emissions. Mirza and Kanwal (2017) also described
significantly reduced if energy intensity is improved in similar facts and figures regarding economic growth

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 49436 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2022) 29:49429–49438

and carbon emissions. They concluded that economic This study has attempted to assess the carbon emissions of
growth is a critical factor for the enhanced amount of the cement industry by employing extended Kaya identity
carbon emissions. and LDMI decomposition models for the 2006–2020 period.
The research outcomes of the study indicate that Pakistan’s
cumulative carbon emissions are being continued to increase
Labor productivity effect with a slight decrease during 2011–2012. The energy inten-
sity is a major driving force and carbon intensity being the
The labor productivity (population) has been in a state of second critical factor. The following policy implications will
modest increase. It has a positive contribution to carbon be greatly assistive for decreasing cumulative carbon emis-
emissions. Figure 5 illustrates that the labor productivity sions and stepping forward towards sustained industrializa-
factor has accounted for up to 16.98% by the end of 2020. tion in developing countries like Pakistan.
This is directly correlated with the increased productiv-
ity of cement, i.e., 63.63 million tons in 2020. The trend • Improvement and optimization of cement production and
has been increasing gradually, but a slight decrease is energizing this major industrial sector via renewable-
also evident during 2020 due to the COVID-19 lockdown alternative fuels so as to make an effective and smooth
restrictions imposed on various sectors, the decline in transition towards a carbon–neutral economic develop-
the GDP economic growth, and the percent growth rate. ment.
While during 2019–2020, the flow of funds by the pri- • Relevant industries who will invest in renewables,
vate sector has been halted due to economic recession cleaner production systems, science, technology, and
because of COVID-19 restrictions, stoppage of devel- innovation may be given special tax incentives like tax
opments in the building and housing sector due to tax holidays and duty drawbacks by the government for
reforms, and limitations imposed on high rise building importing and installing such sustainable, cleaner sys-
and construction. tems.
• Stringent technical legislation, i.e., standards for car-
bon emission and market-based regulations like permit
Conclusion and policy implications licensing and emission-pollution charges, should be
established for significant reduction of emissions by the
In middle-income developing states like Pakistan, consist- sector.
ent economic growth and rapid urbanization have triggered • Lastly, there should be a system of strict pursuance and
the profligate development of the construction and building cancelation of licenses of the violators, and they must be
industry. Likewise, the GHG-carbon emissions from cement fined and/or banned from future production, sales, and/or
production are also mounting and want immediate attention. trading.

Fig. 5  Effect of labor productiv-

ity in relation to GDP and per-
cent rate on carbon emissions is
represented

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2022) 29:49429–49438 49437

Author contribution  Rizwan Rasheed: conceptualization, visualization, Ghulam Y, Jaffry S (2015) Efficiency and productivity of the cement
methodology, and supervision. industry: Pakistani experience of deregulation and privatisation.
Fizza Tahir: methodology, data curation, writing, and formal Omega 54:101–115
analysis. Glanemann N, Willner SN, Levermann A (2020) Paris Climate
Muhammad Afzaal: data review. Agreement passes the cost-benefit test. Nat Commun 11(1):1–11
Sajid Rashid Ahmed: supervision. Habert, G. (2013). Environmental impact of Portland cement produc-
tion. In Eco-efficient concrete (pp. 3-25). Woodhead Publishing
Data availability  Not applicable. Hijazi ST, Bin Tariq D (2006) Determinants of capital structure: a
case for Pakistani cement industry. Lahore J Econ 11(1):63–80
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2006) IPCC
Declarations  guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge
Ethics approval and consent to participate  Not applicable. Jaffar A, Ali N, Anwer M, Naeem MA, Riaz MR, Jamal MH ... Ming
X (2014) The impact of cement manufacturing on economic
Consent for publication  Not applicable. development of Pakistan: the analysis of cement industry. Int
J Res 2:205–220
Competing interests  The authors declare no competing interests. Kaya Y, Yokobori K (eds) (1997) Environment, energy, and econ-
omy: strategies for sustainability. United Nations University
Press, Tokyo
Khan S, Majeed MT (2019) Decomposition and decoupling analysis
of carbon emissions from economic growth: a case study of
Pakistan. Pak J Commer Soc Sci (PJCSS) 13(4):868–891
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