materials

Article
Designing Efficient Flash-Calcined Sediment-Based Ecobinders
Mouhamadou Amar 1,2, * , Mahfoud Benzerzour 1,2 and Nor-Edine Abriak 1,2

1 IMT Nord Europe, Institut Mines-Télécom, Centre for Materials and Processes, F-59000 Lille, France
2 Univ. Lille, Institut Mines-Télécom, Univ. Artois, Junia, ULR 4515—LGCgE—Laboratoire de Génie Civil et
Géo-Environnement, F-59000 Lille, France
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: To ensure the optimum navigation of boats and protection against flooding, waterways
and ports are regularly dredged. The volume of dredged materials represents 56 million m3 in France
and 300 million m3 in Europe. These materials show a high potential for a use as supplementary
cementitious material (SCM). In this paper, sediments treated by the flash calcination method (STFC),
which is based on a low-energy consumption process, are utilized as a mineral admixture in a
cementitious matrix. The results of the physical, chemical, and mineralogical characterization prove
that this heat treatment has an interesting impact on the final properties of the sediments. Mortars
based on the flash-calcined product have comparable mechanical properties to control mortar. For a
substitution rate below 10%, the performances are even equivalent to a metakaolin (MK80)-based
mortar. Calorimetry testing demonstrated that calcined materials also improve hydration processes in
the cement matrixes by generating additional heat release due to sediment pozzolanic activity. Across
this study, it is shown that waste material including sediment can be transformed after optimized
heat treatment into a valuable resource for the building and infrastructure sector.

Keywords: sediment; characterization; flash calcination; substitution; pozzolanic activity

Citation: Amar, M.; Benzerzour, M.;

Abriak, N.-E. Designing Efficient 1. Introduction
Flash-Calcined Sediment-Based
In the early 21st century, the environment has become one of the biggest issues.
Ecobinders. Materials 2022, 15, 7107.
Climate change and environmental degradation pose an existential threat to Europe (EU)
https://doi.org/10.3390/
and the rest of the world. To implement a new growth strategy regarding environmental
ma15207107
issues, several countries, notably in the EU, are conducting the “Green Deal” approach
Academic Editor: Yuri Ribakov leading to sustainable development. The principle is to dissociate economic growth from
resource use and also to reach zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. Recently, the
Received: 11 June 2022
International Conference on Climate Change (COP 26, 2022) was held in Scotland and
Accepted: 10 October 2022
Published: 13 October 2022
endeavored to regulate the global carbon market, climate change, worldwide temperature
rise, water supply problems, etc. Several government policies nowadays aim to optimize
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral productivity through better efficiency in order to reduce the use of natural resources, energy
with regard to jurisdictional claims in consumption, and waste production.
published maps and institutional affil-
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), which is the essential component in concretes
iations.
and mortars, is responsible for at least 7% of global CO2 emissions resulting from the
annual worldwide manufacture of 4.6 billion tons of this product [1]. According to recent
predictions, the share of global CO2 emissions attributed to cement production is likely to
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
reach 25% in 2050, hence the urgent need to improve its sustainability [2]. In China, the
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
cement industry, which is one of the most energy-intensive sectors emitting 1.2 to 2 billion
This article is an open access article
tons of carbon per year [3], is developing technologies to reduce its impact. Through
distributed under the terms and Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS), alternative raw material use, and energy efficiency, it is
conditions of the Creative Commons targeted to cut down 30% CO2 emissions by 2050 [4,5]. The adopted strategy in Europe
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// and the USA is also similar through the use of Limestone Calcined Clay Cement (LC3) and
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ nanotechnologies [1,6].
4.0/).

Materials 2022, 15, 7107. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15207107 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2022, 15, 7107 2 of 21

In the construction sector, the aggregate need was 445 million tons in France in 2021.
More than 96% of these aggregates are of natural origin. In 2019, the turnover in the
aggregates sector increased by up to 3.66 billion euros and the ready-mixed concrete (RMC)
market production was 3.77 billion euros [7]. Meanwhile, cement consumption in France
was approximately 18 million tons. This constitutes huge financial profits for industrial
companies but is also alarming for the environment and resource use. For all these reasons,
sediments can potentially be used as suitable materials (as SCMs) in the construction
sector [8–12]. The clinker content can be reduced significantly by replacing cement with
SCMs, which have multiple effects: pozzolanic, hydraulic, and filler properties. Cement’s
high level of pollution is mainly due to limestone decarbonization, which is fundamental
in order to achieve the correct chemical chemistry of Portland cement [13].
Saving natural resources is crucial, and environmental regulations are increasing. It
is therefore sensible to develop the use of alternative materials in the construction sector.
Several projects (ECOSED chair, FISP (US), USAR (EU), SETARMS, SURICATES, etc.) have
already studied and considered using sediments as a resource for sustainable development
purposes [8–12,14]. Every year in France, around 56 million m3 [15] of sediments are
dredged, stored, and treated. In Europe, the total volume is 300 million m3 , while in Brazil,
it has reached 80.3 million m3 [16,17]. Due to the high and growing demand for cement,
the availability of conventional SCMs, such as blast furnace slag, limestone filler, silica
fume, and natural pozzolans will not be enough to fully cover it. However, the beneficial
use of dredged material relies strongly on numerous factors: mineral composition, grain
size distribution, and physicochemical characteristics [18]. Furthermore, for this purpose,
numerous scientific obstacles need to be resolved, including the inorganic contaminant
content of sediments, such as heavy metals (lead, copper, chromium, etc.), salts, cyanides,
and organic hydrocarbons (PAHs, PCBs, and TBT) [19].
Transforming raw sediment, considered waste, into a new material resource still faces
technical challenges. One of the options is to process the sediments into an SCM by cal-
cination, leading to the activation of mineral fractions. Heat treatment through “direct”
or traditional calcination using a laboratory kiln has already been studied in sediments
to improve some properties [20–28], but this method is expensive with high energy con-
sumption and environmental impact. However, another innovative technique, called “flash
calcination”, has been applied in some studies for the activation of clays and to transform
kaolin into metakaolin [29–34]. Cremona et al. [35] investigated the properties of fresh
and hardened concrete and the durability of several metakaolin-based binders. It was
concluded that flash-calcined clays improve workability, porosity, and creeping. Similar
conclusions were stated by Sullivan et al. [36], showing that MK contributes to prolonging
the service life of infrastructures. Danilevich et al. [37] activated thermally aluminum
hydroxide in gibbsite using a reactor called TSEFLAR. Examining the characteristics of
the final product, the study has shown that process parameters such as temperature, the
residence time of the particles, and raw material consumption play a major role in acti-
vation processes. This new calcination technique has the advantage of lowering energy
consumption and gas release due to the quickness of the process. As a matter of fact,
this process includes dehydroxylation that activates the material with thermal excitation
between 700 ◦ C and 850 ◦ C. For products containing undesirable non-active materials, com-
plex calcium-based minerals, sulfur-rich phases [38], or phosphates [39], flash calcination
can be considered to be more advantageous than traditional treatment methods such as
rotary calcination. Flash calcination is also able to activate Muscovite, illite, phlogopite,
and kaolinite, which are among the clay minerals that show pozzolanic activity after appro-
priate heat treatment and are generally present in sediment minerals. Such results were
previously obtained by Ambroise [40] after calcination at 750 ◦ C. This triggers and activates
amorphous phases [30,41]. The activation of the clay fractions present in sediments has
recently been studied [2,26,42–44]. The final product is also usable as SCM for traditional
Portland cement replacement [45] and in geopolymer applications [46]. Amar et al. [47]
studied the reactivity of flash-calcined sediment. By using various pozzolanic tests, it
Materials 2022, 15, 7107 3 of 21

was demonstrated that the calcination process has a positive impact on the pozzolanic
activity of sediments [48]. Snellings et al. [26,42] also used the flash calcination technique
on the same sediment studied by Van Bunderen et al. [25]. This last study investigated
the influence of the temperature of treatment and the final reactivity of sediment. The
authors tested three calcination temperatures: 820 ◦ C, 865 ◦ C, 905 ◦ C, and showed the
influence on the final product properties. Van Bunderen et al. [34] also studied the effect
of flash-calcined sediment on mechanical properties and the shrinkage of concretes. After
testing cement replacement at 20, 30, and 40 wt%, the results clearly demonstrated that
flash-calcined sediments are suitable for the production of sustainable cement and con-
crete. Inocente et al. [33] recently used this activation technique to produce highly reactive
metakaolin. The chosen calcination temperatures ranged from 900 ◦ C to 1100 ◦ C. It was
also shown that flash calcination is suitable for transforming unreactive material into a
product with a high degree of amorphization.
The flash calcination treatment technique based on a low-energy process is studied in
the following. This innovative method is not widely used in the waste-reuse sector. This
method was shown to be capable of enhancing the pozzolanic activity of sediments. As
a result, these materials that were initially considered waste can be transformed into a
suitable SCM for the construction sector.
First, this paper will focus on the characteristics of sediments treated with the flash
calcination method (STFC) and will then highlight the impact of the treatment. Next, mor-
tars using STCF as eco-efficient SCM will be formulated and tested. Finally, a comparative
study will be made of raw sediment (RS), metakaolin (MK), and limestone filler (LF).

2. Materials, Methods, and Experimental Work

2.1. Materials
Portland cement CEM I 52.5N (OPC), which complies with European standard EN
197-1 (2012), was used in this study. The mortar formulations were based on a siliceous
standardized river-origin sand (ISO 679: 2009), with rounded grains.
The marine sediments were dredged from the Grand Port Maritime de Dunkerque
(GPMD), situated in the North of France. Using an oven at 40 ◦ C, all raw sediments were
dried, then crushed, and sieved at 120 µm. In this study, the flash-treated sediments are
designated by STFC, RS = raw sediment, NS = natural sand. MK80 is a metakaolin with
Dmax = 80 µm, and LF80 is a limestone filler with Dmax = 80 µm.

2.2. Characterization Techniques

Different physical and chemical methods were used to identify the characteristics of
the materials. Granulometry analysis was performed using a laser diffraction particle size
analyzer COULTER LS12330. With this device equipped with a dry module, the particle
distribution was determined from 0 to 2 mm. The BET (Brunauer–Emmett–Teller) tests,
also called mass area and which are an estimation of fineness (NF EN ISO 18757 [49]), were
performed on a Micromeritics ASAP2020 analyzer using nitrogen gas. The samples were
outgassed for 16 h at 40 ◦ C. Blaine surface was measured following the NF EN 196-6 [50]
standard. The organic fraction (LOI) was also determined (XP P94-047 [51]), and the total
organic carbon (TOC) content was evaluated. The specific density of the products was
determined by a MICROMETRICS AccuPyc1330 helium pycnometer (NF EN 1097-7 [52]).
Heat release investigations using a semi-adiabatic calorimeter CERILH (Langavant method)
according to the NF EN 196-9 [50] standard were also carried out for the first seven days
following initial cement hydration. The apparatus was 400 × 160 mm with a thermally
sealed container equipped with heat sensors. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)
and Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) were performed on a NETZSCH STA 449 using
nitrogen gas. The analysis program was set to work between 40 ◦ C and 1100 ◦ C and CO,
CO2, and water detection were activated. The mineral composition was investigated using
X-ray diffraction on a Bruker D8 device equipped with a Co anticathode. The Rietveld
refinement method was also applied, especially for the quantitative measurements of the
Materials 2022, 15, 7107 4 of 21

clay fractions. Analysis was conducted as follows: between 6–80◦ angle 2θ, 0.2◦ pitch, and
acquisition time 0.5 s. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) analysis was performed using
a Hitachi S-4300SE/N with a field emission gun; the speed voltage was adjusted to 5 kV.

2.3. Mortar Preparation

The composition of mortars used to study mechanical strength is given in Table 1. The
consistency test was executed according to NF EN 196-3:(2009). This test guarantees to have
an equivalent fresh state between the control mortar and those including SCMs to keep
results comparable. Mechanical strength was evaluated using prismatic mortar specimens
4 cm × 4 cm × 16 cm (NF EN 196-1 [53]). RM is the control mortar. MRS and MSTFC are
the respective raw-sediment-based and flash-calcined-based mortars. Formulations using
MK and LF are designated by MMK80 and MLF80 in this order.

Table 1. Mortar composition of RM, MRS, MSTDC, and MSTFC for the heat of hydration test (NF EN
196-9) [50].

Constituent RM MRS MSTFC MMK80 MLF80

Cement CEM I 52.5 N
450.0 427.5|405|382.5
(g)—5%|10%|15%
5% 10% 15% 5% 10% 15%
Sediment (g) --- --- ---
28.6 57.2 85.8 26.8 53.5 80.3
5% 10% 15%
Metakaolin (g) --- --- --- ---
25.9 51.7 77.6
5% 10% 15%
Limestone filler (g) --- --- --- ---
26.2 52.5 78.7
Normalized sand (g) 1350 1350 1350 1350 1350
Water (g) 225 225 225 225 225

2.4. Flash Calcination Method

Flash calcination is a heat treatment technique consisting of the exposure of finely
ground products to high temperatures in the presence of air. In flash calcination, gas–solid
heat transfer is exploited effectively to calcinate the material quickly. This technique was
developed in France by Salvador in 1992 [31]. Originally, the flash calcination technique was
applied to activate clays such as kaolinite and to trigger their pozzolanic properties. This
treatment method provokes a dihydroxylation process following dehydration [26,30,54].
This fits with the elimination of a hydroxyl bond (−OH) that occurs between 450 ◦ C and
750 ◦ C [55]. In addition, as the flash process is spontaneous, the flash calcination initiates
amorphous phases and therefore boosts the reactivity of the product [2,56]. In fact, the
temperature rise can be estimated from 0.5 to 1.5 × 104 ◦ C/s [57]. Due to the rapid process,
the material obtained has a lower density and higher porosity translating to increased
reactivity. Direct calcination using a laboratory kiln at 750 ◦ C for a residence time between
1 h to 3 h can lead to such results. However, in this case, energy costs and the CO2 footprint,
in particular, are usually high. In flash calcination, the product is heated rapidly (up to
1200 ◦ C), held at this high temperature for a short period (0.1 to 1 s), and finally quenched
rapidly with the counter flow of cold air before storing [44,54]. The visual aspect of the
sediment throughout the treatment process is also shown in Figure 1.
Adjusting the flash calcination process requires the control of two parameters: ex-
posure time and temperature, which can reach 1200 ◦ C inside the calciner unit [30]. The
energy used in this flash calcination process can be evaluated at 2 GJ/t according to San
Nicolas [30,58]. This study aimed to apply this treatment process to the marine dredged sed-
iments, which will be adapted to activate sediment phases (including clays). The calcining
chamber unit, flash tower, and pilot installation are shown in Figure 2.
 Raw sediment (RS) RS, grounded following drying at 40 °C

Materials 2022, 15, 7107 5 of 21

Raw sediment (RS) RS, grounded following drying at 40 °C

Flash calcined sediment (STFC)

Flash calcined sediment (STFC)

Figure 1. The visual aspect of sediment through treatment stages.

Adjusting the flash calcination process requires the control of two parameters: expo-
sure time and temperature, which can reach 1200 °C inside the calciner unit [30]. The en-
ergy used in this flash calcination process can be evaluated at 2 GJ/t according to San Ni-
colas [30,58]. This study aimed to apply this treatment process to the marine dredged sed-
iments, which will be adapted to activate sediment phases (including clays). The calcining
1. The visual
Figurechamber unit,aspect
flash of sediment
tower, andthrough treatment stages.
pilot installation are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Cont.
Materials2022,
Materials 2022,15,
15,7107
x FOR PEER REVIEW 66 of 21
22

Figure 2. (a) Flash calciner chamber; (b) Semi-mobile flash tower [22]; (c) Pilot installation.
Figure 2. (a) Flash calciner chamber; (b) Semi-mobile flash tower [22]; (c) Pilot installation.

3. Experimental
3. Experimental Results
Results and
and Discussion
Discussion
3.1. Physical Characterization
3.1. Physical Characterization
3.1.1.
3.1.1. Granulometry
Granulometry
The
The results of the
results of the laser
lasergranulometry
granulometrytest testare
are shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 3. The
3. The calcination
calcination pro-
process affects the particle size distribution (D = 2.46 for RS, and D =
cess affects the particle size distribution (D50 = 2.46 µ m for RS, and D50 = 5.93 µ m forµm
50 µm 50 5.93 for
STFC).
STFC). The sintering effect between particles may be the main reason RS is
The sintering effect between particles may be the main reason RS is finer than STCF andfiner than STCF
and Portland
Portland cement.
cement. ThisThis result
result agrees
agrees withwith
SEMSEM observations
observations showing
showing the presence
the presence of
of very
very fine particles in the RS sample. Particle size distribution plays a major role in pore size
fine particles in the RS sample. Particle size distribution plays a major role in pore size
distribution. It was also shown through fractal analysis that it impacts
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW hydration, porosity,
7 of 22
distribution. It was also shown through fractal analysis that it impacts hydration, porosity,
durability, and mechanical resistance [59,60].
durability, and mechanical resistance [59,60].

Figure 3.3.
Figure Particle size size
Particle distribution for OPC,for
distribution MK80, LF80,
OPC, NS, RS,LF80,
MK80, and STFC.
NS, RS, and STFC.
3.1.2. Physical Properties
The results of the BET and the Blaine tests are given in Table 2. The results demon-
strate that the flash calcination process has an impact on the fineness of the materials. This
effect is the outcome of the organic matter elimination, which wraps the sediment particles.
Therefore, with the calcination, organic matter is eliminated, and the BET/Blaine value
Materials 2022, 15, 7107 7 of 21

3.1.2. Physical Properties

The results of the BET and the Blaine tests are given in Table 2. The results demonstrate
that the flash calcination process has an impact on the fineness of the materials. This effect
is the outcome of the organic matter elimination, which wraps the sediment particles.
Therefore, with the calcination, organic matter is eliminated, and the BET/Blaine value
decreases. Fineness is a parameter connected to the reactivity of the material and its
performance. For the flash-calcined sediments, the LOI (1.7%) of the final product is low
and proves the efficiency of calcination.

Table 2. Determination of the physical properties of the materials.

Flash Calcined
Cement Raw Sediment Metakaolin Limestone Filler Natural
Materials Sediment
(CEM I 52.5 N) (RS) (MK80) (LF80) Sand (NS)
(STFC)
Density (g/cm3 ) 3.15 2.48 2.65 2.74 2.70 2.65
Blaine (cm2 /g) 3669 10,093 4106 4820 7181 4548
BET (cm2 /g) 9194 86,207 59,930 94,600 9744 9507
TOC * (%) --- 5.76 0.99 --- --- ---
LOI * (%) 1.90 9.92 1.70 --- --- ---
TOC * = total organic carbon = 1.72 * LOI [61]; LOI * = loss of ignition.

Generally, a decrease in the specific surface area is observed after the consistent thermal
process. This variation is inversely proportional to density, as shown in Figure 4. It may in-
deed be explained by physical and chemical modifications due to sintering [62]. In Figure 1,
STDC is the sediment treated by the traditional calcination process. Snellings et al. [42]
measured the effect of the flash calcination process on sediment and established that the
higher the calcination temperature, the lower the specific surface area. According to [29],
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
the calcination process induces the formation of spherical particles that are the product 8 ofof
22
multiple melting–sintering and destructuration processes.

Figure4.4.Evolution
Figure Evolutionof
ofdensity
densityand
andBET
BETsurface
surfacearea
areafor
forRS,
RS,STFC,
STFC,and
andSTDC.
STDC.
Finally, it is important to highlight that a heat treatment usually produces the following
Finally, it is important to highlight that a heat treatment usually produces the follow-
effects [63]: (a) Modification of the bulk density (increase and decrease from 600 ◦ C);
ing effects [63]: (a) Modification of the bulk density (increase and decrease from 600 °C);
(b) Modification of the specific area (increase and decrease from 400 °C); (c) Decrease of
internal porosity by densification; (d) Change in grain size (D50 increases strongly at
700 °C).
 Figure 4. Evolution of density and BET surface area for RS, STFC, and STDC.
Materials 2022, 15, 7107 8 of 21
Finally, it is important to highlight that a heat treatment usually produces the follow-
ing effects [63]: (a) Modification of the bulk density (increase and decrease from 600 °C);
(b) Modification (b)ofModification
the specific area (increase
of the specificand
areadecrease from
(increase and400 °C); (c)from
decrease 400 ◦of
Decrease C); (c) Decrease
internal porosity by densification;
of internal porosity by (d)densification;
Change in grain size (Din
(d) Change increases
50 grain size strongly at
(D50 increases strongly at
700 °C). 700 ◦ C).

3.1.3. TGA and3.1.3.

DSC TGA and DSC Results
Results
The TGA results displayed in Figure 5a highlight a peak inat
the mass ◦
The TGA results displayed in Figure 5a highlight a peak in the mass loss 450 °C loss at 450 C
corresponding corresponding
to the dehydrationto the dehydration
phase. phase.
The release The release
of carbon of carbon
monoxide (CO)monoxide
and carbon (CO) and carbon
dioxide ◦ C and 480 ◦ C, respectively, is due to the combustion reactions of
dioxide (CO2) at 420 °C(CO
and2 ) 480
at 420
°C, respectively, is due to the combustion reactions of
organic matterorganic matter
and organic and organic
pollutants pollutants
(PAHs, (PAHs,
PCBs, TBTs) PCBs, in
present TBTs) present in[64].
the sediment the sediment [64].
A second CO peak appearing at 700 ◦ C is caused by the decarbonation of calcite and
A second CO2 peak appearing at 700 °C is caused by the decarbonation of calcite and do-
2
dolomite
lomite [23]. These [23]. materials
calcareous These calcareous
originate materials originate
from the shells from the
of marine shellsnatu-
species of marine species
rally present in sediments. According to these results, the temperature that guaranteesthat guarantees
naturally present in sediments. According to these results, the temperature
◦
organic matter organic matter
elimination andelimination and decarbonation
also complete also complete decarbonation
must be greatermust
thanbe greater
700 °C. than 700 C.

s 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 22

Figure 5. (a) TGA results

Figure 5.for
(a) RS
TGAand (b) TGA
results on and
for RS pre-flash-calcined sediment (STFC).sediment (STFC).
(b) TGA on pre-flash-calcined

The choice of the

Theoptimal
choice calcination temperature
of the optimal relies
calcination on the DSC
temperature results
relies depicted
on the DSC results depicted
in Figure 5b. This test was
in Figure 5b.performed on sediments
This test was performedthat were flashthat
on sediments calcined
wereat °C and at 765 ◦ C and
765 calcined
flash
820 °C. The first820 ◦ C.at
peak 400first
The °C probably ◦ C probably
corresponds
peak at 400 to corresponds
the organic matter
to the decomposition
organic matter decomposition
as stated in Figure 5a. The analysis reveals the recrystallization area at 810 °C is narrow,
indicating that recrystallization was incomplete. These results prove that flash calcination
at 765 °C or 820 °C leads to similar results, but is more energy costly at 820 °C. Due to its
efficiency, the choice was made to adopt 765 °C as the optimized temperature of calcina-
tion.
Materials 2022, 15, 7107 9 of 21

as stated in Figure 5a. The analysis reveals the recrystallization area at 810 ◦ C is narrow,
indicating that recrystallization was incomplete. These results prove that flash calcination
at 765 ◦ C or 820 ◦ C leads to similar results, but is more energy costly at 820 ◦ C. Due to its
efficiency, the choice was made to adopt 765 ◦ C as the optimized temperature of calcination.

3.2. Chemical and Mineralogical Analyses

The purpose of the chemical analysis was to determine the proportion of each chemical
element using X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) analysis (see Table 3). These values are close to
those identified in previous studies [65,66] conducted on GPMD sediments. As for the
calcined sediments, the main oxide constituents SiO2 , Al2 O3 , and Fe2 O3 were similar to the
RS values. These results confirm the possible moderate impact of the calcination process
on chemical composition. The composition of cement is shown in Table 4 and corresponds
to commercial Portland cement regarding its chemical composition.

Table 3. Concentrations (%) of the major oxide elements for OPC, RS, and STFC.

SiO2 Al2 O3 Fe2 O3 CaO SO3 K2 O TiO2 Na2 O MgO P2 O5 MnO ZnO
OPC 20.0 5.1 3.4 63.5 3.1 0.8 0.3 0.3 0.8 0.4 0.1 0.2
RS 51.9 8.2 9.3 22.1 0.2 1.9 0.4 2.0 2.0 0.4 0.2 0.1
STFC 52.8 8.0 9.3 21.6 0.2 1.8 0.4 1.9 2.0 0.4 0.2 0.1

Table 4. Chemical composition of cement (%).

Alite Belite Aluminate Ferrite Anhydrite Gypsum Lime

(C3 S) (C2 S) (C3 A) (C4 AF) (CaSO4 ) (CaSO4 , 2H2 O) (CaO)
OPC 63.7 16.1 4.3 9.8 0.5 3.8 1.8

3.3. X-ray Diffraction Analysis (XRD)

This test revealed the high presence of quartz (SiO2 ), calcite (CaCO3 ), and other phases
such as pyrite (FeS2 ) or clays (kaolinite) in the RS. The results of the XRD analysis performed
on the RS, STDC (traditional calcination) and STFC materials are given in Figure 6 and
show major crystalline modifications. The heat probably initiated some physicochemical
processes. The XRD clearly demonstrates a drop in the occurrence of crystalline phases
such as calcite due to the decarbonization phase. Clay phases such as kaolinite must be
transformed into reactive metakaolin [30,56]. It is also noted that there was an initiation
of phases such as anhydrite (CaSO4 ), which is the result of reactions between calcium
carbonates and sulphate. Anhydrite can modify cement hydration reactions as stated in the
investigation led by Snellings et al. [42]. Furthermore, mineral additions with a high calcite
(CaCO3 ) content must favor the hydration of alite (C3 S) [67,68]. This effect is particularly
accentuated as the calcite content and granularity are relatively high. It seems that in the
presence of water, calcium carbonate reacts with alite (C3 S) and aluminate (C4 AH13 ) to
form hydrated mono-carboaluminate calcium [C3 A, CaCO3 , 11H2 O], which crystallizes in
hexagonal platelets [69,70].
These analyses were performed on a single-oriented glass slide to identify clay min-
erals; the results are presented in Figure 7. They are based on the determination of lattice
spacings (001) and relative intensities. The calcination process transforms the majority of
the clay minerals present into illite (86%). According to Dang et al. [23], the occurrence of
newly created phases can be attributed to the heat treatment effect.
 drite (CaSO4), which is the result of reactions between calcium carbonates and sulphate. An-
hydrite can modify cement hydration reactions as stated in the investigation led by Snellings
et al. [42]. Furthermore, mineral additions with a high calcite (CaCO3) content must favor the
hydration of alite (C3S) [67,68]. This effect is particularly accentuated as the calcite content and
granularity are relatively high. It seems that in the presence of water, calcium carbonate reacts
Materials 2022, 15, 7107 10 of 21
with alite (C3S) and aluminate (C4AH13) to form hydrated mono-carboaluminate calcium [C3A,
CaCO3, 11H2O], which crystallizes in hexagonal platelets [69,70].

Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 22

Figure 6. XRD analysis
Figureof6.RS,
XRDSTDC, and of
analysis STFC.
RS, STDC, and STFC.

These analyses were performed on a single-oriented glass slide to identify clay min-
erals; the results are presented in Figure 7. They are based on the determination of lattice
spacings (001) and relative intensities. The calcination process transforms the majority of
the clay minerals present into illite (86%). According to Dang et al. [23], the occurrence of
newly created phases can be attributed to the heat treatment effect.

3.4. XRD Analysis of Clays

The Rietveld semi-quantitative analysis is based on optimization techniques and re-
finement. The methodology applied relies on the difference between the measured and
the calculated diagrams. The statistical criterion generally applied for the fitting quality is
the weighted least square error value. The tests were performed on the sediment RS and
STCF. Samples were prepared using a single-oriented glass slide to identify clay mineral
proportions. This analysis is also based on the determination of lattice spacings (001) and
relative intensities. Samples should be prepared carefully, and specific skills are required
by the operator. The results are presented in Table 5 and Figure 7.

Figure
Figure 7. Identification
7. Identification of the of the mineral
mineral clay
clay phases inphases in RSbyand
RS and STFC STFC by XRD.
XRD.

Table 5. Identification of clay minerals by the XRD method.

Interlayered 10- Additional

Samples Smectite Illite Kaolinite Chlorite
14S Swellings Minerals
RS 32% 36% 20% 12% --- Quartz
Materials 2022, 15, 7107 11 of 21

3.4. XRD Analysis of Clays

The Rietveld semi-quantitative analysis is based on optimization techniques and
refinement. The methodology applied relies on the difference between the measured and
the calculated diagrams. The statistical criterion generally applied for the fitting quality is
the weighted least square error value. The tests were performed on the sediment RS and
STCF. Samples were prepared using a single-oriented glass slide to identify clay mineral
proportions. This analysis is also based on the determination of lattice spacings (001) and
relative intensities. Samples should be prepared carefully, and specific skills are required
by the operator. The results are presented in Table 5 and Figure 7.

Table 5. Identification of clay minerals by the XRD method.

Interlayered 10- Additional

Samples Smectite Illite Kaolinite Chlorite
14S Swellings Minerals
RS 32% 36% 20% 12% — Quartz
STFC — 86% 5% — 9% Quartz

The analysis reveals that the RS samples are composed of kaolinite, which represents
20% of the clay phases, and chlorite (12%). The main phases are illite (36%) and smectite
(32%). The STFC sediment is composed mainly of 86% illite and the remaining 5% of
kaolinite. The calcination procedure turns the majority of the clay minerals into illite (86%).
These figures demonstrate that heat treatment initiates internal structural modification in
clay minerals [42]. This can be partly the cause of chemical activity noticed previously by
Amar et al. [47] in these sediments. The occurrence of these newly created phases can be
explained by the effect of heat treatment [23,41].

3.5. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

The SEM analysis consists of examining the internal structure of the materials at a
very high resolution. SEM analysis provides powerful magnification, up to 500,000 times.
As a result, the majority of the micron constituents of mortar can be examined, scrutinized,
and studied. In a cementitious matrix, these constituents can be CSH hydrates (≈100 Å)
and strips of clay particles (≈10 Å) from SCM, ettringite crystals (≈50 µm), crystals of
portlandite Ca(OH)2 (≈20 µm), or the morphology of finely-ground material. The results
in Figure 8d reveal different particle forms that are mineral or animal (seashell) in origin.
These types of particles are commonly observed in sediments. As a result of sedimentation
and the presence of minerals such as limestone (CaCO3 ), the phenomenon of cementing
between the particles can be observed (Figure 8b). For the RS material, the presence of
pyrite particles and some plate-like particles can be clearly distinguished (Figure 8a). Pyrite
is a mineral originally present in raw sediments and is visible in Figure 8a. The presence
of organic constituents or pollutants that needed to be eliminated justifies the need for an
appropriate treatment choice (using heat treatment, for instance).
For STFC, physical changes were confirmed by the SEM observations. The heating
process modified the form of the particles with the development of regular spherical parti-
cles with a diameter of 20 µm (Figure 8c). In previous studies led by Nicolas et al. [30] and
also by Teklay et al. [44], these spherical particles were identified on flash-calcined kaolin
clay, representing almost 20% of the final product. Similarly, Claverie et al. [29] showed that
these particles originated from an agglomeration process of submicron particles, as shown
in Figure 8c. They are mainly composed of gases and nano-particles of aluminum silicates
that cover the external surface (Figure 8c). Through later studies, Snellings et al. [26,42]
highlighted the local melting process origin of this rounded effect.
 commonly observed in sediments. As a result of sedimentation and the presence of minerals
such as limestone (CaCO3), the phenomenon of cementing between the particles can be ob-
served (Figure 8b). For the RS material, the presence of pyrite particles and some plate-like
particles can be clearly distinguished (Figure 8a). Pyrite is a mineral originally present in raw
Materials 2022, 15, 7107 sediments and is visible in Figure 8a. The presence of organic constituents or pollutants that
12 of 21
needed to be eliminated justifies the need for an appropriate treatment choice (using heat treat-
ment, for instance).

Figure 8. Electron microscopy of RS and treated STFC sediment. (a) Pyrite particle, (b) plate-like
Figure 8. Electron microscopy of RS and treated STFC sediment. (a) Pyrite particle, (b) plate-like
cemented particles, (c) Spherical aluminosilicate nanoparticle, (d) Organic particles and seashells.
cemented particles, (c) Spherical aluminosilicate nanoparticle, (d) Organic particles and seashells.
For STFC,
3.6. Impact of the physical
Presence ofchanges were
Sediments on confirmed
Cementitious byMatrix
the SEM observations. The heating
process
Due to their physicochemical composition, sediments modify of
modified the form of the particles with the development theregular spherical
cementitious par-
matrix
properties [23,41]. In fact, this is materialized by the presence of lime as a result of [30]
ticles with a diameter of 20 µ m (Figure 8c). In previous studies led by Nicolas et al. the
and also by Teklay et al. [44], these spherical particles were identified on
thermal conversion of calcite. Depending on their fineness and shape, sediments are able flash-calcined
kaolin
to play clay,
a rolerepresenting
in filling spacealmost
and20%
thusofcontribute
the final product. Similarly,
to improving overallClaverie et al. [29]
compactness by
showed that these particles originated from an agglomeration process of
reducing the intergranular space. This contributes to enhancing the hydration reactions submicron par-
ticles,
and as shown in
ameliorating Figureproperties.
general 8c. They are mainlythe
However, composed
presenceofofgases and nano-particles
constituents resulting from of
pollution, such as lead (Pb) [71], zinc (Zn) [72], cadmium (Cd), or chromium (Cr) [71], could
disturb the normal hydration processes and the setting of mortar [73,74]. The mechanisms
that usually lead to the formation of hydrates (CSH) or the setup of the porous network
can be disrupted by some of these minerals [71,73,75]. The effect of metal contaminants has
been studied by Minocha et al. and Park et al. [71,76]. It has been shown that the presence
of inorganic contaminants in the cementitious matrix generally has a detrimental effect on
mechanical strength and also on durability properties [76].
The formulated mortars are designated as follows: RM = control mortar (with no SCM);
MRS = mortars with raw sediment; MSTFC = mortars including flash-treated sediments;
MMK = metakaolin-based mortar, and MLF = mortar with limestone filler. The number
after these notations stands for the substitution rate (e.g., MRS5 = 5% cement replacement).

3.7. Mechanical Strength

The mechanical strength of prepared mortars was monitored following NF EN 196-
1 [53]. Prismatic samples 4 × 4 × 16 cm3 were tested in compression for all formulated
mortars. The results of the compression tests indicate that STCF-based mortars have signifi-
cant resistance. After 28 days of maturation, the most resistant mortars were MSTFC5 and
MRS5, with respective compressive strengths of 62.2 MPa and 59.2 MPa (Figures 9 and 10).
The substituted mortars containing 10% sediment exhibited the same strength as RM at
 Materials 2022, 15, 7107 13 of 21

28 days, while the 15%-substituted mortars had lower strength than RM, in the range of
6% and 12%. The composition of mortars used to assess mechanical strength is given in
Table 1. These results suggest that the presence of sediment, appropriately used in the
cementitious matrix, results in an improvement in strength overall. Benezet et al. [77]
demonstrated in a previous study that finely crushed particles of quartz (less than 5 µm
or BET > 10,000 cm2 /g) are highly active. In the present study, we must bear in mind that
D50 ≤ 6 µm for all calcined material and BET > 20,000 cm2 /g (Table 2). Therefore, one could
Materials2022,
Materials 2022,15,
15,x xFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 1414ofof2222
argue that the flash calcination triggered the pozzolanic activity and impacted the materials’
fineness. This is correlated with the elimination of organic matter and densification.

Figure
Figure 9.9.
Figure 9. Compressive
Compressive
Compressive strength
strength ofof
strength RM
of RM
RM and
and
and MRS,
MRS, (5%,
MRS,(5%, 10%,
(5%,10%, and
10%,and 15%)
and15%) mortars.
15%)mortars.
mortars.

Figure
Figure
Figure 10.
10.
10. Compressive
Compressive
Compressive strength
strength ofof
strength of
RMRM and
RMand MSTFC
andMSTFC (5%,
MSTFC(5%, 10%,
(5%,10%, and
10%,and 15%)
and15%) mortars.
15%)mortars.

Finally,aacomparison
Finally, comparisonbetween
betweenRM,RM,MRS,
MRS,MSTFC,
MSTFC,MK-based
MK-basedmortars,
mortars,and
andLF-based
LF-based
mortars was performed (Figure 11), clearly showing that MSTFC5 mortars are similar toto
mortars was performed (Figure 11), clearly showing that MSTFC5 mortars are similar
theMMK5
the MMK5and andMLF5
MLF5mortars
mortarsafter
after2828days
daysofofmaturation.
maturation.Nonetheless,
Nonetheless,there
thereisisslightly
slightly
less resistance for MSTFC10 and MSTFC15. Their resistance values are in the range of 13%
Materials 2022, 15, 7107 14 of 21

Finally, a comparison between RM, MRS, MSTFC, MK-based mortars, and LF-based
mortars was performed (Figure 11), clearly showing that MSTFC5 mortars are similar to
the MMK5 and MLF5 mortars after 28 days of maturation. Nonetheless, there is slightly
less resistance for MSTFC10 and MSTFC15. Their resistance values are in the range of 13%
to 15% less than those for mortars containing MK and LF. This can be explained by the fact
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 to
that MK is a highly pozzolanic material. Its activity coefficient could be considered of be
22
χ = (0.9 to 1) [30,78].

Figure 11. Compressive strength of MSTFC, MK and LF (5%, 10%, and 15%) mortars at 28 days
Figure 11. Compressive strength of MSTFC, MK and LF (5%, 10%, and 15%) mortars at 28 days maturation.
maturation.
Studies conducted by Nicolas et al. [30] and Claverie et al. [29] on kaolin clays treated
withStudies conducted
flash calcination by Nicolas et
subsequently al. [30]that
showed andtheClaverie
effect et
of al.
the[29] on kaolin
treatment claysbe
should treated
recog-
with flash
nized. calcination
It was subsequently
demonstrated showed that the
that physicochemical effectwas
activity of the treatment
noticed in theshould
materialbe after
rec-
ognized. It was demonstrated that physicochemical activity was noticed
the clay phases had been activated. This suggests that calcined clays improve hydration in the material
after the clay
reactions phases
[2,26]. Thehad been activated.
decomposition Thisphysical
of the suggestsand thatchemical
calcinedeffects
clays improve
indicates hydra-
some
tion reactions [2,26]. The decomposition of the physical and chemical
strong connection between that physical effect and the phenomenon of heterogeneous effects indicates
some strongNevertheless,
nucleation. connection between that physical
the chemical effectto
effect seems andbethe phenomenon
controlled of heterogene-
by complex chemical
ous nucleation.
reactions, such Nevertheless, the chemical effect
as precipitation/dissolution, seems[79],
fineness to beand
controlled by complex
amorphousness chem-
[26,80,81].
ical
Thesereactions, such as triggered
effects probably precipitation/dissolution,
the enhancementfineness observed[79],in the and amorphousness
mechanical perfor-
[26,80,81]. These effects
mance [16,26,82–84]. Vanprobably
Bunderen triggered the demonstrated
et al. [2,25] enhancement observed in the mechanical
that the addition of calcined
performance
dredging sediments reduces the autogenous shrinkage of cement and could potentially of
[16,26,82–84]. Van Bunderen et al. [2,25] demonstrated that the addition be
calcined
used as an dredging sediments
alternative reduces thetoautogenous
SCM. According Hentschel shrinkage of cement
et al. [85] and Felekogluand [86],
couldsome
po-
tentially be used
factors such as anshape
as grain alternative SCM. According
and roughness to Hentschel
can directly impact the et rheology,
al. [85] and Felekoglu
fluidity, and
[86], someoffactors
porosity such
mortars. Theas finely
grain crushed
shape and roughness
minerals can can
present directly
haveimpact the rheology,
some activity in the
fluidity, and porosity
cementitious of mortars. The finely crushed minerals present can have some ac-
matrix [87].
tivity in the cementitious matrix [87].
3.8. Heat of Hydration—Langavant Calorimeter
3.8. Heat
Theofheat
Hydration—Langavant Calorimeter
flow test can be considered a rapid screening test for supplementary cementi-
tiousThe
materials (SCMs).
heat flow test The
can principle of thisatest
be considered is toscreening
rapid monitor the
testvariation in temperature
for supplementary ce-
and heat flow of mortars inside sealed measuring cells. The results are plotted
mentitious materials (SCMs). The principle of this test is to monitor the variation in tem- in the graphs
depictedand
perature in Figure 12. Mortar
heat flow of mortarscomposition is reported
inside sealed measuring in Table
cells. 6The
(NFresults
EN 196-9) [88], and
are plotted in
the heat released can be deduced from the expression given in Equation
the graphs depicted in Figure 12. Mortar composition is reported in Table 6 (NF EN 196- (1). MK-based
mortars
9) arethe
[88], and designated by MMK80,
heat released and MLF80
can be deduced from is an
theLF-based
expression mortar.
given For the formula-
in Equation (1).
tions, one substitution rate is tested (10%) because it seems
MK-based mortars are designated by MMK80, and MLF80 is an LF-based mortar.to be the limit above which the
For the
formulations, one substitution rate is tested (10%) because it seems to be the limit above
which the compressive strength of MSTFC begins to decrease and becomes less than that
of RM for a greater replacement rate.
t
∫ α ∗ θ ∗ dt
 𝑡 = Time (sec).
Table 6. Mortar composition of RM, MRS, and MSTFC for the heat of hydration test (NF EN 196-9)
[50].

Materials 2022, 15, 7107 Constituent RM MRS MSTFC MMK80 MLF80 15 of 21

Cement CEM I 52.5 N (g) 360.0 331.8 329.8 328.7 329.2
SCMs (g) --- 28.2 30.2 31.3 30.8
Normalized sand (g) 1080.0 1080.0 1080.0 1080.0 1080.0
compressive strength of MSTFC begins to decrease and becomes less than that of RM for a
Water (g) replacement180.0
greater rate. 180.0 180.0 180.0 180.0

Figure 12. Relationship

Figurebetween the heat of
12. Relationship hydration
between the and
heattime for RM, MRS,
of hydration andfor
and time MSTFC mor- and MSTFC mortars.
RM, MRS,
tars.
Table 6. Mortar composition of RM, MRS, and MSTFC for the heat of hydration test (NF EN 196-9) [50].
RM reached a maximal temperature of 51.9 °C after 17.80 h, which corresponds to a
Constituent
generated heat of Q = 240.08 RM the heat
J/g. For MSTFC mortar, MRSreleased MSTFC MMK80
at the end of 15.90 MLF80
h of screening wasCement
Q = 285.63
CEMJ/g, and
I 52.5 MRS had
N (g) a lower value.
360.0 331.8 MMK80329.8 is the most active
328.7 329.2
SCMs (g) activity of MK
mortar due to the high pozzolanic — (Q = 324.5 28.2J/g). An increase
30.2 in the31.3
heat 30.8
Normalized
flow was noticed following thesand (g)
replacement 1080.0 of cement
ratios 1080.0by SCM. 1080.0 1080.0
This is mainly at- 1080.0
Water (g) 180.0 180.0 180.0 180.0 180.0
tributed to the filler effect (physical effect) but also partly to the early pozzolanic reaction
(chemical effect) of sediments, as discussed by Snellings et al. [26].
Rt
The cumulative heat patterns demonstrate that MRS C and 0MSTFC show higher heat
α ∗ θt ∗dt
than RM and appear to react faster. The finding Q is= thatθadditional
t+ thermic or chemical (1)
mc mc
activity should be generated by the activated sediment particles. It can also be related to
where:
the lime phase, which reacts with water following Equation (2), or the hydration of hem-
ihydrate (CaSO4·C = Total
0.5H heat capacity (J/K);
2O) in Equation (3) that produces additional heat output [89].
θt = Temperature difference between the reference cell and measuring cell (K);
CaO + H(g);
mc = Mass of cement 2 O → Ca(OH)2 + Heat (2)
α = Heat dissipation coefficient (J/(g*K);
t = ⟨Time 4 |0.5H2 O⟩ + 1.5H2 O → ⟨CaSO4 |2H2 O⟩ + Heat
CaSO(s). (3)
RM reached a maximal temperature of 51.9 ◦ C after 17.80 h, which corresponds to
a generated heat of Q = 240.08 J/g. For MSTFC mortar, the heat released at the end of
15.90 h of screening was Q = 285.63 J/g, and MRS had a lower value. MMK80 is the most
active mortar due to the high pozzolanic activity of MK (Q = 324.5 J/g). An increase in the
heat flow was noticed following the replacement ratios of cement by SCM. This is mainly
attributed to the filler effect (physical effect) but also partly to the early pozzolanic reaction
(chemical effect) of sediments, as discussed by Snellings et al. [26].
The cumulative heat patterns demonstrate that MRS and MSTFC show higher heat
than RM and appear to react faster. The finding is that additional thermic or chemical
activity should be generated by the activated sediment particles. It can also be related
Materials 2022, 15, 7107 16 of 21

to the lime phase, which reacts with water following Equation (2), or the hydration of
hemihydrate (CaSO4 ·0.5H2 O) in Equation (3) that produces additional heat output [89].

CaO + H2 O → Ca(OH)2 + Heat (2)

hCaSO4 |0.5H2 Oi +1.5H2 O → hCaSO 4 |2H2 Oi + Heat (3)

The cumulative heat patterns indicate that both MRS and MSTFC show greater heat re-
lease than RM and appear to lead accelerate chemical reactions. The result is that additional
thermic or chemical activity could have been generated by sediment particles, possibly
related to the lime phase and pozzolanic reactions. One possibility to lower this effect if it is
not desired could be to use cement with a low heat of hydration, such as Portland-limestone
cement (PLC). Skibsted and Snellings [41] demonstrated that two mechanisms limit SCM
reactions: water availability and space accessibility in the cementitious matrix. These
parameters should therefore have a real influence if a higher replacement ratio of cement to
SCM is considered. Snelson et al. [90] led a similar study using two pozzolanic materials:
metakaolin and fly ash. They showed that MK generates an enhancement of the overall
hydration and the heat release is higher due to the beginning of rapid pozzolanic reactions.
In cementitious materials, pozzolanic reactions are controlled by the supply of Ca2+ ions,
as discussed by Snelson [90]. This can explain the heat excess generated by the sediments
due to their high water requirements (typically ∼= 50%) and calcium content (∼ =15%). This
suggests that sediments change heat release [23,26] and can efficiently enhance hydration
reactions [25,26,30].

3.9. Initial Setting Time

The initial setting time test (VICAT) is the determination of the time it takes for the
standardized needle to sink into the mixture to a depth of 6 mm. The results and mortar
formulations are displayed in Table 7. RM is the mortar with the most rapid initial setting
time (285 min), and the mortar with the longest time is the MRS (321 min). The MSTFC
showed an initial setting time of 326 min.

Table 7. Mortar composition of RM, MRS, MSTDC, and MSTFC for the initial setting time VICAT test
(NF EN 196-3) [88].

Constituent RM MRS MSTFC

Cement CEM I 52.5 N (g) 500.0 425.0 425.0
Calcined sediment (g) 0 75.0 75.0
Water (g) 150.0 165.0 165.0
285 min 321 min 326 min
Setting time
(4 h:45 min) (5 h:21 min) (5 h:26 min)

Figure 13 shows the initial setting time test results. These patterns show that the initial
setting time increases with the presence of sediment in the mortar formulation. At the
beginning of the test, needle penetration was quite similar in the MRS and the MSTFC. We
then argued that the presence of clayey phases or calcite in the sediments could explain this
phenomenon by a contraction effect in the matrix. Hence, it can be concluded that there is
no improvement in the setting process when sediments are used.
The initial setting time test (VICAT) results highlighted the fact that the presence of
sediments leads to a delay in setting processes. This could be related to the presence of sul-
fates or contaminants (mineral or organic). Indeed, according to Arliguie and Grandet [72],
the presence of zinc (Zn) has the most detrimental impact. Its presence leads strongly to
lower compressive strength and decreases density. Zinc inhibits the hydration of C3 S and
C3 A with a more pronounced effect on C3 S. This phenomenon is due to the formation of an
amorphous impermeable film around anhydrous grains, called zinc hydroxide (Zn(OH)2 )
(Equation (4)).
Zn2+ + 2(OH)− → Zn(OH)2 (4)
Materials
Materials 2022,
2022, 15,
15, x7107
FOR PEER REVIEW 1817ofof22
21

Figure 13.
Figure Evolutionof
13. Evolution ofthe
the initial
initial setting
setting time
time for
for RM,
RM, MRS,
MRS, and
and MSTFC.
MSTFC.

However, 2+ and OH− ions seems likely to allow the destruction of

The initial the presence
setting of Ca
time test (VICAT) results highlighted the fact that the presence of
the seal by leads
sediments the formation
to a delayof aincalcium
setting hydroxyzincate
processes. Thislayer
couldand
be therefore
related toenables hydration
the presence of
reactions to continue (Equation (5)).
sulfates or contaminants (mineral or organic). Indeed, according to Arliguie and Grandet
[72], the presence of zinc (Zn) has the most detrimental impact. Its presence leads strongly
Zn(OH)24− + Ca2+ + 2H2 O → hCaZn (OH)4 | 2H2 Oi (5)
to lower compressive strength and decreases density. Zinc inhibits the hydration of C3S
and CSimilarly,
3A with a more pronounced effect on C3S. This phenomenon is due to the formation
the presence of nitrate (Ni) leads to a reduction in the hydration of cement
of an
by moreamorphous
than 50% impermeable film around
[73,74]. Hemihydrate anhydrous
identified in XRDgrains,
analysiscalled zinc hydroxide
(Equation (3)) leads
(Zn(OH) 2) (Equation (4)).
into the production of gypsum (CaSO , 2H O), which should have a retarder effect in a
4 2
cementitious matrix. Zn2+ + 2(OH)− → Zn(OH)2 (4)
The initial setting time delay could be related to the presence of mineral or organic
However, Likewise,
contaminants. the presence of Ca2+ and
the marine OHof− ions
nature seemsprobably
sediment likely toaccounts
allow the fordestruction of
this behavior.
the seal by the formation of a calcium hydroxyzincate layer and therefore
In fact, the presence of marine salt such NaCl, KCl, and sulphates could have caused a enables hydra-
tion
delayreactions to continue
in the setting process,(Equation (5)).
as demonstrated by Minocha et al. [73]. The presence of organic
matter may also influence the 2− hydration process. It was identified in a previous study to
Zn(OH) + Ca2+ + 2H2 O → ⟨CaZn(OH)4 | 2H2 O⟩ (5)
affect setting and hardening4due to the formation of a particular protective film around the
cement grains [91,92].
Similarly, the presence of nitrate (Ni) leads to a reduction in the hydration of cement
by more than 50% [73,74]. Hemihydrate identified in XRD analysis (Equation (3)) leads
4. Conclusions
into the production of gypsum (CaSO4, 2H2O), which should have a retarder effect in a
The effect
cementitious of heat treatment processes on sediment performances was investigated in
matrix.
this paper. The purpose
The initial was delay
setting time to determine
could beand compare
related thepresence
to the characteristics of flash-calcined
of mineral or organic
sediment and regular SCMs. Sediment-based mortars were formulated
contaminants. Likewise, the marine nature of sediment probably accounts for this behav- and tested after 7,
14, and 28 days. The main conclusions that can be drawn from this work
ior. In fact, the presence of marine salt such NaCl, KCl, and sulphates could have causedare the following:
a delayHeat
in treatment
the settingmodifies
process,sediment properties
as demonstrated bysuch as density
Minocha et al.(by removal
[73]. of organic
The presence of
matter),matter
organic densification,
may alsoand dehydroxylation.
influence However,
the hydration fineness
process. It wasisidentified
lowered due in atoprevious
a sinter-
ing/melting
study process.
to affect setting and hardening due to the formation of a particular protective film
XRD analysis
around the cement grains highlights the fact that after flash calcination, the clayey phases are
[91,92].
transformed mainly into illite. In addition, SEM analysis identified spherical particles made
upConclusions
4. of gases and aluminum silicates that could enhance the hydration process.
From a mechanical analysis, the presence of finely ground and flash-treated sediments
The effect of heat treatment processes on sediment performances was investigated in
improves mechanical resistance. The compressive strength of MSTFC mortars was 11.3%
this paper. The purpose was to determine and compare the characteristics of flash-cal-
higher than that of the RM (control) at 28 days for 5% cement substitution, whereas the
cined sediment and regular SCMs. Sediment-based mortars were formulated and tested
mechanical performances of MSTFC10 were equivalent to those of RM at 28 days.
after 7, 14, and 28 days. The main conclusions that can be drawn from this work are the
following:
Materials 2022, 15, 7107 18 of 21

The investigation conducted on the heat of hydration using the Langavant calorimetry
method (NF EN 196-9) demonstrates that the presence of sediment generally modifies
hydration kinetics and processes. It also shows that the presence of sediment generates
additional heat release.
A later study of the durability and environmental impact of sediment-based mortars
will be carried out in the near future.

Author Contributions: Investigation, M.A.; Methodology, M.A.; Project administration, N.-E.A.;

Resources, M.B.; Validation, M.B. and N.-E.A.; Writing—original draft, M.A. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: This study did not require ethical approval.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data used in this study are available from the corresponding author
on submission of a reasonable request.
Acknowledgments: This study is supported by “Region des Hauts de France” and all partners of the
ECOSED chair. The authors express their sincere thanks for their support.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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