Faciltation

Facilitation of Adult Larning
AEU 07210 / AEU 07211
Institute of Adult Education

Facilitation of Adult Learning
Copyright
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or any means,
in full or in part, except for short extracts in fair dealings, for research or private study,
critical scholarly review or discourse with an acknowledgement, without the written
permission of the Institute of Adult Education.
ISBN ……………
Institute of Adult Education

P. O. Box 20679,
Dar es Salaam,
Bibi Titi Mohamed Street,
Tanzania.
Fax: +255 22 2150836
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.iae.ac.tz
Acknowledgement
:
Prepared by
Dr Julius Chaligha
Contents
About this module 1

How this module is structured ....................................................................................... 1
Module overview 3
Welcome to this module ................................................................................................ 3
General Competence ..................................................................................................... 3
Study skills .................................................................................................................... 4
Need help? .................................................................................................................... 5
Module Assessment ....................................................................................................... 5
Getting around this MODULE 7

Margin icons ................................................................................................................. 7
Unit 1The Concepts Related to Adult Learning 8

1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 8
1.2 Learning Outcomes.................................................................................................. 8
1.3 Concepts Related to Adult Learning ........................................................................ 8
1.4 Characteristics of adult learner ............................................................................... 10
1.5 The importance of adult learning ........................................................................... 12
1.6 Assumption about adult learners ............................................................................ 13
1.7 Adult learning theories........................................................................................... 14
1.7.1 Behaviorism ....................................................................................................... 14
1.7.2 Humanism .......................................................................................................... 14
1.7.3Andragogy ........................................................................................................... 15
1.7.4 Self-Directed Learning (SDL) ............................................................................. 15
1.7.5 Transformative Learning..................................................................................... 16
1.8 Unit Reflection ...................................................................................................... 18
1.9 Unit Assignment .................................................................................................... 18
Unit 2 Appropriate Techniques to Facilitate Adult Learning 19

2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 19
2.2 Learning Outcomes................................................................................................ 19
2.3 Adult Learning Concepts ....................................................................................... 19
2.4 Techniques used to facilitate adult learning ............................................................ 21
2.5 The strenth and weakness of identified facilitation techniques................................ 24
2.5.1 Lecture ............................................................................................................... 24
2.5.2 Demonstration .................................................................................................... 25
2.5.3 Team teaching .................................................................................................... 27
2.5.4 Discussion .......................................................................................................... 28
2.5.5 Debate ................................................................................................................ 29
2.5.6 Question and Answer .......................................................................................... 30
ii Contents
2.5.7 Video .................................................................................................................. 31

2.5.8 Seminar .............................................................................................................. 33
2.5.9 Workshop ........................................................................................................... 34
2.5.10 Gaming/Quiz .................................................................................................... 35
2.5.11 Brainstorming ................................................................................................... 36
2.5.12 Buzz groups ...................................................................................................... 36
2.5.13 Field trip ........................................................................................................... 37
2.5.14 Role Play .......................................................................................................... 38
2.5.15 Ice Breaker ....................................................................................................... 39
2.5.16 Simulation ........................................................................................................ 40
2.5.17 Case study ........................................................................................................ 41
2.5.18 Project /Assignment .......................................................................................... 42
2.5.19 Tutorials ........................................................................................................... 42
2.5.20 Open learning / Distance Learning .................................................................... 43
2.6 Adult learning facilitation – proceeding ................................................................. 44
2.7 Unit Reflection ...................................................................................................... 45
2.8 Unit Assignment .................................................................................................... 46
Unit 3 Preparation of Teaching and Learning Resources for Effective Facilitation 47

3.1Introduction ............................................................................................................ 47
3.3 Learning Resources ............................................................................................... 48
3.4 Importance of Preparing Teaching and Learning Resources ................................... 49
3.5 Selection of Teaching and Learning Resources ...................................................... 49
3.6 Improvise Relevant Teaching and Learning Resources .......................................... 50
3.7 Unit Reflection ...................................................................................................... 51
3.8 Unit Assignment .................................................................................................... 52
Unit 4 Use Assessment Methods to Assess teaching and Learning Process in Adult Education 53
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 53
4.3 Definition of Concepts ........................................................................................... 54
4.4 Importance of Assessing Learning ......................................................................... 54
4.5 Principle of Assessment ......................................................................................... 55
4.6 Interpretation of Adult Learners Performance ........................................................ 56
4.7 Types of Educational Assessment .......................................................................... 58
4.7.1 Formative Assessment ........................................................................................ 59
4.7.2 Summative assessment........................................................................................ 61
4.8 The Purpose of Educational Assessment ................................................................ 62
4.9 Unit Reflection ...................................................................................................... 63
4.10 Unit Assignment .................................................................................................. 64
References ................................................................................................................... 65
About this module

This module has been produced by the Institute of Adult Education.
All Modules produced by the Institute of Adult Education are
structured in the same way as outlined below.
How this module is structured
The Module Overview

The module overview gives you a general introduction to the
module. Information contained in the module overview will help
you determine:
 If the module is suitable for you,
 What you already know,
 What you can expect from the module, and
 How much time you will need to invest to complete the module.
The overview also provides guidance on:
 Study skills,
 Where to get help,
 Module assignments and assessments,
 Activity icons, and
 Units.
We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully

before starting your study.
The Module Content

The module is broken down into units. Each unit comprises:
 An introduction to the unit content,
 Unit outcomes,
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About this module
 Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities,
 A unit reflection,
 Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable, and
 Answers to Assignment and/or assessment, as applicable.
Resources
For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide
you with a list of additional resources at the end of this ; the
resources are books, articles or web sites.
Your Comments
After completing this module, we would appreciate it if you would
take a few moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of this
module. Your feedback can include comments on:
 Module content and structure,
 Module reading materials and resources,
 Module assignments,
 Module assessments, and
 Module support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)

Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance
this module.
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Module overview
Welcome to this module
Dear learner,
In our field of study and practice, a turn to Facilitation of Adult Learning is at the heart of
adult education. Facilitation of adult learning enables us to explore adult education and
adult learners, cement our understanding of adult education, adult learning process and its
assessment techniques and procedures.
In this module, unit one, engages you in understanding various concepts related to adult
learning. In unit two, you will learn appropriate techniques relevant in facilitation of adult
learning. Unit three, provides an opportunities to explore preparation of teaching and
learning resources. Importantly, unit four is for those who are engaged in facilitating adult
leassons. They need to understand relevant assessment methods used in assessing adult
learning. This module gives us a taouch of what might happen in the field of practice.
During your training, remain focused. Follow all the instruction provided. Make sure you
cover all units and its subsequent assignments. Do not hesiste to contact your facilitators
and coordinator in case you need assistance.
I hope you will enjoy studying this module
General Competence
After completing this module, you should be able to:
i. Explain concepts related to adult learning.
ii. Use appropriate techniques to facilitate adult learning.
iii. Prepare and use teaching and learning resources.
iv. Use variety of assessment methods to assess teaching and
learning resources.
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Module overview
Study skills
As an adult learner’ your approach to learning will be different

from the approach you used during your school days. Now you will
choose what you want to study, you will have professional and/or
personal motivation for doing so and you will most likely be fitting
your study activities around other professional or domestic
responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning
environment. As a consequence, you will need to consider
performance issues related to time management, goal setting, stress
management, etc. Perhaps you will also need to acquaint yourself
in areas such as essay planning, coping with exams and using the
web as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the
time you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which
you engage in that learning.
We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-
study—to familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a
number of excellent resources on the web. A few suggested links
are:
 http://www.how-to-study.com/
The “How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills
resources. You will find links to study preparation (a list of nine
essentials for a good study place), taking notes, strategies for
reading text books, using reference sources, test anxiety.
 http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student
Affairs. You will find links to time scheduling (including a
“where does time go?” link), a study skill checklist, basic
concentration techniques, control of the study environment, note
taking, how to read essays for analysis, memory skills
(“remembering”).
 http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time
management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing
skills, getting the most out of doing (“hands-on” learning),
memory building, tips for staying motivated, developing a
learning plan.
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The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At
the time of writing the web links were active. If you want to look
for more go to www.google.com and type “self-study basics”,
“self-study tips”, “self-study skills” or similar.
Need help?
Dear learner, in the course of your study, you may need help in
various issues such as the location and how to get support from
resource centres, clarification of various issues pertaining to your
study materials (modules) and so on. If this happens, you are
advised to ask for the help from your centre coordinator or
facilitator. You can also visit the website of the Institute of Adult
Education which is www.iae.ac.tz. And, you can call no +255 22
2150838 and ask for help.
Module Assessment
After each unit, you will be required to attempt one unit

assignment. These are not meant for submission rather for
reflection on what you have learned in the whole module. You will
also be given tests and assignments for submission as you will be
guided by your module facilitator. You will also sit for mock
examinations to accomplish your continuous assessment
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Getting around this
Margin icons
While working through this you will notice the frequent use of
margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of
text, a new task or change in activity. They have been included to
help you to find your way around this .
A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize
yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.
Activity Assessment Unit Case Study

assignment
Discussion Group Help Note it!

activity
Outcomes Reading Reflection Study skills
Reflection Terminology Time Tip
Computer-
Based
Learning Audio Video Feedback
Basic Answers to
Objectives
Competence Assessments
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Unit 1
Unit 1
Concepts Related to Adult Learning
1.1 Introduction
Dear learner,
Unit one presents the concepts related to adult learning. It outlines concept such as adult,
learning, leteracy, illiteracy and neo literacy. It also provides an opportunity to explain
characteristics of adult learners and the importance of adult learning. This unit provides an
indication of sparkling fact that education is for life.
1.2 Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
i. Define concepts such as adult, learning, literacy, illiteracy
neo literacy and andragogy.
ii. Explain characteristics of adult learner
iii. Explain the importance of adult learning.
1.3 Concepts Related to Adult Learning
The following concepts are discusses in unit one.

i. Adult: The term ‘adult’ is difined differently in diffent perpectives. An adult is a
person who is grown up completely. It is someone who is legally considered as an adult
when he or she is 18 years and above. In different cultures, becoming an adult, signify a
gradual process of growth from childhood to fully matured person. It is based on
reaching a legally specified age without requiring a demonstration of pysical maturity or
preparation for adulthood, for example 18 years in Tanzania. It involves passing
through a complex process of initiation into adulthood. The best example is passing
through Jando and Unyago initiation ceremony.
ii. Learning: Learning is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge,

behaviours, skills, values, attitudes, and preferences. The ability to learn is possessed by
humans, animals, and some machines; there is also evidence for some kind of learning
in certain plants. It is defined as an active process of engaging and manipulating objects,
experiences, and conversations in order to build mental models of the world (Dewey,
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1938; Piaget, 1964; Vygotsky, 1986). In the process of learning, human being tends to
use his senses to process the information around us and improves our brain function.
iii. Learning goal - is the core of a lesson and provides the reason for teaching and
observing it. It involves selecting a subject, concept, theme, or topic in the course they
want to study.
iv. Iliteracy – the inability to read and write. It is the state of not knowing how to read or
write. It is viewed as the state of not having knowledge about a particular subject. For
an individual to be considered as illiterate, it means he/she cannot read and write and
cannot join the workforce or may work as unskilled labour.
v. Neo literacy: A neo-literate is an adult or an adolescent who did not or could not make
use of the available educational opportunities on time, and who at a later stage acquired
the skills of literacy through formal or non-formal approaches.
vi. Post-literacy or post-literacy education is a concept used in continuing education and

adult education programs aimed at recently literate or "neo-literate" adults and
communities, largely in the developing world.
vii. Post-literacy programmes are programmes, which aim to maintain and enhance basic
literacy, numeracy and problem-solving skills, giving individuals sufficient general
basic work skills enabling them to function effectively in their societies.
viii. Pedagogy – Pedagogy is a term that refers to the method of how teachers teach in
theory and in practice. It is the outcome of the educators teaching beliefs and concerns
the interplay between culture and different ways to learn. It focuses on helping student
to build on prior learning and existence of classrom relationship. Pedagogy allow
student to learn more effectively and enable them to develop high-order thinking skills.
Four features of pedagogy icludes social (education as supporting social development).
Another feature is critical (deconstructing normative perspectives). The third feature is
culturally responsive (encouraging the sharing of diverse backgrounds and
experiences). The fourth feature is Socratic (developing intellectual and social skills to
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live in a democratic society.
ix. Andragogy- The term adndragogy is defined as the art and science of helping adults
learn in which the teacher facilitates the learning process. Knowles developed
Andragogy in 1970s. According to Knowles, andragogy is a prescription recipes for
teachers’ behaviour in the process of education and learning (Merriam and Bierema,
2014). It helps adult educators to develop their professional identity separate from
children education and establishes knowledge base unique to adult learners.
1.4 Characteristics of adult learner

Adult learners possess uniques characteristics such as maturity, self-confidence, autonomy, and
solid decision marking. They are genarally more practical oriented. They possess multiple
tasks, purposeful, self-directed, experienced, and less open-minded and open to change. It is
important to note here that, each learner has exceptional learning needs. Therefore, it is vitally
important for the facilitator to know their leaners well (Kapur, 2015). It is also important as a
facilitator of adult learning to know that, adult learners have burden in the form of
commitments and responsibilities emanating from their preofessional, personal, and social life.
Their advancing age can result into phsical limitations. These characteristcs motivate them and
influence their ability to learn. Therefore, as facilitators for adult learning, your success
depends on your ability to understand the needs and characteristics of adult learner. Your
practice is enhanced by knowing as as much as you can about your learners as well as how they
learn (Merram and Bierema, 2014).
Adult learners possess unique characteristics, which influence their learning process. These
traits include:
i Self-direction – adult learners are individuals who know what they want to do, how
they are going to do it, why and when they are going to do it. They have control over
their learning process. These learners are responsible for their success or failure at their
learning process. They have autonomy over their own activities. They prefer to control
themselves and give direction on what they want to achieve.
ii Practical and result oriented – evidence suggests that, adult learners are practical
oriented (Merram and Bierema 2014). They prefer to learn and gain knowledge that
will help to improve their professional skills, facilitate their work and eventually boost
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their confidence. This is an indicator of the type and quality of the training required. It
also suggests that, the program designer have to develop courses, which is useful and
meet the learner needs.
iii Less open-minded and therefore more resistant to change – adult learners are
mature person with vast experience in diverse field. They like to maintain what they
know. That is what is known as ‘Maintenance of status quo’. They are rigid and do not
like changes, which is an enemy of of learning (Merram and Bierema 2014). This
tendency suggests that, instructional designers have to be vigilant when desinging a
new program. They must be ready to provide justification for the changes they are
introducing. They have to explain why it is important to introduce new ideas and
changes in the program as well as explaining its relevance to the beneficiary.
iv Slower learning, yet more intergrative knowledge – evidence suggests that, as
individual grows old, their learning ability is affected. As a result, adult tend to learn
slowly with age. Yet, their depth of learning may increase over time, depending on the
skills required at the personal level.
v The use of personal experience as a resource – adult learner has a tendency to use or
link their personal experiences to anthing new. They use this experience to authenticate
new concepts based on their propir learning experience. It is therefore important to
form adult learning class with a composition of adults with similar or closely related
experience. This will encourage discussions, sharing experience and eventually create a
learning community consisting people who can deeply interact.
vi Multi-level responsibilities – adult learners have diverse responsibilities. They have to
cope with family, friends, work and the need for personal quality time.As a result, their
learning process is affected. Yet, it is important for them to make learning a priority.
Arguably, if adult learner personal experience is ruinned, the learning outcome might
also be limited or compromised. Therefore, the instructional designer needs to create
flexble programs, which accommodate their bussy schedules and personal obligations.
vii High expectations – adult leaners have high expectations. They expect to be trained.
They also want to learn things, which are relevant to their work, or vocation. They
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want to have immediate results, and not to waste their time or money. Therefore, it is
important to prepare a training program that meet their expectation and meet their
personal needs, while addressing all the learning challenges.
1.5 The importance of adult learning
Education has no age or end. Therefore, people are never too young or too old to be educated.
They need to receive high quality education and training. The most important reasons for adult
learning include:
i To buid a solid solid career – adult education enable different trainee to improve
their career. It enables them to receive relevant training, which can help them to meet
the demands of the labour market. Adult learner needs to improve their skills. These
skills enable them to perform their job properly while focusing on production of
quality services, produce better results and increase their employability.
ii To help people keep up with changes – adult learning enbales learners to cope with
imrovement in science and technology that occurs worldwide. It enables them to cope
with innovations, which simplify their work. It is vitally important to note that, if they
fail to train themselves, they are likely going to fall behind. It is also important to note
that, if you are planning to be part of the labour market within the next decade, you
have to make sure that you are uptodate with innovations taking place in science and
technology.
iii Adult education and retraining – enables learners to build a solid career. If you want
to build a solid career, you are obliged to re-train yourself in your field of practce. Due
to innovation in science and technology, some jobs have become obsolete. Therefore,
those who are doing these jobs are obliged to focus on other jobs. The best solution in
difficulty is to retrain, improve their skills to take them to the next level. In this
circumstance, training and retraining (education) is very important.
iv Keeping your mind active – adult learning is vital in keeping the mind active.
Learning new topic and gaining new knowledge helps to keep your mind sharp. It
helps the learner to avoid loosing his/her sharpness.
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v To become more creative – learning help the learner to gain new knowledge and
skills. It provides opportunity for the learner to think outside the box and become a
cretive person.
Learning enables aquisition of new hobbies, skills, personal development interests, which lead
to increased confidence, improved mental health, and happrier employees in the workforece. It
helps to create new opportunities in diverse field of pracitce. Irrespective of these advantatges,
adult learning is prone to barriers such as time and finance. Adult learners have many
responsibilities including house payments, bills, and supporting fammilies. Therefore, it is the
responsibility of the learner to choose wisely the training, which is needed in fulfilling his/her
interest.
1.6 Assumption about adult learners
Merriam and Bierema, (2014) in their analysis on adult learning, they outlined Knowles basic
assumptions on andragogy, which has implication on the program design and intructions. These
assumptions include:
(a) As a person matures, his or her self-concept moves from that of a dependent personality
toward one of a self-directing human being.
(b) An adult accumulates a growing reservoir of experience, which is rich resource for
learning.
(c) The readness of an adult to learn is closely related to the developmental tasks of his or
her social role.
(d) There is a change in time perspective as people mature – from future application of
knowledge to immediacy of application. Thus, an adult is more problem centred than
subject centred in learning (Knowles, 1980 (pp 44-45).
(e) Adult are mostly driven by internal motivation, rather than external motivativators
(Knowles & Associates, 1984).
(f) Adult need to know the reason for learning something (Knowles, 1984) (Merriam and
Bierema, 2014, p. 47).
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1.7 Adult learning theories
Discourse on adult learning theories does not specify the best theory for adult learning. It
provides explanation on how best adult learning takes place and be translated into practice.
Discourse on adult learning theory fails to specify the actual number of learning theory. As a
result, each scholar has his/her own way of defining and enlisting the number of learning
theory. For the success of this unit, our discussion focuses on two orientations (theory)
including behaviourist and humanist.
1.7.1 Behaviorism
Behaviorism – learning is a change in behaviour – behaviourist such as Ivan Pavlov (condition

reflex), Frank Skinner (change on the observable behaviour), Edward L. Thorndike,
(inteligence testing, transfer of learning) (Merriam and Bierema, 2014). Proponents of learning
theory claims that, behaviours are learned from the environment and says that inherent factors
have very little influence on behaviour.
Critics of this theory claim that, ‘the current monolithic understanding of behaviourism is
inaccurate and unjustly applied to Skinner’s philosophy (Merriam and Bierema, 2014 pp. 28). It
is one dimentional approach focusing on understanding observable human behaviour while
ignoring free will and internal influence (unseen aspect) such as moods, thought, and feeling.
Proponets of Behaviourism ignore other type of learning which takes place without the use of
reinforcement and punishment. Finally, individual behaviour can change when new information
is introduced, irrespective of the fact that previous information was learned through
reinforcement.
1.7.2 Humanism
Humanism – learning is about the development of the person. Humanism stresses the
importance of human values and dignity. It proposes that people can resolve problems using
science and reason. Rather than looking to religious traditions, humanism instead focuses on
helping people live well, achieve personal growth, and make the world a better place. This
theory is based on the assumption that, “human beings have the potential for growth and
development and that people are free to make choices and determine their behaviour; ... the
spotlight in this orientation is on the whole person including body, mind, and spirit and
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potential of humans for growth and development” (Merriam and Bierema, 2014 pp. 29).
Proponents of this approach includes Manslow (1970) ‘self-actualization’ and Rogers (1983)
‘to become a fully fuctioning person’. According to Merriam and Bierema, (2014), humanistic
learning theories provide a profound effect on adult learning theory. Basing on this analysis,
three distictive adult learning theorires (or models) – andragogy, self-directed learning, and
transformative learning is identified.
1.7.3Andragogy
Andragogy combines many of the insights from the above theories. This approach starts by
recognizing the differences between adults and children and designs learning experiences from
there. For example, learning experiences are created with the assumptions that adults come to
the table with their own set of life experiences and motivations (see 1.3.4 assumption about adult
learners). They are internally motivated and can direct their own learning. They tend to learn
better by doing, and will want to apply their learning to concrete situations sooner rather than
later. They like to participate in making decision on what they want to learn and how to learn it.
1.7.4 Self-Directed Learning (SDL)
Adult have capacity to direct their learning focusing on self-development. This approach is
based on the fact that, ‘the learner takes control of his or her own learning; the learner decide
what and how to learn’ (Merriam and Bierema, 2014 p. 62). According to Knowles, the
process of SDL “ in which individual takes the initiative, with or without the help of others, in
diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material
resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies and
evaluating those learning outcomes” (Knowles1975, p.18; Merriam and Bierema, 2014 p. 63).
According to Knowles, the process of planing SDL involves a contract for learners and
instractors, which evolves six steps. These steps includes
i. Climate setting, that is creating an atmosphere of mutual respect and support;
ii. Diagnosing leaning needs;
iii. Formulating learning goals;
iv. Identifying human and material resources for learning;
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v. Choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies; and

vi. Evaluation learning outcome (Merriam and Bierema, 2014 p. 63).
SDL is useful to the learner beacause it ebales learning to take place in an area where the
learner feels comfortable. It covers all contextual issues such as personal, professional,
organisational, educational and online environment. It enables the leaner to improve in various
aspect of personal development. It is a prominent feature of Continuous Professional
Development (CPD) in many fields such as physical therapy, teaching, nursing, dental
education, record keeping etc.
Though SDL is perceived as the most relevant approach for for adult learning, it is not without
alarming problematic, which emanates from:
(i) The assumption that adult desire self-direction in their learning fails to take into
consideration developmental, technical, economic, and cultural aspect, because
each learner has his/her own way of considering joining learning.
(ii) Not all adult learners have adequate resources to enable them to engage in SDL.
(iii) Some cultures may restrict some adult leaners to engage in the learning process.
1.7.5 Transformative Learning
Transformative learning is an orientation, which holds that the way learners interpret and re-
interpret their sense experience is central to making meaning and hence learning. It involves
self-critical reflection. It is the idea that learners who are getting new information are also
evaluating their past ideas and understanding, and are shifting their very worldview as they
obtain new information and through critical reflection. In practice, it recommends starting with
learning experiences that appeal to your specific audience, and then moving on to activities that
challenge assumptions and explore other points of view.
Transformative learning has two aspects, first, instrumental learning, which deals with task
oriented problem solving and evaluation of couses and effect relationship. The second aspect is
communicative learning, with focal point on how learner communicates their personal feeling,
needs and desires. It is all about the student ability to cope with logical and emotional
understanding of their challenges.
Adult learners as they get new information and insight when using transformative learning are
expected to follow specific phases, which include:
(i) Disorienting dilemma – it is all about thinking critically about what they already
know about a topic, was it relevant, did consider it as important or not, how did
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they value it. Critical evaluation on what the student knows may couse dilemma or
challenge the learner understanding.
(ii) Self-examination – it is all about thinking on the relevance of the experience the
learner has and disorienting from it. It may not be the only perspective the student
has.
(iii) Critical assessment assumptions – it is the student focus on the outcome of self-
evaluation. They have to be open to new information and thought. Therefore, the
students are expected to have unbiased eyes at their own past.
(iv) Planning a course of action – after the student understands the relevance of their
experience and beliefs, idetifying what was wrong, and can be used for the plan for
action. They need to develop new plan of action or perspectives and talking to new
people.
(v) Acquisition of knowledge or skills to carry out new plan – at this level, the students
are expected to accomplish their plan and get further in their transformational
learning. They are open to new knowledge and enhance their learning. This is
where the real learning is happening.
(vi) Exploring and trying new roles – it is the time to act. Exploring and trying to
understand changes, is key to success.
(vii) Building self-efficacy in new roles and relationships – it is all about building
confidence inn our belief and understanding and continues to practice and move
foward.
The facilitators are expected to abide with ethical issues involved in transformative learning.
They have to respect their learner’s irrespecive of their ability in understanding and analysing
various issues. The facilitator are the main change agents (Merriam and Bierema, 2014).
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1.8 Unit Reflection
After the completion of this unit reflect on the following:

1. Vital concepts related to adult education such as adult,
learning, learning goals, literacy, neo literacy, post literacy,
pedagogy, and andragogy;
2. Identify major characteristics of adult learner;
3. The significance of adult learning;
4. Vital assumptions of adult learning;
5. The essence of knowledge on adult learning theory
1.9 Unit Assignment
Do the following questions; remember to put your work in your

portfolio:
1. In your own words, explain the difference between andragogy
and pedagogy.
2. In your experience as adult learner, what motivated you to
continue with further education?
3. By using your experience as an adult learner, explain the
major characteristics of adult learner.
4. In your own words, describe the significance of adult learning.
5. Identify adult learning theory of your choice. Describe the
basic principle of the theory identified. Explain how the
principle can be emplyed in the Tanzania context.
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Unit 2
Techniques to Facilitate Adult Learning
2.1 Introduction
Dear learner,
Welcome to unit two. In this unit, you will learn various techniques, used in facilitating adult
lesson. Please, note that, the more you read and committ yourself on learning a particula topic,
the more you will know more about the essence of the topic. Therefore, it is your time to take a
centre stage. Take your time to think about facilitation and its subsequent techiniques. Find out
why it is suitable for for specific context (large or small) group of learners. Make sure you
remain focused on the learning process. Do not hesitate to consult your facilitator wherever you
face any difficulty. Enjoy your leasson.
Dear learner, upon completion of this unit you should be able to:-
 Define the term ‘facilitator, facilitation and facilitation skills’;
 Identify techniques used in facilitating adult learning;
 Describe the strength and weakness of the identified facilitation
techniques;
 Conduct adult learning session using appripriate techniques.
2.3 Adult Learning Concepts

A facilitator is a person who helps a group of people to work together better, understand their
common objectives, and plan how to achieve these objectives, during meetings or discussions.
In doing so, the facilitator remains "neutral", meaning they do not take a particular position in
the discussion.
Facilitation is about bringing diverse groups of people together and making it easy for them to
work together to come up with a solution to a problem. The term facilitate is derived from the
Latin word “facilis”, which means “to render less difficult” or “to make easy.”
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Facilitation is a set of skills to be used in working with a group, enabling and supporting them
to achieve their objectives in a way that involves and respects all contributions, builds
ownership and releases the potential of the group and its members. It is a method of reaching
adult learners in an effective manner which simplfy the learning process and makes it more
productive and enjoyable. It helps differentiate between process and content.
Facilitation skills are the abilities you use to provide opportunities and resources to a group of
people that enable them to make progress and succeed. Some examples include being prepared,
setting guidelines, being flexible, active listening and managing time.
The purpose of facilitation is to help a group of adult learner improve how they work
together. To help them identify and solve problems. To help the learner to make decisions. To
help adult learner understand how they can handle conflict during the learning session. The role
of the facilitator is to guide the group to work together more efficiently by creating synergy,
generating new ideas, and arriving at consensus and agreement.
Effective facilitation is the act of taking people through a group process with clearly defined
outcomes. It also means encouraging participation and a group commitment to meaningful
results. Therefore, to become an effective facilitator, you are expected to be able to:
(i) Become content neutral ( do not take sides during the discussion);
(ii) Active listener- makes sure you listen the discussion careful;
(iii) Ask questions;
(iv) Probe what is going on by questioning;
(v) Paraphrasing process advocate;
(vi) Observe and monitor goup behaviour, roles, and process;
(vii) Balancing the group dynamis;
(viii) Practising feedback to individuals and groups;
(ix) Formulate achievable desired outcomes and design effective meeting processes
(Braakman, 2013)
Facilitation is a process, which requires the facilitators to prepare themselves before engaging
in the process of facilitation. It is an art, which requires adequate preparation. Therefore, to
become a good facilitator, you need to understand the basic premises of facilitation. These
premises require the facilitator to:
i Leads discussion but do not dominate.
ii Knowledgeable enough about a topic to be able to provide guiding questions.
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iii Do not provide answers, but guide the group to find the answer themselves.
iv Promotes the concept of “safe space”. Remind your learner that, opinions, on more
“sensitive” topics could vary. Therefore, it is important to remember that opinions are
not “right” or “wrong”. The facilitator may find that she/he needs to assist group
participants in determining their opinions. With this in mind, probing questions become
more important.
v Prepare in advance some “probing questions”, to awaken the participants. These
questions are useful especially when the participants are less than vocal. Asking those
questions may get their thoughts going more around a topic. Therefore, coming into the
facilitation session with these questions in your mind or on paper can be helpful in
making sure that discussion happens.
2.4 Techniques used to facilitate adult learning

Dear learner, before you proceed with discussion on the techiniques used to facilitate adult
learning, let us establish the reasons for selection and using specific facilitation technique. To
be able to understand the reasons for using specific facilitation techniques, you have to develop
a habit of asking and answering the question, “Why this facilitation strategy?” Note that, it is
your responsibility as a facilitator to choose appropriate facilitation techniques. You have to
choose facilitation technique, which you feel that you are familiar with and more confortable
when using it. Yet, comfotability with or familiarity with a certain facilitation techiniques is not
the basic criteria for selecting facilitation technique.
The choice of facilitation staregy depends much on your interest as a facilitator. It depends
much on the style and interest of the facilitator. However, the overall selection of specific
facilitation techniques depends on specific reasons, including,
i The objectives that you want your learners to achieve;

ii The number of learners you have to teach;
iii The needs and characteristics of learners;
iv The ability of learners;
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v The motivation of learners (Reece& Walker, 2001).
It is vitally important to understand that, objectives are at the heart of facilitation, and all other
aspects flow from them. Therefore, when you choose your facilitation strategy, make sure that
you remain focused on the objectives you want to achieve. For example, when you want your
learner to learn a motor skill, demontration and individual practice is appropriate. When your
objective is to ensure that, your learner gain knowledge and understanding, a lecture, and
question and answer are appropriate, and to develop student attitudes towards specific issues,
you are advised to use discussion (Reece& Walker, 2001).
The second approach on the selection of teaching strategies depends on the number of learners
you have popularly known as the group size. Since the group size is at one extreme, it may
consist of only one student. In this circumstance, the facilitator may use methods such as
projects, assignments, tutorial, and individual prescribed instruction such as open learning.
When you have small groups of adult learner of between 5 and 20, group discussion is
appropriate. In this case, actual classrom facilitation, which consist a mixture of methods, is
used. The facilitator has a role to play in the selection of relevant facilitation techiniques. The
choice of the techniques may vary significantly, from one facilitor to another. The facilitator
may use a short lecturer, followed by question and answer, small group discussion, and
individual work. When you have a group greater than 20 learners (large group), you are
advised to use strategies such as lecture and demonstration (Reece & Walker, 2001).
The third approach on the selection of teaching strategies depends much on the needs and
characteristics of learners. It is important to note that the manner in which our learner learn
varies considerably. Other learns better on their own and others learns better during the
discussion, while others hate discussion session. This is an avoidable fact. Therefore, you are
advised to provide a variety of learning activities to your learner. You may provide a variety of
learning activities such as individual assignment and group work. You may also use facilitation
techniques, which engages the learnes. The best technique to use when selecting facilitation
techniques, which are relevent to your learner, is to ask them, which technique when used helps
to fullfeel their learning needs. They can choose any of the following Lectures, Group work,
Simulation, Discussion, Buzz group, Case study, Assignment etc.
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The fourth approch on the selection of the facilitation strategies depends on the ability of
learners. The facilitators are adivised to consider the attention span of the learners and their
ability to cope with the selected facilitation strategy. The facilitator should be able manage the
group properly, by using appropriate facilitation strategy. He/she is obliged to be flexible
enough and be able to use any relevant facilitation techniques.
The fifth approach on the selection of facilitation strategies depends on the motivation of
learners. “The manner in which the teacher approaches the teaching strategy will have an effect
upon motivation: an enthusiastic approach is more likely to motivate than a dull approach”
(Reece& Walker, p.141, 2001). Therefore, as a facilitator, you should encourage a positive
attitude to learning and avoid showing to your learner that you dislike the approach, content or
topic. You have to create an encouraging environment to your learner to learn.
The aspects to be considered when choosing teaching strategies are shown below.
Aspect related to choice Point to Note

1. Objectives to be achieved Both the domain and level in the domain need to be
considered.
2. The size of the group Different methods are more appropriate to different
sizes of the class.
3. The needs and characteristics Student needs and the characteristics of students need
of students to be considered. This might involve negotiation.
4. The ability of the student Ability and inteligence need to be considered.
5. The motivation of the student. Appropriate strategies can motivate an individual to
learn.
Figure 1: Aspects of choosing facilitation strategies [Source: Reece& Walker, p.141, (2001)]
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2.5 The strenth and weakness of identified facilitation techniques

Dear learner, before we discuss the strength and weakness of facilitation technique, there is a
need to know each facilitation strategy, evaluate it and understand where to use it efectively.
Make sure that you are familiar with each technique and understand where it can best be used.
Note that the choice of any strategy shoud base on the number of leaners you have in an adult
learning class or session as summarised in figure 2.
Facilitatio strategies related to group size

Group size Appropriate strategy
1. Lecture
2. Demontration
Large group 3. Team teaching
4. Discussion
learners = or > 20 5. Debate
6. Question and answer
7. Video
Small group 8. Seminar
Learners = 5 – 20 9. Laboratory/workshop
10. Gaming/quiz
11. Brainstorming
12. Buzz groups
13. Field trip
14. Role play
15. Ice breaker
16. Simulation
17. Case study
Individual 17. Project/ assignment
18. Tutorials
Learners = or < 5
19. Open Learning / Distance Learning
Figure 2: Source: Adopted and mofied from Reece& Walker, (2001, p.144)
2.5.1 Lecture
A lecture involves the facilitator talking to the learner about the subject. It is one-way
communication, with a little or minimal chance of any two-way communication. The main
componets of a lecture is introduction to the content, the body (the detail is then presented) and
conclusion (summary of the lecture) [introduction, development, and conclusion]. Lecture can
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be used in the classroom, or workshop to pass information to the learner. It is used to pass
knowledge only.
During the preparation of a lecture, the facilitator can extract key points from the topic. He/she
can prepare visual aids such as overhead projector, handout, and chalkboard to supplement the
verbal material. It is the responsibility of the facilitator to consider how to introduce and
conclude the topic.
During the presentation, the facilitator should be loud enough for the room and avoid monotone
voice. He/she ought to emphasize key points, by repeating and using visual aid. He/she should
avoid words that learners will note understand (use simple language). The lecture is expected to
start with introduction and end with a summary and conclusion.
Lecture as a facilitation technique, has the following advanteges:
i It help to cover a large number of learners;

ii It help the facilitator to convey a large amount of material in short time;
iii The facilitator has complete control of of the proceedings.
The dissadvantare of lecture as facilitation techniques includes:
i. It does not provide any opportunity for the learner to question the facilitator; (it is one-
way communication with limited feedback);
ii. It does not provide a room for feedback regarding the effectiveness of the learning;
iii. It needs constructed large room for lecturing session;
iv. The facilitator have to be well trained and be communication expert;
v. Large group of learners can influence the perfomance of the facilitator (off putting);
vi. The learners are often passive;
vii. It provides little opportunify for the facilitator to use his/her teaching skills.
2.5.2 Demonstration
Demonstration is a facilitation technique, which is coupled with demonstrating practical skills.
It is used in the introduction of new skills. It enables the facilitator to demonstrate a certain
skills infront of the learners and after which the learners practice the skills. Therefore, to get the
best result, the facilitator must be well prepared. He/she must identfy key points. Learners must
25
be well informed and involved. Everyone must participate fully in the preparation and in the
actual practice.
Demonstration as a facilitation techniue is used in the practical situation especially when the
facilitator is introducing new skills to a group of learners. It helps to repair foutls within
individual learner. For example - giving an injection; wall papering; changing a car wheel.
According to Reece& Walker, (2001), during the preparation, the facilitator is expected to:
i. Identify key points;
ii. Relate theoretical undepinning to key points;
iii. Reharse to ensure all equipment is working and that you can use it;
iv. Ensure all students can see even small equipment and process;
v. Time your demonstration ( if it is more than 10 minutes, consider sub-dividing into a series of
demonstrations);
vi. Consider how to make student active (e.g. helping, completing, a handout, answering questions,
predicting the next step, noting results) (Reece& Walker, 2001. p. 149).
During the presentation, the facilitator is supposed to:

i. Have a clear introduction;
ii. Make sure you name the tools or equipment properly;
iii. Be aware of the learners entry behaviour;
iv. Emphasise key points and show links between thm;
v. Monitor safety aspects;
vi. Check learner understanding.
Demonstration as facilitation techniques has the following advantages:
i. It is highly motivating better than a verbal description when it is performed well;
ii. It can help to link theory and practice;
iii. The pace of demonstration can be varried;
iv. Students are actively engaged in doing things;
v. It can use expert when demonstrating via video;
vi. It is essy to emphasise on the key points and repeat;
vii. The learner can view three dimentional, sound and smells;
viii. It is easy for the learner to see sequence and build-up;
ix. It provides a room for the learner to ask questions.
The dissadvantage of using demonstration as a facilitation technique includes:
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i. If it is not well prepared and executed, it may lead to frustration among the learners;
ii. It can be too fast or too slow for the learners;
iii. It may be difficult to see;
iv. If the demonstration is too long, it may aggravate lose of cocentration;
v. Learners may be exposed to bad habit or techniques from their facilitator;
vi. It may be expensive interms of time for preparation, and material cost;
vii. The facilitator needs ample time for preparation and rehearse;
viii. Learners are passive.
2.5.3 Team teaching
Team teaching involves two or more facilitator working together in the planning,
presentation, assessment and evaluation of course. It is used where you have large groups of
learners. The facilitator can takes responsibility of facilitating part of the course, while the rest
is commissioned to a special expertise to facilitate. It is important to note here that, if team
teaching is coordinated, the outcome of the course may become outstanding.
Team teaching requires careful preparation in order to avoid duplication of theme and to
ensure continuity. Moreover, to ensure that your leaner gain appropriate knowledge and
skills, you may use tutorial and seminar as a support for team teaching.
Team teaching as a facilitation technique has the following advantages:
i. It help to reduce preparation time for each facilitator;
ii. It give the facilitator a chance to show his/her expertise and work to their strength;
iii. It helps to produce better results of the course;
iv. It help to enhance curriculum development;
The following are the dissadvantage of team teaching:
i. It may lead to communication breackdown;
ii. It requires skills for handling large number of learners because talking to large
numbers of student can be daunting.
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iii. It is expensive because it requires availability of large teaching room.
iv. In some cases, some student may consider it ‘disjoined’ because of the variation on the
language used and orientation of the facilitator.
v. There is a possibility of variation in the quality of teaching because of the diverse

quality of the facilitator.
2.5.4 Discussion
Discussion is a facilitation method that requires the learners to be actively involved in talking
to each other about a theme of mutual concern. The role of the facilitator is to manage the
situation, and ensure that learning takes place. This method is used to explore the learner’s
attitudes and help to change unhelpful or antisocial attitude.
The facilitator must plan the discussion carefully. He/she must establish the guideline and
ground rules guiding the discussion. It is the responsibility of the facilitator to select relevant
topic and ensure healthy discussion. The facilitator has to ensure that every one is aware of the
duration of the discussion. The facilitator is expected to provide the information and not the
answers, monitor the discussion, and ensure that all participants participate. The facilitator
needs to develop management skills and arrange the venue before the discussion session.
According to Reece & Walker, (2001) discussion as a facilitation technique has the following
advantages:
i. It can be used to reinforce the learning, soon after a lecture or a video show;
ii. It is very usefull in changing thinking and attitudes of the learners;
iii. It help to arouse the learners awareness and engagement;
iv. It help to make the learner active, creative and articulate;
v. It encourages deep learning.
The dissadvantage of using discussion as facilitation methods includes:
i. Both the learners and the facilitator needs to develop discussion skills;
ii. It is time consuming;
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iii. The facilitator may loose power to dominate the discussion;

iv. It needs backup materials in case the discussion is ineffective;
v. It is difficult to keep pace and stick to the points;
vi. It can be noisy and and risky;
vii. In some cases, the discussion may lead into informal chat.
2.5.5 Debate
Debate is a formal discussion on a particular topic. In a debate, opposing arguments are put
foward and it usually ends with a vote. It is similar to a discussion but it has more rules guiding
the proceedings. It can be used in the discussion on themes without right answer, where both
sides of the arguments would benefit participants. Debate is one of the facilitation methods that
can help to enhance formal communication skills in the presentation of an argument (Reece &
Walker, 2001). It is learner centred and useful in enhancing learning communication skills.
During the preparation of this method, the facilitator should nominate or overseeing the
election of a chair from the students. The chair is responsible for overseeing the debate
proceeding by making sure that all the rules are followed properly. The facilitator should select
a main speaker for the motion and against the motion and give them sufficient time to prepare.
The facilitator should also divide the learners into those who support the motion, those who are
against the motion and those who are uncommitted. The facilitator should give the participant
adequate time for research and preparation of arguments. The debate arrangements should
cover the following steps:
a) Proposer for;
b) Proposer against;
c) Seconder for (to give against (b));
d) Seconder against (to argue against (a))
e) Open debate
f) Vote;
Teacher summary of main points and assessment of commnunication skills (Reece& Walker,
2001.p. 156).
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Debate as a facilitation method has the following advantages:

i. It has a clear structure and an element of competition;
ii. It enhances participation for all learners;
iii. The learners can take the leading roles;
iv. It enhances learners presentation skills;
v. It enable student to buid and increase teamwork;
vi. It is very useful in dealing with controversial issues.
The dissadvantage of using debate as facilitation includes:

i. Some of the learners may find it difficult to understand, master and cope with rules
and procedures;
ii. It is time consuming for the learners due to the preparation requirements;
iii. It encourages few learners to do most of the work (dominate the debate).
2.5.6 Question and Answer

Question and answer is a facilitation method, which is in a way of presenting the material in the
form of question that must be answered, especially the teacher to the student. It may also be
from student to teacher. Question and answer is the delivery of lessons by asking questions and
students answer. In this method, the facilitator poses a series of questions to students in order to
promote thinking and understanding.
In the preparation process, the facilitator is obliged to prepare relevant the questions so that the
learners supply their knowledge. Avoid using questions that need yes and no answer. There is a
need to ask simple focused questions. Make sure every learner has question to answer. The
facilitator should ask the question and wait for the learner to respond. He/she should learn to
praise and encourage your learners to respond to the questions. Therefore, there is a need to set
guiding rules that will help to avoid chorus answers. The facilitator should praise correct
response, praise the correct part of any correct and explore the reasons for incorrect response
(Reece& Walker, 2001). Make sure that you develop a habit of accepting all learners’ response
to encourage future participation. Avoid any form of harsh language to your leatners.
Question and answer as a facilitation method has the following advantages:
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i. It encourage learners participation and it gives them an opportunity to feels that they are
contributing to learning;
ii. It helps to identfy any form of misconception at an early stage;
iii. It help to maintain cocentration among the learners;
iv. It help to stimulate learners and make them to remain focused;
v. It helps the facilitator to obtain the feedback of the quality of facilitation easly.
Question and answer as a facilitation technique has the following disadvantages:
i. The facilitator is required to respond to the question quickly to the students answer;
ii. It is time consuming beacuse it requires ample time to prepare questions;
iii. The facilitator is forced to use too many closed ended questions;
iv. In some cases, few bright students may particpate in answering the questions.
2.5.7 Video
Video is a facilitation method, which involves presentation of educational material for a topic,
which is to be learned. It helps to bring realism into the classroom or workshop. It is a key part
of flip teaching in which the initial work of communicating the essentials of the topic is done
by the video lesson.
During the preparation of video lesson, the facilitator previews video and identify the main
points. He/she select appropriate scenes if the entire program is too long. The facilitator is
required to select specific activity, which the learners are expected to do during or after
viewing. It is the responsibility of the facilitator to book necessary equipments such as video,
tape, and room. The facilitator is required to know how to operate the equipment. The learners
are required to be active and remain vigilant throughout the session.
During the presentation, the facilitator is expected to perform the following:
i. Introduce the video and learners activities;

ii. Alert the learners on the key points;
iii. Assess the learning after viewing the video;
iv. Pause the video for questions or replay any important points.
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Video as a facilitation method has the following advantages:

i. It helps to trigger or provoke thought;
ii. It is relatively cheap and very convinient;
iii. It can be used as an alternative to teacher talk;
iv. It brings world renounced professional into the classroom;
v. It is a permanent record that be reused;
vi. It helps the learner to visualise and see the real life situation.
Video as a facilitation technique has the following disadvantages:
i. If not used correctly it may disrupt the learning process;
ii. In some cases, video can be perceived as merely entertainment;
iii. In some cases, it may be bouring to some learners and it may induce sleep;
iv. Techinical problems may occur in electronic equipment;
v. It can be perceived as cheap option for facilitator;
vi. It may be biased and couse biasness to the learners;
As a facilitator, when you are dealing with a small group of learners you are advised to
consider the following:
i. Make sure your learner are aware of the objectives of the task and have record of them;
ii. Tell your learner about the purpose, procedure and limitations;
iii. Make sure you check their progress and surmarise the progress made;
iv. Make sure time managed properly;
v. Make sure every learner have equal chance for contribution and diplomatically
discourage dominat learner;
vi. Reward contributions;
vii. Minimize and resolve internal conflicts;
viii. Make sure you keep the group on track;
ix. Defuse all sort of emotional aspect that may arise in group;
x. Make sure evryone is engaged by ensuring that you delegate as many task to the grop as
possible;
xi. Provide all the basic materials such as pens, paper, projector, flip chart and guideline
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When you have a small group of learners, you are adviced to use any of the following –
Seminar; Laboratory/Workshop; Gaming/Quiz; Brainstorming; Buzz Group; Field Trip; Role
Play; Ice Breaker; Simulation and Case Study.
2.5.8 Seminar
Seminal is a facilitation mothod in which learner’s works in small group to discuss assigned
questions and issues under the guidence of the facilitators. In this method, the learner
researches a topic, presents the findings to the other students and leads the ensuing discussion
(Reece& Walker, 2001). This method is used with mature students to explore specified topics. It
enables the learner develop skills on how to find information, how to present the information to
their colleague and how to answer questions from their colleagues.
During the preparation for seminar, the learners should have adequate time to prepare
themselves. They should attend the lecture, review video, and consider relevant readings. The
facilitator should prepare and distrubute seminar questions in advance. The facilitator is obliged
to encourage the learner to share their findings. They can use projector and flip chart to present
their findings. It is the responsibility of the facilitator to monitor the proceedings and
discourage dominant individuals and unrelated discussions.
Seminar as a facilitation method has the following advantages:
i. It encourage student participation during the preparation, presentation and discussion;

ii. It is very useful in facilitating a specialised theme;
iii. It is usefull in linking theory and pracice;
iv. It is vital in building learners’ confidence;
v. It is helpful in determining the extent to which your laerners understand their
responsibility;
vi. It provides opportunity for peers and the facilitator to ask and respond to a question.
vii. This method enable learners to develop common skills such as the ability to find
information, the ability to present argument and ability to present logical argument.
Seminar as a facilitation method, have the following disadvantage:
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i. In some cases, some learners may not respect their peers;

ii. Some of the learners may be reluctant to participate in the seminar;
iii. It is time consuming;
iv. If the seminar leader is not accountable, the discussion may go astray;
v. Some learners may be relectunt to criticise their peers or irrelevant ideas presented by
their colleague;
vi. It is very difficult to assess seminar presentation and discussions.
2.5.9 Workshop
A workshop is an opportunity to develop practical skills in a simulated situation and link the
theory and practice. It is defined as a brief educational program for a relatively small group of
people that focuses especially on techniques and skills in a particular field (merriam-
webster.com). Worshop is very useful in the development of skills.
During the preparation for workshop, the facilitator has to make sure that all equipments are
available and ready, prepare assessment schedule related to key points, prepare worksheet to
indicate task schedule, and associated assessment points (Reece& Walker, 2001).
The presentation process according to Reece& Walker, (2001) involves:

i. Often start with a demonstration;
ii. Manage individuals working at their own pace (question, feed back and rectify faults);
iii. Overtly link theory with the practice aspects;
iv. Monitor safety aspects;
v. Allow time for a conclusion so that students can see/ critically analyse other work/progress
(Reece& Walker, 2001. p. 165)
The advantages of Workshop as a facilitation technique involves:
i. It is very useful for problem solving;
ii. It reinforce learning in a realistic and meaningful way;
iii. It provide opportunity for the learner to work at their own pcae;
iv. It is very good for learners participation;
v. It is useful for the learner to work as a team (teamwork spirit).
Workshop as a facilitation method has the following disadvantage:

i. In some cases this method can be seen as tedious or boring;
ii. It is very expensive it terms of purchasing equipments and rooms;
34
iii. It time consuming;

iv. It has implication for heath and safety of the learners and facilitator;
v. In some cases the facilitator may lose control of learning;
2.5.10 Gaming/Quiz
A quiz is a form of game or mind sport. In this sport, the players attempt to answer questions
correctly about a certain or variety of subjects. Quiz can be used as a brief assessment in
education and similar fields to measure growth in knowledge, abilities, or skills. They can also
be televised for entertainment purposes, often in a game show format
(wikipedia.org/wiki/Quiz).
Games are learning situation, which involves element of competition or cooperation amomg the
learner. As a facilitation method, it is used to stimulate and engage learners to interact with the
game or themselves. During the preparation, the facilitator has to make sure that he/she try out
and test the game prior to use with students. Make sure that, all your leaners are aware of the
rules and regulation. During the presentation, the facilitator has to introduce the game, monitor
its progess, assist ony when it is essential, summarize and consolidate the learning outcom.
Gaming/ quiz as a facilitation methods it has the following advantages:
i. It can be very fun;
ii. It is very useful in providing feedback for immediate use;
iii. It gives the facilitator ample time to observe the learners.
The dissadvantages of using gaming/ quiz as a facilitation method includes:
i. In some cases, some game may not wok proberly;
ii. It may be difficult to control;
iii. It demands immediate feedback, which may not be available;
iv. It is expensive to purchase or hire the games.
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2.5.11 Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a method of generating ideas and sharing knowledge to solve a particular
commercial or technical problem, in which participants are encouraged to think without
interruption. It is a problem solving technique used to generate a number of ideas (solution in a
short time. It is a group activity where each participant shares their ideas as soon as they come
to mind.
Brainstorming as a method of facilitation can be used when there is a real problem, which
needs solution. The learners are invited to generate possible solutions. This method is often
used in management courses or with problems that need immediate solution.
During the preparation process, the facilitator can pose a problem, and then encourage the
learner to shout the key words. These words are written down in flip chart, white board or black
board without criticism or censure. The facilitator guides the learner to make pattern or
category of words and discuss, in order to identify possible solution.
Brainstorming as a facilitation method has the following advantages:
i. It is encaorage learners participation;

ii. It is not expensive because it needs few resources;
iii. It is very useful in developing learners experience;
iv. It encourages teamwork;
v. The learners experience is widely utilised.
Brainstorming as a facilitation method has the following dissadvantages:
i. The learner needs to learn and obey rules;
ii. It requires careful preparation especially during the warm up session;
iii. It is demanding and it can be used for a short time;
iv. Some learners may opt not to participate.
2.5.12 Buzz groups

Buzz Groups is a facilitation method, which require large group of learners to be divided into
smaller groups of about 4 to 6 learners. These goups discusses the topic for a short time up to 5
minutes, simultaneously. It is a cooperative learning technique consisting in the formation of
small discussion groups with the objective of developing a specific task (idea generation,
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problem solving and so on) or facilitating that a group of people reach a consensus on their
ideas about a topic in a specific period of time.
During the preparation of buzz groups, the facilitator has to make sure that the group knows
what they have to discuss and for how long. Each group has to select their leader. He/she has to
put the mode of feedback clear, e.g. oral from leader leader, OHP Flip chart etc.
Buzz Groups as a facilitation technique have the following advantages:

i. It give the learners opportunity to express themselve;
ii. It givesfFeedback on the learning;
iii. It can be used in the formal lecture theatre.
iv. It give the facilitator a breack;
v. It is useful in developing teamwork;
vi. It helps in the problem solving.
Buzz Grouf as facilitation methods has the following dissadvantage:
i. In some cases, it may be difficult to nominate a group;
ii. It takes time to give feedback
2.5.13 Field trip

Field trips describe opportunities for incorporating outside experiences into a particular course.
This may take the form of field trips to relevant locations, or it may be more project-based
fieldwork with students regularly visiting or working at one site as part of a course project. In
this method, the learners are taken out of their normal learning situation to a real life situation.
During the preparation of field trip, the facilitator is expected to plan the learning interion,
which link theory into practice. He/she should consider the safety of the learners. Prepare
handout, activities and inform the learners about the trip. Adhere to heathy and safety
regulation as well as your organisational guidelines. During the trip, make sure your learners
have adequate supervision at all times. You are advised to use question and aswer.
Field trips as a facilitation method have the following advantages:
i. It exposes the learner to the real life situation;
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ii. It is motivational to the learners;

iii. It gives a clear link between learning and visit.
Field trips as a facilitation method have the following disadvantages:
i. It is very expesive;
ii. It is time consuming;
iii. It may lead to legal or safety problems;
iv. Supervision of learners on visit is demanding;
v. The facilitator has heavy responsibility.
2.5.14 Role Play

Role Play is a facilitation method that allows learners to act as part or a role in events before a
situation, during the situation and after the situation. Role Play is a classroom activity in which
learners take on role and act out an imagined or real situation. For example, student takes the
roles of character in a novel they are reading. Role Play is a facilitation technique that
complements the tradional lecture.
The preparation of role-play involves the following:
i. Prepare role cards for participants;
ii. The facilitator should plan the activities for students not in role (obervers);
iii. Inform all the participants their roles and responsibilities;
iv. Make sure the learning outcome relates to the immediate learning outcom.
During the presentation of the role play the facilitator has to introduce the role play and indicate
its function in the learning (why you are doing it). Monitor the play systematically and avoid
any form of failure. Analyse the role play ensure that every learner is aware of the intended
learning outcome.
Role Play as a facilitation method has the following advantages:

i. It provides opportunity for the learnes to participate in the lesson;
ii. It provides immediate feedback and brings learning to life;
iii. It helps to promote lifelong learning;
iv. It facilitate expression of attitudes and feelings (emotions can be felt);
v. It help to make abstract problem more concrete;
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vi. It enable the learners to experience a situation from the past or to prepare for a future
situation;
vii. It enables the learners to teach their peers about their feeling in their role rather than the
facilitator telling them.
Role Play as a facilitation method has the following disadvantages:
i. It is threatening and discouraging for learner who is shy.

ii. It is time consuming in the preparation process;
iii. It may be difficult to manage;
iv. There is a tendency fo some student to hate role play;
v. It needs careful preparations.
2.5.15 Ice Breaker

An icebreaker is a simple activity that enables facilitators to get to know their learners and
learners to get to know their facilitators and each other. Most of the activities are short, fun, and
require little or no organization. It is a facilitation technique used to get the learners to feel part
of the group and part of the learning process. It is used in the first meeting of the group.
During the preparation of Ice Breaker, the facilitator may prepare a brief questionnaire, which
asks - “What qualities do you bring to this group? What are you looking foward to? What are
your concerns? Display the results and asks the students to look at the responses of others in
the group” (Reece& Walker, 2001. p. 170).
Ice Breaker as a facilitation method has the following advantages:

i. It help the learner to know each other and feel that they are part of the group;
ii. It enable learners to build trust among themselves;
iii. It help to relieve tension among the learners;
iv. It enable learners to develp habit of working together as a team (team building);
v. It is fun and help to build learners confidence;
vi. It is effective method of building group identity.
Ice Breaker as afacilitation method has the following dissadvantages:
i. It consume a lot time during the discussion among the learners;
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ii. In some cases, it may not be perceived as being useful;

iii. Some learners may not participate effectively.
2.5.16 Simulation
Simulated teaching is the technique of learning and training, which develops the ability in an
individual regarding problem solving behaviour. It is the simulation of a real or possible
situation. It has been defined as a role playing strongly in which learner performs the role in an
artificially created environment.
Simulation is a controlled representation of reality. Simulation means role- playing or rehearsal

in which the process of facilitation is carried out artificially. It is used to bring about
modification in the behavior of the facilitator. It introduces facilitator to facilitate in non-
stressful conditions.
Simulated facilitation is used prior to the classroom teaching practice with the objective of
developing a specific skill of communication. It can be used for pre-service teachers to make
them effective. In simulated facilitation, one trainee facilitator acts as a facilitator and other
facilitator trainers act as learners. Thefacilitator in this situation facilitates considering the
learner as school learners.
During the preparation of simulation, the facilitator has to make sure that the simulation is
made as realistic as possible. He/she has to make sure that, all learners knows their role and
participate fully to avoid errors.
Simulation as a facilitation method, have the following advantages:
i. It is a useful technique where the real situation is dangerous, costly, difficult or time
consuming;
ii. It encourage effective paticipation among the learner;
iii. It is very useful in the introduction of the real thing;
iv. The facilitator can stop the proceedings at any time and inect concepts, and priciples or
new ideas;
Simulation as a facilitation method, have the following disadvantages:
i. It is time consuming especially in the preparations and rehearsal;
ii. It is difficult to supervise all learners;
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2.5.17 Case study

A case study is an examination of a real or simulated problem, which is structured so that learning can
take place or be reinforced. It is an instructional method (not a theory), that refers to assigned
scenarios based on situations in which students observe, analyze, record, implement, conclude,
summarize, or recommend. Case studies are created and used as a tool for analysis and
discussion.
During the preparation, the facilitator has to identify the situation, which is real and accurate.
He/she must provide surficient information concering the case under scrutiny and propose
appropriate course of action.
Case study as a facilitation method has the following advantages:
i. It uncovers values, perspectives and ideas of classmates resulting in learners examining

their own understandings, leading to deeper analysis of concepts, ideas and solutions;
ii. It assist learners development of analytical skills, establishing an understanding of

where and when to apply particular skills and strategies to solve specific issues, or
define certain outcomes;
iii. It help learners to become more capable of identifying issues or problems as they arise;
iv. It gives the learner ability to determine perspectives and importance of information then
effectively using and justifying actions taken toward any resolutions or discoveries.
v. It gives the learner to develop ability to think critically and analytically to identify areas
requiring attention or resolution, both in the classroom and in real world scenarios.
Case study as a facilitation method has the following dissadvantages:

i. They are subject to selection bias;
ii. They are inefficient for rare exposures;
iii. Information on exposure is subject to observation bias;
iv. It is time consuming especially in the preparatory process.
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2.5.18 Project /Assignment

The project method is a teacher-facilitated collaborative approach in which learners acquire and
apply knowledge and skills to define and solve realistic problems using a process of extended
inquiry. Projects are learner-centered, following standards, parameters, and milestones clearly
identified by the instructor. It is a technique, which can be usually used in teaching and learning
process. It is an instructional technique comprises the guided information, self-learning, writing
skills and report preparation among the learners. The learners are usually given an individual
topic for an in-depth analysis. In this method, the learner can work independently as a group or
individually, do research and report either in writing or verbally to a group.
Project /Assignment as a facilitation technique have the following advantages:
i. It help to promote independent learning;
ii. It is a highly motivating facilitation method;
iii. It help to enhace practical skills and key skill;
iv. It help learners to develop temwork habit;
v. It helps the learner to feel that they are in control of their learning process.
The disadvantage of using project/assignment as facilitation method includes:
i. It consume a lot of time for supervision;
ii. Some student may need close supervision;
iii. It requires a lot of resources and library;
iv. It can be expensive.
2.5.19 Tutorials
A tutorial is a teaching session given to one learner or a small group of learners by given by a
tutor. A tutorial in education is a method of transferring knowledge. It is used as a part of a
learning process. More interactive and specific than a book or a lecture, a tutorial seeks to teach
by example and supply the information to complete a certain task. It is essentially a strategy to
support and enhance the quality of learning.
Tutorial as facilitation method have the following advantages:
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i. It helps individual learner to pay attention;

ii. It enable the learner or small group of learner to the quality of learning;
iii. The facilitaor provides valuable support to the learner to progress;
iv. It enable the learner to improve communication skills;
v. It provides opportunity to discuss both confidential and individual aspects.
The disadvantage of tutorial as a facilitation method includes:
i. This method is expensive because of one-to- one relationship;
ii. It may discourage the learner because in some cases he/she might feel pressured;
iii. In some cases, it may be difficult to find a suitable room for one to one session.
2.5.20 Open learning / Distance Learning

It is type of education with which is given through different information and communication
technologies (www.igi-global.com/dictionary). This education gives an opportunity
to openness, and it supports learning at a distance. In this system of education, the facilitator
and learner meet infiquently. The learner may learn through videos, brodcast materials, audio
tapes, and written materials. OpenLearning/Distance learning is useful to learners who cannot
attend college due to work commitment, or because of distance to travel. It allows learners to
access numerous learning tools using minimum financial resources.
Open learning / Distance Learning has the following advantages:
i. Greater Flexibility - It enables learners who cannot attend a given location at a given
time. Therefore, learners can pursue and complete their desired courses from anywhere
with the use of computer and internet connection.
ii. Significant Cost Savings - Undertaking an online course or program also eliminates
the costs associated with commuting, renting an apartment and/or getting meal plans.
That means distance learning an economically viable option for both students and
parents.
iii. Convenient Learning - A disciplined and self-motivated student can learn at his or her
own pace. That means learners with different abilities can have the opportunity to
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understand the course in much detail.
iv. High enrolment – the college can enroll large number of learners and taught them
simultaneusly.
Open learning / Distance Learning has the following disadvantages:

i. Lack of Social Interaction - Distance learning only limits learners to classes and
learning materials that are based online. Though learners can interact through chat
rooms, discussion boards, emails and/or video conferencing software, the experience
cannot be compared to that of a traditional campus. As a result, feeling of isolation and
lack of group support may lead to dropout.
ii. High Chances of Distraction – learners who are enrolled on an online program might
find it hard to keep track of their course work and assignments. These learners do not
have constant reminders about pending assignments and/or deadlines. This method is
not good option for learners who keep procrastinating things or those who are not able
to stick to deadlines.
iii. Over dependence on complicated Technology - This overdependence on technology
is a major drawback to distance learning. In case of any software or hardware
malfunction, the class session will come to a standstill, something that can interrupt the
learning process. The complicated nature of the technology used in distance learning
only limits online education to students who are computer and tech expertise while
unintentionaly ignoring the illiterate.
iv. High cost – it can be expensive to design, produce programe, purchase equipment,
installation and training for the facilitator.
v. Learners’ motivation - It is difficult to maintain the motivation for the learners,
therefore, tutorial support is required.
2.6 Adult learning facilitation – proceeding
Facilitation is a process in which a trained and experienced facilitator plans, develops, and
conducts a structured and effective meeting with the learners or participants. The proceeding of
facilitation involves planning, which focuses on improving basic performance. It seeks to
resolve specific issues, or concerns any other subject that is important to the participants.
44
The process begins with an advance meeting between the facilitator and the learner and those
who sets the overall purpose of the session. The facilitator will identify specific, realistic
expectations as to what should come out of the session. During this session, the facilitator and
the learner will identify their team leader. The facilitator will work with the team leader to
develop the session's agenda and its implementation process. To get the agenda, the facilitator
will interview the participants individually or occasionally in groups. Having established the
agenda, the facilitator plan how the session will be carried out. These plans involve setting
clear purpose, and goals of the session; outline the ground rules, and set the agenda.
During the session, it is the responsibility of the facilitator to guides and motivates the learners
or participants to remain focused. He/she has to remain focused on the outlined goals. The
focus has to be on how best to achieve the intended goals.
2.7 Unit Reflection
I hope you have successfully learnt from this unit. Before proceeding
to the next unit, assess yourself by answering the following reflective
questions.
i. As facilitator of adult learning session, what can be done to make

learning session effective?
ii. Identify one facilitation technique and explain its strength and
weakness. Explain how you can exploit it and make a session
effective.
iii. Selection and using a facilitation strategy depends much on the
facilitator’s interest. Tell us your view on this statement.
iv. Successful adult learning session is cemented on the learners’
interest. Meditate careful about this statement.
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2.8 Unit Assignment

Attempt the following questions and put your work in your portfolio
i. Identify and discuss vital criterion used in the selection of

facilitation technique.
ii. ‘Adult learners expect to be respected’. Basing on this

statement, explain how you can conduct and make adult
learning session successful.
iii. (a) Identify facilitation techniques relevant for a small group of

learners.
(b) Choose one facilitation technique relevant for the small

group of learners and explain its advantages and disadvantages.
iv. It is contended that, ‘objectives are at the heart of facilitation,

and all other aspects flow from them’. Discuss.
v. Effective facilitation is the spirit of adult learning. Explain what

can be done to become an effective facilitator.
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Unit 3
Preparation of Teaching and Learning
Resources
3.1Introduction
Dear learner,
Welcome to unit three. In the previous unit, you have spent some time learning appropriate
techniques used to facilitate adult learning. In unit three, you have to focus your attention on
the preparation of teaching and learning resources for effective facilitation. Ask your self about
the meaning and importance of learning resources. Think about the criteria and relevance for
selecting learning resources. Find out how you can manage its uses. Make sure that you consult
different reading materials. Do not hesiste to consult your module facilitator wherever you get
into any difficult concerning this unit.
Upon completion of this unit you should be able to:-

i. Define teaching and learning resources;
ii. Describe importance of preparing teaching and learning
resources in adult education
iii. Select appropriate teaching and learning materials for learning
facilitation;
iv. Improvise relevant teaching and learning materials for learning
facilitation.
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Preparation of Teaching and Learning Resources
3.3 Learning Resources

Learning resources are things that facilitators can access to help them do some aspects of their
facilitating responsibilities better and grow professionally. It is a support to teaching strategies,
which assists learning (Reece& Walker, 2001). Resource as applied to education includes any
media or materials that help learning (Farrant, 2006). It includes things such as books, audio
visual aids and soft and hard ware of educationaal technology. Resources in educational context
include both human and material. It may include policy document, assessment procedures or
information for new facilitator. Another very important learning resource is the teacher himself
or herself. Some of them are experienced and knowledgeable. They can provide useful
information to newly recruited facilitators and learners. The main resources, which the
facilitators have to be familiar with, include chalk and whiteboard, or flip chart, hand out and
projector.
Learning resources enable the learner to learn by using his/her five senses. It enables learners to
learn by hearing through audio aids (recorder). The learner may learn by using sight, by using
visual aids like charts, posters, and printed resources like handout and books. The larner may
also learn by using touch in the course of using resources like specimen and models. Teste and
smell is used for those who are learning cookery. More than one sense such as hearing and
sight is used during the learning process when using visual aid such as film or tape slide
presentation. Therefore, ‘anything that you use to augment your teaching or learning strategy,
or anthing that you get your student use, can be termed a learning aid or a resource’ (Reece &
Walker, 2001, p. 195).
The facilitator may use a vaiety of learning resources. He/she may choose and use any of the
following:
1. Boards: Writing – Chalkboard, White board and Flipchart;
Attaching pictures – Magnetic, Flennelgraph, Plastigraph and Teazle;
Display – Notices and charts
2. Projectors: Overhead, Filmstrip, Film, and Slide
3. Recorders: Cassette, Reel-to-reel, Tape-slide, Video.
4. Audio visual: Radio, Television, Record Player.
Handout, Worksheets, Models – visual – Charts, Posters, Books, Magazines,
Workcards.
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3.4 Importance of Preparing Teaching and Learning Resources

The purpose of using learning resources is to enhance learning experience, understanding and
memory. According to Reece& Walker, (2001) importance of preparing teaching and learning
resources includes:
a) Provision of concrete experience;
b) Motivate and arouse learner interest;
c) Increase retention (we remember more of what we seen than we do of what we hear);
d) Provide variety in learning;
e) Provide experience not otherwise easly obtained;
f) Make better use of class contact time;
g) Improve your communication skills (Reece & Walker, 2001, p. 42).
Therefore, effective usage of proper learning resources enables the learners to construct more
knowledge. It enables the learner to build in depth knowledge on a particular subject. It
enhances individual learning strategies, values, attitudes and generic skills. It makes
educational process more attractive and interesting. These advantages cannot be useful if the
preparation is not curried out properly. The facilitator must be familiar with and be able to
prepare and use relevant resources for specific lesson.
3.5 Selection of Teaching and Learning Resources

The selection of teaching and learing resources depends much on the subject matter and the
level of the learner involved. Specifically, the selection teaching/learning resources depends on
the following:
i. The curriculum – outlines what the facilitator ought to do. It provides the guidelines
and framework for teaching and learning activities, therefore, it has to be considered
first. Meanwhile, basing on the provision of the curriculum, the facilitator has to select
appropriate teaching/ learning resources relevant for the subject matter/ topic.
ii. Make the learner interested – the facilitator ought to select teaching /learning
resources, which can help to arouse and maintain the learners’ interest on learning the
subject mtter. It has to appeal to both the learners and the facilitator. If the selected
teaching / learning resources are not interesting, it may discourage the learning process.
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Therefore, teaching/learning resource selection should be students-appropriate; that is

they must fit different students’ various learning situations. Selected teaching and
learning resources have to be attracting and engaging to the learners. It has to impacts
the learning results indirectly yet brilliantly. Once resources are selected appropriately,
then students would make more efforts in learning and be more likely to learn well.
iii. Appropriate learning situation – the selection of teaching/learning resource should be
learners-appropriate. The selected learning resources must fit different learners’ various
learning needs and situations. It must be appealing to the learners.
iv. Time management and teaching goals – during the selection of teaching and learning
resources, the facilitator ought to take into account time management and teaching goal.
He/she must select appropriate teaching resources, which can help him to facilitate
correctly while serving time and teaching goals. In this scenario, the interest of the
learners has to be considered.
v. Flexibility – the facilitator should act responsibly. He/she should be able to
accommodate any occurrence and make sure the intended objective is achieved.
3.6 Improvise Relevant Teaching and Learning Resources

Improvisation is the act of construction of instructional materials from locally available
materials that can adequatelly replace of function in place of the original material which
otherwise may be very expensive or in short supply or unavailable (Eriba, 2011; Okori and
Jerry, 2017). It is the process of making or doing something by using whatever is available;
because you do not have what you really need (Hornby, 2010). This process gives the
facilitator the cuttingedge knowledge of creativity, manipulative skills, and critical thinking. It
enables facilitators to disply creativity in teaching and learning activities for better
understanding of the concept being taught in the classroom. Availability of instructional
material such as charts, computers, television, audion and visual materials is very important
aspect of facilitation. If any of these amenities are not available, the facilitator ought to
improvise (think of using alternative means). Thus, improvisation is the art of using alternative
material and resources due to lack or insufficiency of some specific first hand teaching aids
(Eriba, 2011). Accordingly, the facilitator needs training. They have to remain active
participant in the continuous professional development. Likewise, the authorities have to
provide conducive environment that can encorage creative thinking.
50
The facilitator is obliged to improvise because of the following reasons:
i. Lack of funds to puchase basic facilitation equipments;

ii. Some of the instructional materials from the west are too sophisticated and it recquires
constant supply of electricity, which in some cases it may not be available;
iii. Some of the instructional materials and equipment are noot adequate and inclusive.
Correcly improvised intructional materials have the following values in education:
i. They contribute to effective, permanent and tranferable learning;
ii. To help learners to be independent and self reliant;
iii. They help to increase teachers confidence if properly used;
iv. It provides a concrete basis for conceptual thinking;
v. It make learning more permanent;
vi. It stimulate interest on the parts of the students and facilitator;
vii. It stimulate self-creativity;
viii. It reinforce and add effectiveness of teaching and learning process;
ix. It motivates learners to want to learn more.
3.7 Unit Reflection
I hope you have successfully learned the provision of teaching and

learning resources from this unit. Before proceeding to the next unit,
assess yourself by answering the following reflective questions.
i. Why do we need learning resources?
ii. Scacity of teaching and learning resources, is it a disgrace or
an opportunity? Explain
iii. Given an opportunity to design instructional materils, what
will be your priority and why?
iv. If you are requested to advice newly qualified adult learning
facilitator on preparation of teaching and learning resouces,
what would be your priority and why?
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3.8 Unit Assignment

i. Explain the importance teaching and learning resources during
facilitation of adult lesson.
ii. Identify four different types of teaching and learning aid.
Choose one type of teaching and learning aid and explain its
advantatges and disadvantages.
iii. If you are given an opportunity to improvise any teaching and
learning aid, what will be your priority and why?
iv. The selection of teaching and learning aid ought to be done
cautiously. Basing on this statement, describe the criteria you
are going to employ when selecting adult learning resources.
v. In your own words, describe the values of appropriately
improvised instructional aid.
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Unit 4
Assessment in Adult Education
4.1 Introduction
Dear learner, well come to unit four. In the previous unit, you have learned teaching and
learning resources for effective facilitation. This unit focuses on how to use variety of
assessment methods in assessing teaching and learning process in adult education context. For
the success of this unit, focus on the importance of assessing adult learning, principles of
assessment, the manner in which you can interpret learners performance as well as type of
educational assessment and the purpose of educational assessment. Make sure you remain
focused. Spend much time reading various publications on assessment. Do not hesistate to
consult your module facilitator, wherever you encounter any difficulty.
Upon completion of this unit you should be able to:-

i. Define concepts such as evaluation, assessment, measurement
and test;
ii. Explain the importance of assessing adult learning;
iii. Describe the priciple of assessment;
iv. Describe ways of interpreting adult learners performance;
v. Identify type of educational assessment; and
vi. Examine the purpose of educational assessment to adult
learners.
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4.3 Definition of Concepts
Evaluation is the process of making judgment. It is defined as a systematic determination of a

subjects merit, worth and significance, using criteria governed by a set of standards. Evaluation
indicates the numerical value. It enables reflection on and giving track on identification future
changes.
Assessment- Assessment is the process of gathering and discussing information from multiple
and diverse sources in order to develop a deep understanding of what students know,
understand, and can do with their knowledge because of their educational experiences; the
process culminates when assessment results are used to improve. It is the process by which the
quality of an individual’s work or performance is judged (Farrant, 2006).
Measurement – is the quantification of attributes of an object or event, which can be used to

compare with other objects or events. It is the process of comparison of an unknown quantity
with a known or standard quantity. It also depends on the context and discipline. The most
common intruments of measurement in education are tests, and examinations (Farrant, 2006).
Test - A test or examination (exam or evaluation) is an educational assessment intended to

measure a test-taker's knowledge, skill, aptitude, physical fitness, or classification in many
other topics (e.g., beliefs) (Merriam-Webster). A test may be administered verbally, on paper,
on a computer, or in a predetermined area that requires a test taker to demonstrate or perform a
set of skills.
4.4 Importance of Assessing Learning

Assessment of learning is the process of judging and determining whether the goals of
education are being met. The main reasons for assessing learning are diagnosis, feedback and
standards.
During diagnosis, the facilitaotor focuses on establishing the learner’s entry behaviour and
identifying learning needs/ difficulties. As to feedback, the facilitator focuses on giving
feedback to student on their progress; identifying strengths and areas of development;
strengthening learning; giving feedbak to teachers and motivate learners. Concerning standards,
it is all about maintenance of standard; giving certificate of achievement, facilitate progression;
54
predict future performance/selection; quality as safe to practice (e.g driving, nursing) and data
for quality assuarence (Reece and Walker, 2001).
Assessment has the following importance:
i. It helps to measure the learner’s academic progress.
ii. It helps to engage learners with their learning. No one to be deemed as failure.
Therefore, learners have to engage themselves in their learning to avoid failures.
iii. It helps the learners to develop ability to evaluate themselves, make judgement of their
own performance and improve upon it.
iv. Assessment is a fundamental engine that derives student learning and help them to
determine what, when, and how to learn.
v. Assessment helps to foster learner’s skills such as reflection, critical thinking and self-
awareness.
vi. It helps the facilitator to determine what is working for themselves, for their learners,
what can be done to help their learners succeed and it gives direction to the next level.
vii. It plays vital role in the process of learning and motivation of the learners. It helps the
facilitator the real situation of what the learners has learned, how well they learned it
and which area they have struggled.
viii. It helps the facilitator/ authority to determine whether learning objectives have been
achieved or not. It has significant influence the learners placement, and advancement
and intractional needs.
4.5 Principle of Assessment

The main purpose of assessment is to promote further learning and achievement. As a
facilitator, you have to make sure that you work with your learner, your peers and colleague to
plan the leaning program. It is your responsibility as a facilitator to take an active role in
55
making decisions about the purpose of assessment and the content that is being assessed.
Therefore, when you plan the assessment, you may use the following principles:
i. Assessment ought to be well aligned with learners’ objectives, competencies, and

educational standards. It should be ongoing and based on a continuum of
learning/development;
ii. Assessment should provide information about where individuals are in their learning
and development, and inform practitioners in planning and delivering progressive
learning opportunities;
iii. Assessment ought to be more like instruction. It should help to buid positive attitudes
and self-confidence in children, young people and learners by assisting them to see what
they have achieved and the progress thay are making;
iv. Assessment results ought to be used by the facilitator to help learners to learn better. It
should promote further learning and development when combined with constructive
feedback and opportunities for reflection. It should enable learners to see and appreciate
the progress that they have made and recognise that they are being successful in their
learning;
v. Assessment should not used to threaten and intimidate learners. It should maximise
collaboration and sharing of knowledge between learners and facilitators. It should
allow all parties to support each other to enhance learning and development.
4.6 Interpretation of Adult Learners Performance

To interpret results of adult learners, there is a need to establish the performance standards,
expected result and issues you want to discuss. Therefore, to establish performance standard,
there is a needs to specify the acceptable level of student work or response. Performance
standard should indicate the acceptable standard, which learners ought to meet as a program
passing score in an exam. Generally, these standards are outlined in the program curriculum
and its related guidelines.
To interpret adult learners’ performance, the following question needs appropriate response:
(i) . Is our learners’ meeting our own standard?
(ii) . Is our learner doing as well as they can?
(iii) . What is our learners’ area of strength and weaknessess?
56
(iv) . Is our learner improving or declining?

(v) . Is our program improving?
(vi) . Is our learner meeting the standard set by the regulator?
The marking process should be guided by careful prepared marking scheme. Therefore, ones
the test marking is done, the facilitator is required to make interpretation of the results. The
results should be examined carefully so as to determine whether the learner have managed to
achieve the intended objectives. In this analysis, the following features should be examined.
A) Range: This is the difference between the highest and lowest marks scored. It is the area
of variation between upper and lower limits on a particular scale. For example, nine
candidates scores 13, 18, 13, 14, 13, 16, 14, 21, 13. To culculate the renge, you have to
establish the highet value is 21, and the lowesr is 13. Therefore, the range is 21 − 13 = 8.
B) Mean: is the avrage or mean is found by by dividing the sum of all the scores by the
number of candidates. The following formular can be used.
M = (13+ 18+ 13+ 14+ 13+ 16+ 14+ 21+ 13) ÷ 9 = 15

Therefore, mean is 15.
C) Median: it is the score obtained by candidate who has exactly half as many candidates
above and below him. The median is the middle value. Let us use our example to
obtain the median. Therefore, you have to re-arrange the list in numerical order as
follows: 13, 13, 13, 13, 14, 14, 16, 18, 21; Therefore, the median is 14.
D) Mode: The mode is the number that is repeated more often than any other is. It is the
score in the test obtainned by most candidates. Therefore, 13 is the mode.
57
4.7 Types of Educational Assessment

There are two distinctive types of educational assessment, namely formative and summative.
According to Reece and Walker, (2001) summative assessment takes place at the end of a
course or topic and it is used for certicication while, formative assessment takes place during
the course and is useful in giving feedback to both the learner and the facilitator about the
progress of the teaching process. Despite the fact, that each type of assessment (formative and
summative) has distinctive purpose and uses, it is using similar technique during the assessment
process as shown in figure 3.
Formative techniques Summative techniques

Question and Answer End examinations
Supply type questions Supply type questions
Selection type questions Selection type questions
projects Projects
Asssignments Assignments
Essay Essay
Practical tests Pratical tests
Figure 3: Formative and Summative Assessment Techniques

Source: Reece and Walker, (2001, p.410)
The distinctive purpose of formative and summative assessment emanates from the reason on it
is uses, which is summarized in figure 4.
Uses of Formative Technique Uses of Summative Techniques

Eachers for ensuring that learning has Employers for job selction
taken place.
Teachers for improving methods of Curriculum developers for curriculum reviews.
intruction.
Student to gain an idea of of their Examining/validating bodies for awards of grades
success. and diplomas.
Student selecting courses of higher study.
Figure 4: Uses of Formative and Summative Assessment Techniques

58
4.7.1 Formative Assessment

Formative assessment is a form of diagnostic. It is a planned, ongoing process used by both the
facilitator and the learner during learning process. It enables the facilitation to obtain and use
proof of learning for improving the learners undestating of the intended learning objectives. It
helps to understand learners’ comprehension, learning needs, and academic progress during the
learning process. It also enables facilitator to identify concepts that learners are struggling to
understand, skills they are having difficulty acquiring, or learning standards they have not yet
achieved. Basing on this afct, adjustments can be made to lessons, instructional techniques,
and academic support.
Acording Reece and Walker, (2001), formative assessment is diagnostic basing on the
reflection on three basic modes as shown in figure 5.
Mode Focus of assessment Areas of comcern
I The class The success of the class in learning what was intended.
II The indivual student Which students have not attainned the intended learning?
III The individual student What is/ are the reason(s) for the learner not attaining the
intended learning?
Figure 5: Assessment as a Contibution to Learning

A critical evaluation of mode III leads to further questions especially on (a) suitability of the
objectives, and (b) suitability of the selected and used facilitation strategy. The answer to these
issues is a clear indication that assessment has positive contribution to the learning process.
The contribution of Formative Assessment to the learning process bases on what you can do in
the classroom to ensure achievement of the intended objectives by using relevant techniques in
assessing the learning process.
Accomplishments of Formative Assessment depend much on the achievement of three guiding
principles. According to Reece and Walker, (2001) these principles include:
(i) Use short-term informal assessment – it focuses on the possibility of using question and
answer. It gives provision of using test or homework questions informally.
59
(ii) Provide rapid feedback – give feedbak to the learner as soon as possible. The best
technique is let your learner describe what they have done. This helps to improve their
learning.
(iii) Ensure feedbackgives motivation to the students – focus on the manner in which you
give feedback to your learner. Avoid using dicouraging words. Encourage your student
to perform better because they can. They have to believe that they can do better. Avoid
condeming them. Give suggestion on how best they can improve. These principles are
summarized in figure 6.
Principle Methods of Achievement in the Class

Use short term informal - Cocentrate upon way in which improment can be made.
assessment - Say why things are incorrect
- Give comments as opposed to marks
Provide rapid feedback - Use question and answer as an assessment technique.
- Use tutorials to suplement assessment.
- Get students to describe their work.
Ensure that feedback gives - Comment upon the good aspect first.
- Ensure that praise is given where due.
motivation to students
- Do not condemn the incorrect response.
Figure 6: Achievement of Principles of Formative Assessment

Formative Assessment uses variety of techniques during the assessment process. Therefore,
your role as a facilitator is to decide which test to use in a particular situations. According to
Reece and Walker, (2001), the main type of questions that are used in various type of objective
and essay type questions includes:
(i) . Multiple-choice questions – they are suitable for :
- Measuring a variety of complex learning such as vocablary, explanations,
culculations facts and application;
- Providing diagnostic information to help with learners learning problems;
- Ensuring high test reliability.
(ii) . Alternative-choice (true/false) questions – not alyways helpful as they are open to
gussing and learners have 50% of getting them correct.
60
(iii) . Matching Block questions are suitable for marching dates with events, causes with
effects, principle with applicantion and sysmbols with meanings they represent. They
are most suitable for:
- Lower level (knowledge) outcome are to be tested;
- Associations bwtween things are to be identified;
- All the responses are plausible alternatives to a premise.
(iv) . Short answer questions it can be useful to help the learners to recall names, dates,
terms and generalizations. It is appropriate when;
- The larning outcome is recalling rather than recognising information;
- Simple computational problems are used;
- A selction type would be too obvious.
(v) . Essay questions allow grater freedom of response for learners. They test the
learners’ ability to structure a response.
4.7.2 Summative assessment

Summative assessment is an assessment administered to learner at the end of an instructional
unit in a course. This assessment focuses on evaluating student learning by comparing
performance to a standard or benchmark. They are often high-stakes, meaning they have a
high point value. The best example of summative assessments includes midterm exams, a
final exam or a final project.
Summative assessment has the following advantages:
i. It helps to determine whether modules learning objectives have been archieved or not.
ii. It helps to determine whether or not the examined learners are ready to move onto the
next level. For example, the learner qualifies to move from certificate to diploma or
diploma to bachelor degree.
iii. Its outcome helps you to prove that the course offered helps your learner to
accomplish their learning objectives.
iv. It also help you idetify areas that needs improvement and how better you can
implement the assessment.
61
v. It serves as a guide to improve teaching methods.

vi. It helps in improving curriculum and curriculum design, especially when it shows
consistent gaps between learners’ knowledge and the learning targets.
vii. Collected data using a summative assessment provides useful information to the
facilitators, college and the regulatory authority to make decisions based on the
instuction that has already been complete. For example, standard seven exam results;
form iv and vi exam results; end of semester exams.
4.8 The Purpose of Educational Assessment

The main purpose of assessment is to gather relevant information about student performance or
progress, or to determine student interests to make judgments about their learning process.
i. To drive instruction – assessment helps to inform facilitators what learners know and
do not know at the outset, setting the direction of the course. The information obtained
from the assessment highlight the gap between what is known and desired outcome. It
enables facilitator to revise and refine their facilitating to meet diverse needs of
students.
ii. To drive learning – assessment is vital drivers for all learners. It is a determinant of
what and how learners learn. It sends the right signal to the learners concerning what to
study and how to study as well as appropriate time to spend on learning specific
concepts and skills.
iii. To inform learners of their progress – the feedback provided to the learners indicates
to them how to improve their performancce. It helps to make the learner aware of their
learning outcomes. The learner must be informed when the assessment will take place.
It should not be a suprise to the learners.
iv. To inform teaching practice – it helps the facilitator to determine how well learners’
learning matches the learning outcomes/ expectations for a lesson, unit or course. It
informs the facilitator on how best he/she can improve instruction, where to strengthern
facilitation and what areas are well understood and it does not need any further
intervation.
v. Learners Grading in assessment – it should base on evidence obtainned from test,
papers, projects, and presentations. Unfortunately, test results and its associated grades
62
alone cannot tell us clearly about individual deep learning such as critical thinking
skills, problem solving abilities, communication skills (oral, written and listening),
social skills and emotional management skills (Boud, and Falchikov (2006).
vi. Inform when learners’ learning outcomes are not met – assesment help the authority
to determine if the learning outcome were met or not. They should identify appropriate
measures and adjust accordingly. Proper interventions should be in place and
implemented accordingly.
4.9 Unit Reflection
I hope you have successfully learnt assessment methods from this

unit. Before proceeding to the next unit, assess yourself by answering
the following reflective questions.
i. Examination is nothing but mental torture. Discuss
ii. Assessment vitally important in the academic life. Explain.
iii. Certificate is an outcome of learners effort to achive the
intended learning objectives. Discuss type of assessment
leading to certification. What are the corresponding
advantages and dissadvantages of of this type of assessment?
iv. As an academic adviser for adult learners in an adult learning
centre, what is your priority assessment? Assuming that the
examination result is not convincing at all, what will you do
to your learner?
63
4.10 Unit Assignment

i. What are the similarities and difference between formative and
summative assessment?
ii. Find the mean, median, mode, and range for the following list
of values: 8, 9, 10, 10, 10, 11, 11, 11, 12, 13
iii. A student has scored the following grades on his tests: 87, 95,
76, and 88. He wants an 85 or better overall. What is the
minimum grade he must get on the last test in order to achieve?
iv. As a facilitator of adult learning, outline vital question, which
needs appropriate response when interpreting adult learners’
performance.
v. As a facilitator of adult learning, what are the vital issues you
need to consider when setting an examination?
64
References
Boud, D. & Falchikov, N. (August, 2006). Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education,
Vol. 31, No. 4, p. 399-413
Braakman, Y. (2013). The art of facilitating participation: unlearning old habits and learning
new ones (pdf).
Eriba, J. O, and Regina, M. O., (2011). Laboratory and the art of improvisation. Masters in
Media publisher, Makurd. Education Resource Centre – use of improvisation and
Learning Resource in Schools.
Farrant, J. S. (2006) Principle and Practice of Education. New Edition. Essex: Longman.
Hornby, A.S. (2010). Oxford Advanced Dictionary of Current English. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Kapur, S. (2015). Understanding the Characteristics of an Adult Learner. Jamia Journal of
Education- An International Biannual Publication. Volume 2, Number 1, November 2015.
Knowles, M. S, & Associates (1984).Andagogy in action:Applying modern principles of adult
learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Knowles, M. S. (1975). Self-directed learning:A guide for learners and teachers. New York:
Association Free Press.
Knowles, M. S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education:From pedagogy to andragogy.
(2nd ed.) New York: Cambridge Books.
Knowles, M. S. (1984). The adult learner: A neglected species (3rd ed.). Houston: Gulf.
Manslow, A.H. (1970). Motivation and personality (2nd ed.). New York: HarperCollins.
Okori, O.A. & Jerry O. (2017). Improvisation and utilisation of resources in the teaching and
learning of science and mathematics in Secondary Schools in Cross River State. In
GlobalJournal of Educational Research, Vol 16, 2017: pp 21-28.
Reece, I. And Walker, S. (2000). Teaching and Training and Learning. A Practical guide.
Sunderland. Business Educational Publisher Limited.
Rogers, C. (1983). Freedom to learn for the 80s. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.
https://theelearningcoach.com/learning/characteristics-of-adult-learners.
https://www.aatcomment.org.uk/career/the-importance-of-adult-learning-and-tools-to-help-you-keep-
65
your-skills-up-to-date
https://ied.eu/project-updates/the-importance-of-adult-education
https://www.ej4.com/blog/what-is-adult-learning-theory-and-why-is-it-
importanthttps://ied.eu/project-updates/the-importance-of-adult-education
https://www.wgu.edu/blog/what-transformative-learning-theory2007.html
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/facilitation
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311826240_The_art_of_facilitation
http://stproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/the-art-of-facilitation.pdf
https://www.mcgill.ca/sustainability/files/sustainability/the_art_of_facilitation.pdf
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/workshop
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quiz
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_evaluation
https://www.igi-global.com/dictionary/seamless-learning-design-criteria-in-the-context-of-
open-and-distance-learning/21157
https://eztalks.com/elearning/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-distance-learning.html
https://www.rcmmediation.com/index.php/facilitation/the-facilitation-process.html
https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/what-are-learning-resources-teachers-how-are-they-
helpful
https://www.purplemath.com/modules/meanmode.htm
https://cdip.merlot.org/facultyteaching/purposeofassessment.html
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Facilitation of Adult Larning

AEU 07210 / AEU 07211

Institute of Adult Education

Institute of Adult Education

About this module 1

Getting around this MODULE 7

Unit 1The Concepts Related to Adult Learning 8

Unit 2 Appropriate Techniques to Facilitate Adult Learning 19

2.5.7 Video .................................................................................................................. 31

Unit 3 Preparation of Teaching and Learning Resources for Effective Facilitation 47

About this module

How this module is structured

The Module Overview

 If the module is suitable for you,

 What you already know,

 What you can expect from the module, and

 Where to get help,

 Module assignments and assessments,

 Activity icons, and

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully

The Module Content

 An introduction to the unit content,

 Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities,

 Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable, and

 Answers to Assignment and/or assessment, as applicable.

 Module content and structure,

 Module reading materials and resources,

 Module assessments, and

 Module support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)

I hope you will enjoy studying this module

As an adult learner’ your approach to learning will be different

After each unit, you will be required to attempt one unit

Getting around this

Activity Assessment Unit Case Study

Discussion Group Help Note it!

Outcomes Reading Reflection Study skills

Reflection Terminology Time Tip

1.2 Learning Outcomes

1.3 Concepts Related to Adult Learning

The following concepts are discusses in unit one.

ii. Learning: Learning is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge,

vi. Post-literacy or post-literacy education is a concept used in continuing education and

live in a democratic society.

1.4 Characteristics of adult learner

1.5 The importance of adult learning

1.6 Assumption about adult learners

1.7 Adult learning theories

Behaviorism – learning is a change in behaviour – behaviourist such as Ivan Pavlov (condition

1.7.4 Self-Directed Learning (SDL)

v. Choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies; and

1.7.5 Transformative Learning

1.8 Unit Reflection

After the completion of this unit reflect on the following:

1.9 Unit Assignment

Do the following questions; remember to put your work in your

2.2 Learning Outcomes

2.3 Adult Learning Concepts

2.4 Techniques used to facilitate adult learning

i The objectives that you want your learners to achieve;