Fluid Properties and Pressure

Measurements
 Recall
• Fluid mechanics is that branch of engineering science, which deals with the
behaviour of fluids (liquids and gases) at rest or in motion.

• A fluid may be defined as a substance which deforms continuously when subjected to

shear stresses.

• Fluid statics (or hydrostatics) is the study of fluids at rest.

• The study of fluids in motion where the pressure forces are ignored (i.e. deals with
velocities, accelerations and patterns of flow only) is termed fluid kinematics,

• If the pressure forces (i.e. velocities, accelerations with the forces or energy causing
them) are considered it is called fluid dynamics.
Properties of fluids
• Among the fluids water will mostly be dealt with (in this course) , and has the following
major properties: -

(i) Mass density

(ii) Specific weight

(iii) Specific gravity

(iv) Compressibility and Bulk Modulus

(v) Surface Tension and Capillarity

(vi) Viscosity
Mass density (ρ)
• Mass density (or density), (ρ) of a substance is defined as the mass per unit
volume (Kg/m3 : ML-3).

• For water, ρ is 1000 Kg/m3 at 4○C.

• For practical purposes, this density is taken as constant, although it decreases

slightly with increase in temperature.

• The density of gases changes with the variation of pressure and temperature
Specific weight (w)
• Specific weight (or weight density), (w) of a liquid may be defined as the weight per
unit volume (N/m3 : ML-2T-2) and is influenced by the gravitational pull of the earth.

• The specific weight of water is taken as 9.81 kN/m3.

Mathematically, specific weight of water,
Weight of fluid
W=
Volume of fluid
= (mass × acceleration due to gravity)/volume of fluid

mass
 g
volume
∴ w = ρg
Specific Gravity (s)

• Specific gravity (or relative density), (s) of a liquid may be defined as the
ratio of its specific weight to that of a standard substance at a standard
temperature.

• Water is taken as the standard substance at 4○C. Thus, specific gravity is

dimensionless (M0L0T0), and for water it is unity.

• For gases, the standard fluid is taken as air.

Specific volume

• Specific volume is defined as the reciprocal of mass density (1/ρ), i.e.

it is the mean volume per unit mass (m3/ Kg : M-1L3), so that,

• Volume of a fluid 1 = 1 V
SpecificVolume 
mass of fluid

Mass of fluid =
volume ρ m
Example
• Determine the Specific Weight, Mass density, Specific volume and
Specific gravity of 1 litre of a liquid which weighs 7N.
Solution
Given: Volume = 1 litre = 1/1000 m3 Weight = 7N

• Specific weight, w = weight/volume = 7/(1/1000) =7000 N/m3

• Density, ρ = w/g = 7000/9.81 =713.5 Kg/m3

• Specific volume=1/=1/713.5 = 0.0140m3/Kg

• Specific gravity, s = density of liquid/ density of water

= 713.5/1000 = 0.7135
Dynamic viscosity (or viscosity) (μ)
• Is defined as the property of a fluid which offers
resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid
over another adjacent layer of fluid.

• When two layers of a fluid, a distance dy apart

move one layer over the other at different
velocities, say u and u+du as shown in Fig , the
viscosity together with relative velocity causes a
shear stress acting between the fluid layers.
Dynamic viscosity (or viscosity) (μ)
• Newton’s equation (or law) of viscosity, states that the shear
stress (τ) on a fluid element layer is directly proportional to the
rate of shear strain, hence



du
N s / m2
dy
• Fluids which obey the above equation are known as Newtonian
fluids, and those which do not obey it Non-Newtonian fluids.

• Viscosity of liquids decreases with increase in temperature as

increase in temperature reduces the cohesive forces.

• The viscosity of gases increases with increase of temperature.

• Viscosity of water at 20○C is 0.001 Ns/m2.

Kinematic viscosity

• This is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density of
fluid i.e. μ
ν=
ρ

• Typical value for water, ν =1.14 ×10-6m2/s.

Compressibility
• It may also be defined as the property by virtue of which fluids undergo a
change in volume under the action of external pressure.

• All fluids are compressible under the application of an external force, and
when the force is removed, they expand back to their original volume
exhibiting the property that stress is proportional to volumetric strain.
Bulk Modulus
• Let V = volume of a gas enclosed in the cylinder
• P = Pressure of gas when volume is V
• Let the pressure be increased to p + dp, the volume
of the gas decreasing from V to V- dV.
• Hence, increase in pressure (or change in pressure)
= dp, and decrease in volume = dV.
∴ Volumetric strain = -(dV/V)
• (Negative sign indicates decrease in volume with
increase of pressure
increase of pressure (dp)
Bulk modulus of elasticity, K =
dV
volumetric strain (- )
V
Bulk Modulus

dp
Bulk modulus, K =
dV
-
V
• Units and dimensions of bulk modulus: (N/m2 : ML-1T-2)

• Water with a bulk modulus of 2.1×109 Nm-2 at 20oC is 100 times more
compressible than steel, but it is ordinarily considered incompressible.
Example

Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid which is

compressed in a cylinder from a volume of 0.0126 m3 at a pressure of 75
N/cm2 to a volume of 0.0125 m3 at a pressure of 150 N/cm2.
Solution
• Given:
• Initial volume = 0.0126 m3, Final volume = 0.0125 m3
• Initial pressure = 75N/cm2 , Final pressure =150 N/cm2

• Decrease in volume, dV = 0.0126-0.025 = 0.0001m3

dV 0.0001
 Volumetric strain, - =
V 0.0126

• Increase in pressure, dp = (150 - 75) = 75N/cm2

• Bulk modulus is given by,

dp 75
K= = = 9.45 × 103 N/cm 2
-dV/V 0.0001/0.0126
Surface Tension (σ: N/m : MT-2)
• Is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a
liquid such that the surface behaves like a membrane.

• It is the force which enables a drop of water to be held in

suspension at a tap
• A vessel to be filled with liquid slightly above the brim and not
spill,
• Or for a needle to float on the surface of a liquid

• These phenomena are due to cohesion between

molecules at the surface of the liquid

• Surface tension for water is 7310-3N/m2 at 200C.

Capillarity

• Capillarity is defined as the phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid

surface in a small tube, relative to adjacent general level of liquid
when the tube is held vertically in liquid and is expressed in terms of
mm of liquid.
Capillary rise
• Consider a glass tube opened at both ends and immersed in
a liquid, say water.

• Liquid rises in a tube to height ‘h’ and under equilibrium,

weight of liquid is balanced by force at the surface of the
liquid in the tube due to surface tension.

• Let:
• d = diameter of capillary tube,
• σ = surface tension of liquid,
• h = rise of liquid in glass tube
• θ = angle of contact between liquid and glass tube,
• w = weight density (g).

• Capillary rise of water in the glass tube,

4σ
h=
wd
Capillary Fall (or capillary depression)

• When glass is dipped in mercury , level in

mercury tube will be lower than general level
of outside liquid.

• If h = height of depression in tube;

4 σ c o sθ
h=
wd
PRESSURE GAUGES AND
MANOMETERS
Pressure
• Pressure is the force exerted by a fluid on the surfaces with which it is in
contact .

• If the total force P acts uniformly over the entire area A, then, p = P/A

• The intensity of pressure, ‘p’ (or simply pressure) at any point is the
force exerted on a unit area at that point and is measured in N/m2.

• The unit, ‘N/m2’ is also known as Pascal (Pa).

Pressure variation in a fluid at rest

• The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is obtained from the

hydrostatic law which states:

• “The rate of increase of pressure in a vertically downward direction

must be equal to the specific weight of the fluid at that point”.
The proof of the hydrostatic law

• Consider a small fluid element as shown

in the Fig
• Let
δA = cross-sectional area of element
δz = height of fluid element
p = intensity of pressure on face AB
z = distance of fluid element from
free surface
The forces acting on fluid element are
(i) Pressure force on face AB= pδA
(perpendicular to AB and acting downwards)
 p 
 p + × δz  × δA
(ii) Pressure force on face CD=  z 
(perpendicular to CD and acting upwards)

(iii) Weight of fluid element= weight density x

volume = w   δA × δz 

(iv) Pressure forces on surfaces AD and BC,

which are equal and opposite (will cancel out).
For equilibrium of the fluid element

 p 
p  δA -  p + × δz  × δA + w   δA × δz   0
 z 

p
p  δA - p  δA - × δz × δA + w   δA × δz   0
z
p
× δz × δA = w  δA × δz
z
p
=w
z
Hydrostatic law
• The equation p = w shows that rate of increase of pressure in a
z

vertical direction is equal to weight density of the fluid at that point.

• On integrating the equation  dp =  ρg  dz

• Or p  ρg  z (= wz)

p p
z =  
ρg  w 

Where Z is known as the Pressure Head

Systems for Fluid Pressure Measurements
• When pressure is
measured above the
absolute zero
(complete vacuum)
it is referred to as
absolute pressure

• When it is
measured above the
atmospheric
pressure it is
referred to as gauge
pressure.
Definitions
• Absolute pressure: This is defined as the pressure which is measured with
reference to absolute vacuum pressure as the datum point.

• Gauge pressure: This is defined as the pressure which is measured with reference
to the atmospheric pressure as the datum point.

• Vacuum pressure: This is defined as the pressure below atmospheric pressure.

• Atmospheric pressure: This is the pressure due to atmosphere at the surface of the
earth, depending upon the head of air above the surface, and at sea level it is about
101.325 kN/m2, equivalent to a head of 10.35 m of water or 760 mm of mercury,
and decreases with altitude.

• Atmospheric pressure may be measured using a mercury barometer or aneroid

barometer.
Measurement of Fluid Pressure
• This may be carried out using, Mechanical gauges (or pressure gauges), and Manometers.

• In the case of low pressures, sensitive manometers are used.

Mechanical Gauges
• These are used for measuring high fluid pressure and the commonly used ones are
(i) Bourdon tube pressure gauge,
(ii) Diaphragm pressure gauge,
(iii) Dead weight pressure gauge, and
(iv) Bellows pressure gauge.

• Advantages of mechanical gauges include portability, direct reading, and a wide

operation range.

• These gauges measure the magnitude of pressure relative to atmospheric pressure i.e.
gauge pressures.
Manometers
• These are defined as devices used for measuring the pressure at a point in a
fluid by balancing the column of a fluid by the same or another column of
fluid.

• The may be classified as simple manometers or differential manometers.

• Simple manometers
• A simple manometer consists of a glass tube whose one end is connected to a point
where pressure is to be measured and the other end remains open to the atmosphere.

• Common types of simple manometers include:

(i) Piezometers (or pressure tube),
(ii) U-tube manometers, and
(iii) Single column manometers (or micro manometers).
Piezometer
• This is the simplest form of manometers used for
measuring gauge pressures

• One end is connected to the point where pressure is

to be measured and the other end is open to
atmosphere.

• The rise of the liquid gives the pressure head at the

point in the form, PA = ρgh

• To avoid error due to capillary action, the diameter

of the piezometer should be greater than 12 mm
Piezometer
• Piezometers have limited use due to the following drawbacks:

(i) Large pressures require long tubes which cannot be handled conveniently

(ii) If the fluid is a gas, a piezometer cannot be used as the gas would escape
through the open end.

(iii) Rapid changes in pressure cannot be recorded accurately as the changes in

piezometric levels lag behind the changes in pressure.

• These limitations can be overcome by use of bent tube filled with a

heavier liquid.
Example

Determine the maximum pressure measured by a

piezometer tube, 2 m high.
Solution

• P = ρgh = 1000 × 9.81×2 = 19.62 kN/m2

U – tube Manometers
• These consist of a glass tube bent in U-shape , one end of which is
connected to a point where the pressure is to be measured, and the other end
remains open to the atmosphere.

• The tube generally contains mercury or other immiscible liquid.

• The pressures at two points at the same level in a continuous homogeneous

liquid are equal.

• If PA is the pressure at point A,

• h1 depth of the liquid above datum,
• h2 depth of mercury above datum,
• ρl density of fluid in the pipe,
• ρm density of mercury in the manometer,

• Taking atmospheric pressure as the reference pressure,

• Then, PA+ρlgh1 = ρmgh2

• ∴ PA = ρmgh2 -ρlgh1
Example
The right limb of a simple U-tube manometer contains mercury and is open
to the atmosphere, while the left limb is connected to a pipe in which a
fluid of specific gravity 0.9 is flowing.
The centre of the pipe is 120 mm below the level of mercury in the right
limb. Find the pressure of fluid in the pipe if the difference of mercury
level in the two limbs is 200 mm.
Solution
Given

• Sp.gr. fluid , Sl = 0.9

• Sp. gr. of mercury S2 = 13.6

• Difference of mercury level, h2 = 0.2 m

• Height of fluid above X-X,

• h1= 0.2-0.12 = 0.08m

• But, PA+h1S1 = h2S2

• Or PA = 0.2×13.6-0.08×0.9 = 2.648 m of water

• = 2.648 × 103 × 9.81 = 25.98 kN/m2

Differential manometers
• These are used for measuring the difference in pressures between two
points in a pipe, or in two different pipes.

• A differential manometer consists of a U-tube, containing a heavy liquid,

whose difference of pressure is to be measured.

• Common types include:

(i) U-tube differential manometer
(ii) Inverted U-tube differential manometer.
U-tube Differential Manometers
• These measure the difference of pressures at two points.

• The pressure at one starting point must be known.

•
• For a differential manometer as shown in the Fig, taking
datum at level X-X,

• Pressure head above X-X in the left limb,

= Pressure head above X-X in the right limb

• Or (h+x)ρlg+PA = ρmgh+ρ2gy+pB

• Hence, PA- PB = ρmgh+ρ2gy-(h+x)ρlg

• If A and B are at the same level, and contain the same liquid,
of density ρ then

• PA- PB = ρmgh –ρgh = gh(ρm-ρ)

Example
• A U-tube differential manometer is
connected to two pipes A and B as
shown in the Fig. Pipe A contains a
liquid of sp.gr. 1.5 while pipe B contains
a liquid of sp. gr. 0.9.

• The pressures at A and B are 98.1

kN/m2 and 176.58 kN/m2. Determine
the difference in mercury level in the
differential manometer.
Solution
• Given: Sp.gr. of liquid at A, Sl =1.5
• Sp.gr. of liquid at B, S2 = 0.9
• Pressure at A, PA= 98.1kN/m2
• Pressure at B, PB =176.58kN/m2
• Taking X-X as datum:
• Pressure head above X-X (left limb)
= Pressure head above X-X (right limb)

PA  A g  3  2   man gh  PB  Bg  h  2 

or 98.1103  1.5  9.81103  3  2   13.6  9.81103  h  176.58 103  0.9  9.81103  h  2 

22.563
or h 103 133.416  8.829   103 176.58  17.658  98.1  73.575 h  124.587  0.181m
Inverted U-tube differential manometers
• These consist of an inverted U-tube containing a
light liquid.

• The two ends of the tube are connected to the points

whose difference of pressures are to be measured.
•
• They are used for measuring difference of low
pressures.

• Read further on this

Merits of manometers
• Merits of manometers include:
(i) Easy to fabricate
(ii) relatively inexpensive
(iii) Good accuracy
(iv) High sensitivity
(v) Require little maintenance
(vi) Not affected by vibration
(vii) Suitable for low pressure and low differential pressures
(viii) Easy to change the sensitivity by affecting a change in the type manometric fluid in
the manometer.
Demerits of manometer include:
(i) Usually bulky and large in size
(ii) Being fragile, get broken easily
(iii) Readings are affected by changes in temperature, altitude and gravity
(iv) Capillarity effect is created due to surface tension of the manometric fluid.