DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING,

UNIT-1

Introduction to electrical Circuits

Introduction:

i. Potential Difference (PD): The ability of a charged particle to do the work is called
electric potential. The difference b/w electric potentials at any two given points in a
circuit is known as potential difference.

Electric Potential (V) = Workdone/charge

Unit is Volt.

ii. Current: Is defined as rate of flow of charge in an electric circuit. Its unit is Ampere.

Current (I)= dq/dt

Fig:1.1.1(a).AC supply Fig:1.1.(b)DC supply

[Ref: DSI ppt]

iii. Power: Rate of doing the work is known as power. Its unit is Watt.

P=V.I
 iv. Energy: Work done in transferring a charge through an element is known as energy.
Unit is Joule.

v. Resistance: The property of an electric current opposing the flow of current and
causes electrical energy to be converted to heat is called resistance. Unit is ohm
R= V/I

Ohm’s Law:

When voltage is applied across a conductor, current flows through it. A definite relationship
exists between current, applied voltage and resistance of the conductor.

If „I‟ is the current flowing through a conductor of resistance R, across which a potential
difference V is applied, then according to Ohm‟s Law.
I V or I = V/R or V = IR

where V is in volts, R is in Ohms and I is in amperes.

Ohm‟s Law may be stated as follows

The physical state i.e. temperature remaining constant, the current flowing through a conductor
is directly proportional to the potential difference applied across its ends.

Fig:1.1.1. Ohm’s Law[Ref:DSI ppt]

i) Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL): In any electrical network the algebraic sum of all currents
meeting at a point is zero or the sum of incoming currents towards any point is equal to the sum
of outgoing currents away from that point. For example four conductors are meeting at a point O,
carrying currents I1, I2, I3 and I4 as shown in figure.

Convention :-

Current flowing inward  +ve

Current flowing away from O  ve

Sign convention:- +  current towards point O

 current away point O

Applying KCL to point O, the algebraic sum of currents at that point, will be zero.

i.e., (I1) + (I2) + ( I3) + ( I4) = 0

or I1 + I2 = I3 + I4

Fig:1.1.2. Kirchoff’s current law[Ref: DSIppt]

ii) Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL): In any closed circuit or mesh, the algebraic sum of products
of currents and resistances (voltage drops) plus the algebraic sum of all the emf‟s in that circuit is
zero, i.e. algebraic sum of emf‟s + algebraic sum of voltage drops = 0

a) Signs of emf’s: A rise in potential should be taken as positive and a fall in potential
should be taken as negative. Consider from the negative terminal of a battery or source
towards the positive terminal, there is a rise in potential and it must be considered
positive and from the positive terminal of a battery or voltage source to the negative
terminal, there is a fall in potential which should be taken as negative.
 b) Signs of voltage drops: When current passes through a resistance there is a voltage drop
in it. With the current, the voltage drop should be considered to be negative as the current
flows from higher potential to lower potential (fall in potential).and against the current
flow, the voltage drop should be considered as positive (rise in potential)

Series Circuit:

The circuit in which resistances are connected end-to-end, so that there is only one path for
current flow, is called a series circuit.

Fig: 1.1.3.Series circuit[Ref: DSI ppt]

Figure shows a circuit, where resistors, R1, R2 and R3 are connected in series, and a voltage of V
volts is applied at the extreme ends A and B, to cause a current of I amperes to flow through all
these resistors.

Analysis of Series Circuit:

i. The same current flows through all the resistances.

ii. There will be a voltage drop across each resistance. The sum of the voltage drops is equal
to the applied voltage.

iii. Total Power dissipated by the circuit is equal to the sum of the power dissipated by each
resistor.

Let V1, V2 and V3 be the voltage drops across R1, R2 and R3 respectively.

Now, V = V1+V2+V3
 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = I (R1+R2+R3) ………(using ohm‟s law)

V/I = R1 + R2 +R3

According to ohm‟s law, V/I is the total circuit resistance R.

Therefore,

R = R1 + R2 +R3

i.e., Total resistance = sum of individual resistances.

Thus, when a number of resistors are connected in series, the equivalent resistance (total circuit
resistance) is given by the arithmetic sum of their individual resistances.

Parallel Circuit:

When a number of resistors are connected in such a way that one end of each of them is joined to
a common point, and the other end of each of them is joined to another common point, then the
resistors are said to be connected in parallel and such circuits are known as parallel circuits.

Let I1, I2 and I3 be the currents in resistors R1, R2 and R3 respectively.

Now, I = I1 +I2 + I3

= V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3 = V {1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3}

I/V = 1/R1+1/R2+1/R3

By Ohm‟s Law, V/I = R,

1/R = 1/R1+1/R2+1/R3

Fig:1.1.4. Parallel circuit [Ref: DSI ppt]

Analysis of Parallel Circuit:

i. The same voltage appears across all the resistances.

ii. The current is distributed in each resistance. The sum of the branch current is equal to the
applied current.

iii. Total Power dissipated by the circuit is equal to the sum of the power dissipated by each
resistor.

Problems:

1.A resistor of 12 is connected in series with a combination of 15 and 20 resistors in

parallel. A voltage of 120 V is applied across the whole circuit. Find (i) Current taken from the
supply. (ii) Voltage across the 12 resistor.

Solution:

i) Net resistance of the parallel branch AB is

RAB = 15 x 20 / (15 + 20) = 300 / 35 = 8.57

Series resistance RBC = 12

Therefore, total circuit resistance = 12 + 8.57 = 20.57

Current drawn from the supply

I = 120 / 20.57 = 5.83 A

ii) Voltage across 12 resistor,

VBC = RBC x I = 12 x 5.83 = 70 V.

(2) If the total power dissipated in the network shown in figure is 16 watts, find the value of R
and the total current?

Solution:

Given : V = 8 volts
Total power dissipated, P = 16 watts

Power, P = V2 / Req
Where Req = combined or equivalent resistance of the circuit.

Therefore, 16 = 82 / Req or Req = 4

Also Req = [4R / (4 + R)] + [(8 x 2)/(8 + 2)]

3. Find the current in all branches of the network shown in figure.

Solution:

The various branch currents are:

Branch AB: I + 50 = 11 + 50 = 39 Amps from A to B

Branch BC: I 10 = 11 10 = 21 Amps or 21 Amp from C to B

Branch CD: I + 50 = 11 + 50 = 39 Amps from C to D

Branch DE: I 70 = 11 70 = 81 Amps or 81 Amps from E to D

Branch EF: I = 11 Amps or 11 Amps from F to E

Branch FA: I 30 = 11 30 = 41 Amps or 41 Amps from A to F

4. What is the difference of potential between the points X and Y in the network shown?
Solution: Consider the loop including AX

Total resistance = 2 + 3 = 5 ohms.

Current through AX = 2/5 = 0.4 A (from A to X)

Drop across 3 ohms resistor = 0.4 x 3 = 1.2 V

Consider the other loop

Total resistance = 5 + 3 = 8 ohms.

Current through ZY = 4/8 =0.5 A. (from Z to Y) .

Drop across 3 ohms resistor = 0.5 x 3 = 1.5 V

Drop between X and Y is = drop across 3 ohms (XA) + drop across AZ + drop across 3 ohms
(ZY)
1.2 + 4 1.5 = 3.7 V

5.Find the current flowing through the galvanometer G in the Wheatstone bridge network shown
below.
Solution:

Consider the loop abda

25I1 50I3 + 20I2 = 0

5I1 10I3 + 4I2 = 0---------------------------------- (i)

Consider the loop bcdb

10(I1 I3) + 15 ( I2 + I3) + 50 I3 = 0

2I1 + 3I2 + 15I3 = 0 -------------------------- (ii) (divided by 5)

Consider the loop adcEa

20I2 15(I2 + I3) - 2I + 25 = 0

But I = I1 + I2

Substituting this value in the above equation

20I2 15(I2 + I3) - 2(I1 + I2) + 25 = 0

2I1 37I2 15I3 + 25 = 0 ---------------------------- (iii)

6.Two storage batteries A and B are connected in parallel to supply a load of 0.30 ohm. The open
circuit e.m.f. of A is 11.7 V and that of B is 12.3 V. The internal resistance are 0.06 ohm and
1.5 ohm respectively. Find the current supplied to the load.

Solution:

Let the currents supplied by the batteries be I1 and I2 respectively.

Current through load, I = I1 + I2

Applying Kirchoff‟s second law to loops ABCDA and FBCGF we have

0.06I1 0.05I2 + 11.7 12.3 = 0

or 0.06I1 0.05I2 = 11.7 12.3

or 0.06I1 0.05I2 = 0.6 ---------------------------- (i)

0.06I1 0.3(I1 + I2) + 11.7 = 0

or 0.36I1 + 0.3I2 = 11.7 ------------------------------ (ii)

Multiplying expression (i) by 6, we get

0.36I1 0.3I2 = 3.6 --------------------------- (iii)

Subtracting expression (iii) from expression (ii), we get

0.6I2 = 15.3
 or I2 = 25.5 Amps
Substituting the value of I2 in eqn (i), we get

0.06I1 (0.05 25.5) = 0.6

or 0.06I1 = 1.275 0.6 = 0.675

I1 = 11.25 Amps

Current through the load of 0.3 ohm

I = I1 + I2 = 11.25 + 25.50 = 36.75 Amps.

 UNIT-1

MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

Magnetic Circuit

The magnetic circuit is the closed path described by the magnetic flux.

Consider an iron ring in which magnetic flux is produced due to which current flowing through
the coil and its circuit having length „l‟ metres which is shown in figure 1 below.

Fig:1.2.1. Magnetic Circuit

Important Definitions:

1. Magnetic Field: The space or surrounding region of a magnet in which magnetic effect is
felt is called as magnetic field. Consider a bar magnet. The magnetic field of magnet is
represented by imaginary lines around it and is known as magnetic lines of forces. And
their direction always starts from north to south pole.

Fig:1.2.2. Magnetic Field

2. Magnetic Flux: The total number of magnetic lines of force in a magnetic field is called flux
and its notation is represented by Greek Letter (phi) and its unit is weber (Wb).

3. Magnetic Flux Density: It is defined as the number of lines per unit area. Its notation is B

Flux density B = /A Wb/m2

where is the flux and A is the area of cross section and its unit is weber per square meter
or Tesla.

4. Magnetomotive Force or M.M.F: M.M.F is defined as the magnetic force, which creates
magnetic flux is a magnetic material. The unit is ampere turns (AT).

M.M.F = N I

Where, N = Number of turns in the coil

I = Current through the coil

Or M.M.F = Flux × Reluctance = × R

5. Reluctance: Reluctance is the property of a magnetic material by virtue of which it opposes

the creation of magnetic flux in it. Its unit is ampere turns per weber (AT/Wb).

It is directly proportional to the length of the magnetic material and inversely proportional to its
area of cross section.

R = l/ µ a = l / µo µr a

Where, l = length of the magnetic material

a = area of cross section

µ = a constant known as the absolute permeability of the magnetic material = µo µr

µo = permeability of the free space or air = 4π ×10-7 per metre ( H / m)

µr = relative permeability of the magnetic material.

6. Permeability: The ability of a material to conduct magnetic flux through it is called

permeability of that material. Permeability of a material means its conductivity for magnetic
flux. The greater the permeability of a material, the greater is its conductivity for magnetic flux
and vice versa. It is represented by Greek letter µ(mu).
 7. Absolute Permeability: Absolute permeability of a magnetic material indicates the ability of
that material to allow magnetic flux to be created in that material. Absolute permeability of air
of vacuum is represented by mo and its value is 4π ×10-7 H/m.

It can also be defined as the flux induced in the magnetic material per unit magnetizing force.

µ = B/H, where, H = magnetizing force

8. Relative Permeability: It is the ratio of the permeability of material ( µ ) to the permeability

of air or vacuum(µo ) is called Relative permeability of a that material .

Relative permeability = permeability of material/ permeability of air

µr = µ / µo

9. Magnetic Field Strength Or Magnetic Field Intensity Of Magnetizing Force: The

Magnetic Field Intensity: at a point in a magnetic field in the force acting on a unit N- pole
placed at that point. It is notated by the letter H. Its unit is Newton/ weber.

H = Ampere turns/ Length = NI/l AT/m

10. Magnetic Susceptibility: The ratio between the intensity of magnetism produced in a
substance to the magnetism force producers in it is called the magnetic susceptibility of the
substance.

Magnetic Susceptibility = Intensity of Magnetisation [I]/ Magnetism Force [H]

11. Permeance: It is the reciprocal of reluctance.

Permeance: It is also defined as the property of the magnetic circuit due to which it allows
flow of the flux theough it.Permeance = 1/Reluctance It is measured in weber per
amperes(Wb/A).

Analogy between electric and magnetic circuits

Electric Circuits Magnetic Circuits

1. Path traced by the Path traced by the flux is

current is called as electric called as magnetic circuit
circuit

2. E.M.F. drives current M.M.F produces magnetic

through an electric circuit . flux in a magnetic material.
E.M.F = current × M.M.F = flux × reluctance =
resistance = I ×R ×R

3. Current density = J = Flux density = B = /a

I/a

4. Resistance = R =ρ l / Reluctance = R = l / µ a
a =l/σa

5. Here KCL and KVL Kirchoff‟s MMF, law and flux

applicable to the electric law is applicable to the
circuit magnetic circuit

Magnetic field due to electric current

When a current flows through a wire a magnetic field is produced. In figure 3(a) shows a straight
conductor through which a steady current is flowing from left to right. The magnetic field lines
will be in the form of concentric circles around the wire. The direction of this field is given by
as we know from the Right hand thumb rule. “ Stretch the thumb of your right hand along the
current, the curl(natural bend) of fingers gives the direction of the magnetic field”.

When the conductor is placed perpendicular to the paper. The conductor is represented by a
small circle and the direction of current is then shown by putting a dot(.) or a cross (×) represents
a current entering the paper (fig.1.2.3 c). In the fig1.2.3 b, the thumb is stretched upward and
hence the magnetic field is anticlockwise. In fig.1.2.3 c, the thumb is stretched downward and
the magnetic field is clockwise.

Fig:1.2.3. Magnetic field due to electric current in a conductor

Magnetic field due to a Coil

The direction of magnetic field produced at the centre of a current carrying coil is also given by
Right hand thumb rule. But here the role of current and magnetic field is exchanged: “ If you
bend the fingers of the right hand pointing in the direction of current flow, the thumb points in
the direction of magnetic field lines.”

Fig:1.2.4. Direction of magnetic field due to current in a coil.

From the above fig.1.2.4(a) ,the current flow is clockwise, hence the magnetic field points
downward. In even looking at fig.1.2.4 (b), the current flow in anticlockwise direction and the
magnetic field points upwards. A coil thus acts like small flat magnet.

Magnetic field due to a Solenoid

Solenoid is a wire which is wound closely in the form of a helix which is shown in fig.1.2.5.
Here the wire is coated with an insulating material so that the adjacent turns are electrically
insulated from each other. The length of the solenoid is large compared to its radius. The
magnetic field flux produced by each turn tends to link up and the net field pattern is very similar
to that of a bar magnet. By applying right hand thumb rule, we find that the left end of this
solenoid is N-pole and right end is S-pole. The solenoids produce strong magnetic field for such
applications as relays, transformers and circuit breakers.

Fig:1.2.5. Magnetic field due to a coils of many turns.

Force on a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field

Consider a small conductor of length dl perpendicular to the magnetic field B which is shown in
fig.1.2.6(a). If it carries a current I, it experiences a force given by

dF = I dl × B ....................................................................... 1

This is the magnetic analog of the electric force experienced by a charge q placed in an electric
field E, given a F = q E. And hence we noticed that the force is proportional to I, dl and B and
is perpendicular to both dl and B.

From the fig.1.2.6(a) the angle between the length vector dl and the field B is 90 degree. Hence
the expression of equation 1 reduces to dF = I dl B.

For a conductor of length l, carrying current I placed perpendicularly in the magnetic field of
strength B, the force on the conductor is

F = I l B. ........................................................................................ 2

If the current carrying conductor placed at angle ș to the magnetic field (fig1.2.6(c)), its effective
length is

Lsinș, and hence the force experienced by the conductor will be

F = I l Bsinș ............................................................................... 3

and if the conductor is placed along the field B, the angle ș = 0, and the force on the conductor to
reduces to zero.

And one of the best rule in finding the direction of force on a current carrying conductor placed
in a magnetic field is Fleming‟s left hand rule. Statement of the rule is “ Stretch the first finger
and the thumb of your left hand is mutually perpendicular directions, the first finger points in the
direction of magnetic field and the central finger to the direction of current, the thumb then
points in the direction of force on the conductor.

Fig:1.2.6. Force on a current carrying conductor

Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction:

Faraday’s First Law:

Whenever the flux linking with a coil, a circuit changes an emf will be induced in the coil.

Faraday’s Second Law:

The magnitude of the induced emf in a coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux
linking with the coil.

Consider a coil having N turns and the flux which is linking the coil changes from initial value
i.e 1 Wb and changes to the final value to 2 Wb for the time t secs.
Therefore, E.M.F induced = Change in flux linkages/ Time Volts

e=N 2 N 1 / t volts

The above equation can be re-written as

e = N( 2 1 )/ t volts

The equation or expression written in differential form ie

e = d(N )/dt volts

e = -N d /dt volts

and the notation for the above expression i.e., e = emf induced in the circuit (volts)

N = Number of turns of the coil

d = Change in flux

dt = Change in time

and even in the above expression „-‟ sign indicates that the induced emf sets current in such a
direction that the magnetic effect produced by it opposes the very cause producing it.

Lenz’s Law
Statement: The direction of the induced emf is such that it opposes the very cause of it.

Mathematically it is expressed as e = N d /dt.

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule:

This rule is used to find out the direction of the force on the conductor. When the thumb, fore
finger and the middle finger of the left hand are held perpendicular to each other in such a way
that the fore finger is in the direction of the field, the middle finger in the direction of the current,
then the thumb will point to the direction of motion (unknown). This rule is represented in
fig:1.2.7 This rule is used in the D C Motors.

Fig:1.2.7(a). Fleming’s Left hand rule.[Ref: DSI ppt]

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule: When the thumb, forefinger and middle finger of the right
hand are held mutually perpendicular to each other in such a way that, the thumb is in the
direction of the motion of the conductor, the fore finger in the direction of magnetic field, then
the middle finger shows the direction of the induced emf (unknown). This rule is represented in
figure 7 b.

This rule is used in the D C Generators.

 Fig:1.2.7(b). Fleming’ right rule. [Ref:DSI ppt]

Methods of producing induced emf:

There are two methods of producing induced emf

1. Dynamically induced emf

2. Statically induced emf

Dynamically induced emf: When a conductor is moved in a magnetic field or vice versa the
flux linking the coil changes and an emf will be induced. This emf is called dynamically induced
emf.

Consider the magnetic field with constant flux density B Tesla, represented by the magnetic
lines of flux as shown in fig.1.2.8 (a) . Consider a conductor of length l and area of cross section
a.
 Fig:1.2.8(a) Dynamically induced emf.

The induced emf may be produced in the coil by the following three methods.

1. When the conductor is placed parallel to the direction of magnetic field

2. When the conductor is placed perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field

3. When the conductor moves in the direction of making an angle ș, with the direction of
magnetic lines of flux

1. When the conductor moves with the velocity v in the direction I, which is parallel to the lines
of flux and hence it does not cut any flux. And hence no emf is induced.

2. When the conductor moves with the velocity v in the direction II, which is perpendicular to the
lines of flux and hence it cuts the maximum flux. And hence emf is induced is also maximum.
To find an expression for the maximum induced emf, let us consider the conductor moves
through a small distance dx in dt seconds. Then the flux cut by the conductor is given by

d = B × l dx

The rate at which the flux is cut, is given by,

d /dt = B × l dx /dt = B l v
According to Faraday‟s laws of electromagnetic induction, the above equation is nothing but the
emf induced in the conductor is maximum

Therefore e = B l v = E m volts

3. When the conductor moves in the direction III, of making an angle ș, with the direction of
magnetic lines of flux with the velocity v, the component of velocity perpendicular to the
direction of flux is vsinș, as shown in fig1.2.8 (b). Hence, the emf induced in the conductor is
B l v sinș

Therefore e = B l v sinș = Em sinș volts

Fig:1.2.8(b) Changing angle ϴ

The component of velocity v cosș, which is in the direction of the lines of flux, does not
contribute anything for the emf induced. The direction of the dynamically induced emf is given
by Fleming‟s Right Hand Rule.

Statically induced emf: When an ac voltage is applied to a coil, an alternating current flows
through the coil, and the flux linking with the coil changes with respect to time. Hence an emf is
induced in the coil. This emf is called statically induced emf.

Or

It can also be defined as when a conductor is stationary and the magnetic field is moving or
changing , the emf induced is called statically induced emf.

Statically induced emf may be:

 a) Self-induced emf

b) Mutually induced emf

Self-induced emf: When a current flowing through a coil changes, the flux linking with the coil
also changes, which results in an emf and is called self-induced emf.

Mathematically,

e di /dt or e = L di / dt.

where L is called co-efficient of self-induction or self-inductance.

L = e / (di / dt).

Co-efficient of Self Inductance(L) or Self Inductance:

The self-inductance of a coil is its property by virtue of which, it always opposes any change in
the value of the current flowing through it.

The self-inductance of a coil may also be defined as its property by virtue of which an emf is
induced in it, whenever an alternating current flows through it.

The self-inductance of a coil may also be defined as the number of weber turns produced per
ampere in the coil
L = N /I = N N I/I R = N2/l/ 0 r a
L = 0 r aN2 / l Henry. l is the length of the electromagnet.

Mutually Induced EMF:

Consider two coils A and B placed close to each other and an alternating voltage is applied and
the flux produced by one (A) coil is linked with the another (B) coil and due to change in this
flux produced by first coil there is an induced emf in the second coil it is called mutually induced
emf. and the emf induced in the first coil and the flux is produced is called self induced emf

Consider two coils of turns N1 and N2, placed close to each other as shown in fig.1.2.9 (a)
 Fig:1.2.9( a) Mutually induced emf

e1 = -N1 d 1/dt volts ....................................................................... 1

This is known as the self induced emf in the coil 1.

Due to flux of coil 1 also links the coil 2 . The flux 12 which links both the coil 1 and coil 2,
which is called mutual flux between the two coils. The flux 11 links only coil1. Hence the flux
1 is the sum of the two fluxes

1 = 11 + 12 ………………………………..2

The mutual flux 12 linking coil 2, induces an emf e12 in that coil. This emf is called as mutually
induced emf and is given by

e12 = -N2 d 12 / dt ........................................................................ 3

The equation for e12 may also be written as

e12 = - M12 di1 / dt........................................................................... 4

= emf induced in coil 2, due to the current flowing in coil 1

M12 is known as the mutual inductance between coil 1 and coil 2. The equation for the mutual
inductance M12 may be written as

M12 = N2 d 12 / di1 .......................................................................................................................5

Similarly, when coil 2 is supplied with alternating current i2, producing a total flux 2 is shown in
fig.1.2.9( b)

Fig:1.2.9( b) Mutually induced emf.

2 = 22 + 21 ……………………………….6

Where , 2= total flux produced in coil 2.

22 = flux that links only coil2

21 = flux that links both coil2 and coil1.

The self induced emf in coil 2 is given by

e2 = -N2 d 2/dt volts ......................................................................... 7

The mutually induced emf in coil1 is given by

e21 = -N1 d 21 / dt = - M21 di2 / dt ................................................ 8

M21 = N1 d 21 / di2

M21 is the mutual inductance between coil 2 and coil 1.

As the coupling between the two coils is bilateral, which means that, the coupled circuit has the
same characteristics in both directions,

M12 = M21 = M ............................................................................. 9

Hence, the mutual inductance between any two coils, placed close to each other, is defined as the
ability of one coil to induce an emf in the other coil, when an alternating current flows through
one of the coils.

M = N2 d 12 / di1 = N1 d 21 / di2 ................................................................................ 10

Co-Efficient of Coupling (K):

The Co-Efficient of coupling is the ratio of the mutual flux to the total flux.
K12 = 12 / 1 and K21 = 21 / 2.......................... 11

As the coupling is bilateral K12 = K21 = K ........................................ 12

12 = K 1 21 = K 2
………….13
From the equation 9 ie M12 = M21 = M

M2 = M12 . M21 = N2 d 12 / di1 × N1 d 21 / di2

N1 N2 d(K 1)/di1 × d(K 2)/di2 = K2 N1 d 1/ di1 × N2 d 2 / di2

= K2 L1 L2

M = K L1L2 or K = M / L1L2 ...................................... 14

Energy Stored in a Inductor Field

Consider a pure inductive coil i.e an ideal inductor of having inductance L henry.

When the current flowing through a coil increases from zero to maximum value, the increase is
opposed by the self-induced emf. and energy is needed to overcome this opposition is stored in
the magnetic field of the coil.

Let i be the instantaneous value of the current

„e‟ be the induced emf due to current „i‟ flowing in the coil

= L di/dt
Where L is the inductance of the coil in henry.

Work done in time dt to overcome this opposition is

dw = ei dt

= (Ldi/dt)idt

= Lidi

Total work done

dw = Li x di

W = (1/2)LI2 joules

Energy stored = (½)LI 2 Joules

And Inductance from Geometrical Viewpoint: Combining Faraday‟s law of electromagnetic

induction equation

e= N dφ/dt = L di/dt or L = N dφ/dt ............................ 1

The rate of change of flux with current is constant and the above equation can be written as

L = N φ/I ......................................................................... 2

And also from the equation of flux and reluctance,

Φ = NI/R.......................................................................... from definition of flux

R = l/µ A ...................................................... from definition of reluctance

And equation 2 becomes

L = N2 µ A/l
…………………………………………………………………………………………4

The above equation shows that the inductance depends on the physical dimensions of the coil
and the magnetic properties of the core material.

Problems:
1.A wire of length 1m moves at right angles to its length at 60 meter per sec in a uniform
magnetic field of density 1 Wb/m2. Calculate the emf induced in the conductor, when the
direction of motion is (a) Perpendicular to the field (b) Parallel to the field and (c) Inclined at
30degree to the direction of the field.

Solution:

(a) When the conductor moves perpendicular to the direction of the field, emf induced is
maximum. E = Blv volts = 1×1×60 = 60 volts

(b) When the conductor moves parallel to the lines of flux, emf induced is 0.

(c) e=Blvsinș = 60 × sin 30 = 30 volts

2. A coil consists of 600 turns and a current of 10A in the coil gives rise to a magnetic flux
of 1 milliweber. Calculate i) Self inductance ii) The emf induced and iii)The energy stored
when the current is reversed in 0.01 second.

Solution:

N = 600, I = 10A , = 1mWb

I) L = N /I = 600 × 1 ×10 -3/10 = 0.06

II) Current is reversed in 0.01 sec i.e. I2 = -10A, I1 = 10A

III) e = -LdI/dt = -L I2-I1/∆t = -0.006[-10-10]/0.01 120v

IV) E = ½ LI2 = ½ × 0.06 × (10)2 = 3J

3. Two coils having 1,000 turns and 1,600 turns respectively are placed close to each other
such that , 60% of the flux produced by one coil links the other. If a current of 10A, flowing
in the first coil, produces a flux of 0.5 mWb, find the inductance of the second coil.

Solution:

L1 = N1 1 / I1 = 1000 × 0.5 × 10-3/10 =0.05H, k = 60% = 0.6

M = N2 12 /I1 = 1600 × (0.5 × 10-3× 0.6)/10 = 0.048H

K = M/ L1L2 or L2 = M2/ K2 × 1/L1 = 0.0482/0.62 × 1/0.05 = 0.128

 SINGLE PHASE AC CIRCUITS.
Generation of Alternating Voltages and Currents:

Alternating voltage may be generated:

1 .By rotating coil in a magnetic field.

2.By rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil.

3.In each case, the value of the alternating voltage generated depends upon the number of turns
in the coil, the strength of the magnetic field and the speed at which the coil or magnetic field
rotates.

.
4. Fig:2.1.1. Generation of sinusoidal voltage.[Ref:DSI ppt]

Consider rectangular coil of N turns rotating in the anticlockwise direction, with an angular
velocity of ω radians per second in a uniform magnetic field as shown in figure. Time is
measured from the instant of coincidence of the plane of the coil with the x-axis. At this instant
maximum flux, ø max, links with the coil. As the coil rotates, the flux linking with it changes and
hence e.m.f is induced in it. Let the coil turn through an angle in time "t "seconds, and let it
assume the position as shown in figure.
When the coil is rotated, the maximum flux is acting vertically downwards. This flux can be
resolved into two components, each perpendicular to the other, namely:

1. Component max sin t, is parallel to the plane of the coil. This component does not induce
e.m.f. as it is parallel to the plane of the coil.
2. Component max cos t, is perpendicular to the plane of coil. This component induces
e.m.f. in the coil.
0
Flux linkages of coil at the instant (at ) = No of turns * flux= N max cos t

By Faraday‟s law of electromagnetic induction, instantaneous e.m.f. „e‟ induced in a coil at the
instant is given by

Fig:2.1.2. Generated sinusoidal waveform [Ref: DSI ppt]

=N max ( sin t )

e= N max sin t volts ----(i)

From eqn. (i) e will be maximum (Em) , when the coil has rotated through 90 (as sin 90 = 1).

Thus Em = N max volts ----(ii)

Substituting the value of N max from equation (ii) in equation (i),

e = Em sin t ----(iii)

We know that = t

e = Em sin
 From the above expression the alternating e.m.f. induced in a coil is instantaneous and varies
according to the sine of the angle ( or t).

As, = 2 f, where „f‟ is the frequency of rotation of the coil. Hence equation (iii) can be written
as e = Em sin 2 ft ----(iv)

If T = time period of the alternating voltage = 1/f, then eqn. (iv) becomes e = Em sin( (2 /T) t)

The alternating quantity varies according to the sine function of the time angle t, and if e.m.f.
induced is plotted versus time, a curve is obtained which is called sinusoidal e.m.f.

Important Definitions:

1. Alternating quantity: An alternating quantity is one which acts alternately in positive

and negative directions, whose magnitude undergoes a definite series of changes in
definite intervals of time and in which the sequence of changes while negative is identical
with the sequence of changes while positive.

2. Instantaneous value: The value of an alternating quantity at any instant is called

instantaneous value.„e and i‟ represent the instantaneous values of alternating voltage and
current respectively.

3. Cycle: A set of positive and negative half cycle (emf or current) is called one cycle.

4. Time period and frequency: The time taken in seconds by an alternating quantity to
complete one cycle is known as time period and is donated by T. The number of cycles
completed per second by an alternating quantity is known as frequency and is denoted by
„f‟. in hertz. The number of cycles per second = f.

Time Period = T = Time taken for one cycle = 1 / f or f = 1 / T

In India, the standard frequency for power supply is 50 Hz and in USA it is 60Hz.

5. Amplitude: The maximum value of positive or negative alternating quantity during one
complete cycle is called amplitude or peak value or maximum value. Em and Im
represent the amplitude of alternating voltage and current respectively.
6. Concept of leading and lagging: If the two quantities (V and I) do not reach their peak
at the same time then we can say that two quantities are having phase difference. The
quantity which reaches its peak early is called leading. Quantity which reaches its peak
later is called lagging. All the loads are either resistive or inductive in nature where
current is in phase or lagging.
 7. Root-Mean-Square (R.M.S) Value: The r.m.s. or effective value, of an alternating
current is defined as that steady current which when flowing through a given resistance
for a given time produces the same amount of heat as produced by the alternating current,
when flowing through the same resistance for the same time.

Fig:2.1.3. RMS value[Ref: DSI ppt]

This is an integral method and is very useful in finding the r.m.s. or effective value of sinusoidal
waves. The equation of an alternating current varying sinusoidally is given by

i = I m sin

Consider an elementary strip of thickness d in the first half cycle of the squared wave, as shown
in figure. Let i be the mid-ordinate of this strip.

Area of the strip = i d

Area of first half-cycle of squared wave

= dș

= dș (∵ i = Im sin ș)
=

= Im2
d
2
=
 =

Irms =

Irms =

Irm =

Irms = = 0.707Im

Hence, for a sinusoidal current,

R.M.S value of current, I = 0.707* maximum value of current.

Similarly, E = 0.707 Em

Average Value:

Fig:2.1.4. Average Value. [Ref:DSI ppt]

The equation of a sinusoidally varying alternating voltage is given by e = Em sin .

Let us take an elementary strip of thickness d in first half-cycle as shown in figure. Let the mid-
ordinate of this strip be ‟e‟.

Area of the strip = e d

Area of first half- cycle= Em sin d = Em [ 1 1] = 2Em

Average value, Eav = Area of half cycle /base = 2Em/

or Eav = 0.637 Em

Similarly, for alternating current varying sinusoidally,

Iav = 0.637 Im

Average value of current = 0.637 * maximum value.

Form Factor and Crest or Peak or Amplitude Factor (Kf):

1. Form factor: The ratio of effective value (r.m.s value) to average value of an alternating
quantity (voltage or current) is called form factor.

Kf =RMS value/Average Value

Kf = 0.707Im/0.637Im

Kf =1.11

2. Crest or peak or amplitude factor (Ka): It is defined as the ratio of the maximum value
to the r.m.s. value of an alternating quantity. Crest factor is important in the testing of
dielectric strength of insulating materials, this is because the breakdown of insulating
materials depends upon the maximum value of voltage.

Kp =Im/0.707Im

Kp =1.414

(i)AC Circuit Containing Pure Resistance: When an alternating voltage is applied to circuit
containing pure resistance, alternating current will be flowing through the circuit.
 Fig:2.1.5. Pure Resistance circuit.[Ref: DSI ppt]

Fig:2.1.6. Current and voltage waveform[Ref: DSI ppt]

Consider an ac circuit with pure resistance „R‟ as shown in figure.

Let the applied voltage v = Vm sin --------- (1)

Due to this applied voltage, current I will flow through the circuit.

By ohm's law v = iR

Substituting the value of 'v' from equation (1) we get,

Vm sin = iR;

i= Vm sin /R--------------(2)

Current I is maximum when sin 𝜃 = 1,

i.e., Im= Vm /R --------- (3)

Substituting (3) in (2) we get

i = Im sin𝜃 ------------- -(4)

From Equation (1) and (4), it shows that I and V are in phase.

Power:

Instantaneous power is given by P = Vm sin Im sin i.e., VmIm sin2

P= VmIm/2*(1-cos2ᵠ) , ᵠ=0,90,180,270,360 ------etc.

P= VmIm/2- (0)= Vm*Im/2=Vrms*Irms= VI

Thus instantaneous power consists of a constant part and a fluctuating part

of frequency doubles that of voltage.

The average value of over a complete cycle is zero.

or P = VI watts.

where, V = rms value of applied voltage and

I = rms value of current.

Power Curve:

Fig:2.1.7. Power waveform of R circuit[Ref: DSI ppt]

ii) AC Circuit Containing Pure Inductance:

Fig:2.1.8(a) Pure inductance circuit Fig:2.1.8(b) Phasor diagram

Fig:2.1.8(c) Current & voltage waveform [Ref:DSI ppt]

From the figure it is clear that current lags behind the applied voltage by /2
Inductive Reactance: =2 fL, is known as inductive reactance in ohms and is denoted by XL
where L is in henry, f is in hertz.

Consider a purely inductive coil, back emf is produced due to the self-inductance of the coil.
This back emf opposes the change in the current at every instant. Because of the absence of
resistance, the applied voltage is equal to self-induced emf.

Let the applied voltage be v = Vm sin t, and the self-inductance of the coil = L Henry.

Self-induced e.m.f. in the coil, = -L

Since applied voltage at every instant is equal and opposite to the self-induced e.m.f., i.e. V= -eL

=-

or di = dt

Integrating both sides, we get

i= dt

or i= (-cos )+ A

Where A is a constant of integration which is found to be zero from initial conditions.

So, i= cos

Or i= sin

Current (I) will be maximum when sin = 1, hence, the value of maximum current,
Im= , and instantaneous current may be expressed as i = Im sin
 Fig:2.1.9 Power waveform[Ref:DSI ppt]

Instantaneous power,

The average value of power for complete cycle is zero. Hence, power absorbed in a pure
inductive circuit is zero.

Power Curve: The power curve for a pure inductive circuit is shown in figure. This indicates
that power absorbed in the circuit is zero (positive power = negative power). Power is positive
when both voltage and current are positive or negative if any one (v or i) is negative then power
becomes negative.
(iii) AC Circuit Containing Pure Capacitance:

Fig:2.1.10 Pure capacitance circuit with phasor diagram[Ref: DSI ppt]

Fig:2.1.11. Pure capacitance circuit. [Ref:DSI ppt]

When an alternating voltage is applied across the plates of a capacitor, the capacitor is charged in
one direction and then in the opposite direction as the voltage reverses.

Let alternating voltage represented by = 'V' volts be applied across a capacitor of capacitance C
Farad.
Instantaneous charge, q = c = CVm sin

Capacitor current is equal to the rate of change of charge, or

i= (CVm sin )= CVm cos

or i= sin

The current is maximum when t = 0, Im =

Substituting = Im in the above expression for instantaneous current, we get

2 2 i = Im sin

Capacitive Reactance: in the expression Im = is known as capacitive reactance and is

denoted by Xc. i.e., Xc =

If C is farads and " ‟ is in radians, then Xc will be in ohms.

If the applied voltage is given by = = , then the

current is given by i = Im sin

This shows that the current in a pure capacitor leads its voltage by a quarter cycle as shown or
phase difference between its voltage and current is with the current leading

1/ c is known as capacitive reactance and is denoted by Xc

 Fig:2.1.12. Power waveform[Ref: DSI ppt]

Power Curve: The power curve for a pure capacitive circuit is shown in figure. This indicates
that power absorbed in the circuit is zero (positive power = negative power). Power is positive
when both voltage and current are positive or negative. If any one (v or i) is negative then power
becomes negative.

R-L Series Circuit:

Fig:2.1.13(a). R-L series circuit Fig:2.1.13(b)Phasor Diagram of ‘L’

 Fig:2.1.13(c) Voltage and Impedance triangle

Let V = r.m.s. value of the applied voltage

I = r.m.s. value of the current

Voltage drop across R, VR = IR (in phase with I)

Voltage drop across L, VL = IXL (leading I by 900)

The applied voltage V is the vector sum of the two (Z.)

V= =

=I

I=

The term offers opposition to current flow and is called the impedance (Z) of the
circuit. It is measured in ohms.

I=

tan =

Z = R +j XL
Where i=j=root of -1
The circuit current lags behind applied voltage by an angle .So, if applied voltage is expressed
as = t, the current is given by i = Im( t - ), where Im =Vm/Z
Power:

Fig: (a) Power waveform[R-L series]

Instantaneous power, P = vi = Vm sin t × Im sin( t - )

= Vm Im sin t .sin( t- )

= Vm Im [cos - cos(2 t- )]

Average power consumed, P = Vm Im cos

P= cos

P = V I cos

Where V and I are r.m.s. values of voltage and current

 Power Triangle :

Apparent Power: The product of rms. values of current and voltage, VI, is called the apparent
power and is measured in volt-amperes (VA) or in kilo-volt amperes (KVA).

S=VI

Real Power: The product of the applied voltage and the active component of the current is
known as real power. It is expressed in watts or kilo-watts (kW).

P= VI cosФ

Reactive Power: It is defined as product of the applied voltage and the reactive component of
the current. It is expressed in volt-ampere reactive (VAR) or kilo volt ampere (kVAR)

Q= VIsinФ

S = P +j Q
Where i=j=root of -1
 R-C Series Circuit:

Consider an ac circuit containing resistance R ohms and capacitance C farads, as shown in the
figure

Fig:2.1.15. R-C series circuit[Ref:DSI ppt]

Fig:2.1.16(a) Voltage triangle Fig:2.1.16(b) Impedance triangle.

 Let V = r.m.s. value of voltage, I = r.m.s. value of current
Voltage drop across R, VR = IR

Voltage drop across C, VC = IXC

The capacitive resistance is negative, so VC is in the negative direction of Y axis, as shown

.
V=

V =

Or I=

Z = R -j Xc
Where i=j=root of -1

Power factor, cos = , I leads V by an angle, tanФ=

I=Im Sin (wt+φ)

Power:
Instantaneous power, P = vi = Vm sin t × Im sin( t + )

= Vm Im sin t .sin( t+ )

= Vm Im [cos - cos(2 t+ )]

Average power consumed, P = Vm Im cos

P= cos

P = V I cos

Where V and I are r.m.s. values of voltage and current

Fig: Power waveform[R-C series]
Series R-L-C circuit:

Fig:2.1.17. Series R-L-C circuit.[Ref:DSI ppt]

(a) (b)

Fig: Phasor diagram of R-L-C series circuit (a) XL>Xc condition

 Consider an a.c. series circuit containing resistance „R‟ ohms, Inductance „L‟ henries and
capacitance 'C‟ farads, as shown above.

Let V = r.m.s. value of applied voltage .I = r.m.s. value of current

Voltage drop across R, VR = IR

Voltage drop across L, VL = IXL
Voltage drop across C, VC = IXC
AD = AB AC

= AB BD (because BD = AC)

= VL Vc

= I(XL Xc)

OD, which represents the applied voltage V, is the vector sum of OA and AD.

OD = OA2 + AD2 or V = (IR)2 + (IXL IXc)2

= I R2 + (XL Xc)2

I = V/ R2 + (XL Xc)2 = V/Z.

The denominator R2 +(XL Xc) 2 is the impedance of the circuit.

Z2 = R2 + (XL Xc) 2 = R2 +X2

Phase angle is given by

tan =

Power factor,

cos =

Power = VI cos

If XC > XL , then the current leads and the +ve sign is used If
XL > XC, then the current lags and the –ve sign is used

Z = R + j (XL - XC)
 The value of the impedance is
Z=

The phase angle = tan-1

Z =Z tan-1

Z =Z tan-1

The three cases of RLC Series Circuit

 When XL > XC, the phase angle ϕ is positive. The circuit behaves as RL series
circuit in which the current lags behind the applied voltage and the power factor is
lagging.
 When XL < XC, the phase angle ϕ is negative, and the circuit acts as a series
RC circuit in which the current leads the voltage by 90 degrees.
 When XL = XC, the phase angle ϕ is zero, as a result, the circuit behaves like a
purely resistive circuit. In this type of circuit, the current and voltage are in phase
with each other. The value of the power factor is unity.

Drawing of the phasor diagram for a series RLC circuit energized by a sinusoidal
voltage showing the relative position of current, component voltage and applied
voltage for the following case

a) When XL > Xc
b) When XL < Xc
c) When XL = Xc.
RLC Circuit:

Consider a circuit in which R, L, and C are connected in series with each other
across ac supply as shown in fig.

The ac supply is given by,

V = Vm sin wt
The circuit draws a current I. Due to that different voltage drops are,
1) Voltage drop across Resistance R is VR = IR
2) Voltage drop across Inductance L is VL = IXL
3) Voltage drop across Capacitance C is Vc = IXc The characteristics of three
drops are,
1. VR is in phase with current I
 2. VL leads I by 900
3. Vc lags I by 900
According to krichoff’s laws

Steps to draw phasor diagram:

1. Take current I as reference
2. VR is in phase with current I

3. VL leads current by 900

4. Vc lags current by 900
5. obtain resultant of VL and Vc. Both VL and Vc are in phase opposition
(1800 out of phase)

6. Add that with VRby law of parallelogram to getsupply voltage.

The phasor diagram depends on the condition of magnitude of V L and Vc which

ultimately depends on values of XL and Xc.
Let us consider different cases:

Case(i): XL > Xc
When X L > Xc
Also VL > Vc (or) IXL > IXc
So, resultant of VL and Vc will directed towards VL i.e. leading current I. Hence I
lags V i.e. current I will lags the resultant of VL and Vc i.e. (VL - Vc). The circuit is said
to be inductive in nature.
From voltage triangle,
V = √ (VR2 + (VL – Vc) 2) = √ ((IR) 2 + (IXL – IXc) 2)
V = I √ (R2 + (XL – Xc) 2)
V = IZ
Z = √ (R2 + (XL - Xc) 2 )
If , V = Vm Sin wt ; i = Im Sin (wt - ф)
i.e I lags V by angle ф

Case(ii): XL < Xc
When XL < Xc
Also VL < Vc (or) IXL < IXc
Hence the resultant of V L and Vc will directed towards Vc i.e current is said to be
capacitive in nature Form voltage triangle

i.e I lags V by angle ф

Case(iii): XL = Xc
When XL = Xc
Also VL = Vc (or) IXL = IXc

So VL and Vc cancel each other and the resultant is zero. So V = V R in such a case, the
circuit is purely resistive in nature. (Resonance )

Impedance:
In general for RLC series circuit impedance is given by,
Z=R+jX
X = XL – Xc = Total reactance of the circuit

If XL > Xc ; X is positive & circuit is Inductive

If XL < Xc ; X is negative & circuit is Capacitive
If XL = Xc ; X =0 & circuit is purely Resistive
Tan ф = [(XL - Xc )∕R]
Cos ф = [R∕Z]
Z = √ (R2 + (XL - Xc ) 2)
Impedance triangle:
In both cases R = Z Cos ф

X = Z Sin ф

PARALLEL CIRCUIT:
In a parallel ac. circuit, the voltage across each branch of the circuit is the same whereas current
in each branch depends upon the branch impedance. Since alternating currents are vector
quantities, total line current is the vector sum of branch currents. Three methods of solving
parallel ac. circuits:
• Vector method.
• Admittance method.
• Symbolic or j- method.

VECTOR METHOD
ADMITTANCE METHOD
In the above parallel RLC circuit, we can see that the supply voltage, V S is common to all three
components whilst the supply current IS consists of three parts. The current flowing through the
resistor, IR, the current flowing through the inductor, I L and the current through the capacitor, IC.
But the current flowing through each branch and therefore each component will be different to each
other and also to the supply current, IS. The total current drawn from the supply will not be the
mathematical sum of the three individual branch currents but their vector sum.
Like the series RLC circuit, we can solve this circuit using the phasor or vector method but this time
the vector diagram will have the voltage as its reference with the three current vectors plotted with
respect to the voltage. The phasor diagram for a parallel RLC circuit is produced by combining
together the three individual phasors for each component and adding the currents vectorially.
Since the voltage across the circuit is common to all three circuit elements we can use this as the
reference vector with the three current vectors drawn relative to this at their corresponding angles. The
resulting vector current IS is obtained by adding together two of the vectors, IL and IC and then adding
this sum to the remaining vector IR. The resulting angle obtained between V and IS will be the circuits
phase angle as shown below.

Phasor Diagram for a Parallel RLC Circuit

We can see from the phasor diagram on the right hand side above that the current vectors produce a
rectangular triangle, comprising of hypotenuse IS, horizontal axis IR and vertical axis IL –
IC Hopefully you will notice then, that this forms a Current Triangle. We can therefore use
Pythagoras’s theorem on this current triangle to mathematically obtain the individual magnitudes of
the branch currents along the x-axis and y-axis which will determine the total supply current I S of
these components as shown.
Current Triangle for a Parallel RLC Circuit

Since the voltage across the circuit is common to all three circuit elements, the current through each
branch can be found using Kirchhoff’s Current Law, (KCL). Rember that Kirchhoff’s current law or
junction law states that “the total current entering a junction or node is exactly equal to the current
leaving that node”. Thus the currents entering and leaving node “A” above are given as:

Taking the derivative, dividing through the above equation by C and then re-arranging gives us the
following Second-order equation for the circuit current. It becomes a second-order equation because
there are two reactive elements in the circuit, the inductor and the capacitor.
The opposition to current flow in this type of AC circuit is made up of three
components: XL XC and R with the combination of these three values giving the circuits
impedance, Z. We know from above that the voltage has the same amplitude and phase in all the
components of a parallel RLC circuit. Then the impedance across each component can also be
described mathematically according to the current flowing through, and the voltage across each
element as.

Impedance of a Parallel RLC Circuit

You will notice that the final equation for a parallel RLC circuit produces complex impedance’s for
each parallel branch as each element becomes the reciprocal of impedance, ( 1/Z ). The reciprocal of
impedance is commonly called Admittance, symbol ( Y ).
In parallel AC circuits it is generally more convenient to use admittance to solve complex branch
impedance’s especially when two or more parallel branch impedance’s are involved (helps with the
math’s). The total admittance of the circuit can simply be found by the addition of the parallel
admittances. Then the total impedance, ZT of the circuit will therefore be 1/YT Siemens as shown.

Impedance of a Parallel RLC Circuit

You will notice that the final equation for a parallel RLC circuit produces complex impedance’s for
each parallel branch as each element becomes the reciprocal of impedance, ( 1/Z ). The reciprocal of
impedance is commonly called Admittance, symbol ( Y ).
In parallel AC circuits it is generally more convenient to use admittance to solve complex branch
impedance’s especially when two or more parallel branch impedance’s are involved (helps with the
math’s). The total admittance of the circuit can simply be found by the addition of the parallel
admittances. Then the total impedance, ZT of the circuit will therefore be 1/YT Siemens as shown.

Admittance of a Parallel RLC Circuit

The unit of measurement now commonly used for admittance is the Siemens, abbreviated as S, ( old
unit mho’s ℧, ohm’s in reverse ). Admittances are added together in parallel branches, whereas
impedance’s are added together in series branches. But if we can have a reciprocal of impedance, we
can also have a reciprocal of resistance and reactance as impedance consists of two
components, R and X. Then the reciprocal of resistance is called Conductance and the reciprocal of
reactance is called Susceptance.

Conductance, Admittance and Susceptance

The units used for conductance, admittance and susceptance are all the same namely Siemens ( S ),
which can also be thought of as the reciprocal of Ohms or ohm-1, but the symbol used for each
element is different and in a pure component this is given as:

Admittance ( Y ) :
Admittance is the reciprocal of impedance, Z and is given the symbol Y. In AC circuits admittance is
defined as the ease at which a circuit composed of resistances and reactances allows current to flow
when a voltage is applied taking into account the phase difference between the voltage and the
current.
The admittance of a parallel circuit is the ratio of phasor current to phasor voltage with the angle of
the admittance being the negative to that of impedance.

Conductance ( G ) :
Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance, R and is given the symbol G. Conductance is defined as
the ease at which a resistor (or a set of resistors) allows current to flow when a voltage, either AC or
DC is applied.

Susceptance ( B ) :
Susceptance is the reciprocal of of a pure reactance, X and is given the symbol B. In AC circuits
susceptance is defined as the ease at which a reactance (or a set of reactances) allows an alternating
current to flow when a voltage of a given frequency is applied.
Susceptance has the opposite sign to reactance so Capacitive susceptance BC is positive, (+ve) in
value while Inductive susceptance BL is negative, (-ve) in value.
We can therefore define inductive and capacitive susceptance as being:

In AC series circuits the opposition to current flow is impedance, Z which has two components,
resistance R and reactance, X and from these two components we can construct an impedance
triangle. Similarly, in a parallel RLC circuit, admittance, Y also has two components,
conductance, G and susceptance, B. This makes it possible to construct an admittance triangle that
has a horizontal conductance axis, G and a vertical susceptance axis, jB as shown.

Admittance Triangle for a Parallel RLC Circuit

Now that we have an admittance triangle, we can use Pythagoras to calculate the magnitudes of all
three sides as well as the phase angle as shown.
from Pythagoras
Then we can define both the admittance of the circuit and the impedance with respect to admittance
as:

Giving us a power factor angle of:

As the admittance, Y of a parallel RLC circuit is a complex quantity, the admittance corresponding to
the general form of impedance Z = R + jX for series circuits will be written as Y = G – jB for parallel
circuits where the real part G is the conductance and the imaginary part jB is the susceptance. In polar
form this will be given as:

Problem-1
A 1kΩ resistor, a 142mH coil and a 160uF capacitor are all connected in parallel across a 240V, 60Hz
supply. Calculate the impedance of the parallel RLC circuit and the current drawn from the supply.

Impedance of a Parallel RLC Circuit

In an AC circuit, the resistor is unaffected by frequency therefore R = 1kΩ

Inductive Reactance, ( XL ):

Capacitive Reactance, ( XC ):

Impedance, ( Z ):
Supply Current, ( Is ):

Problem-2
A 50Ω resistor, a 20mH coil and a 5uF capacitor are all connected in parallel across a 50V, 100Hz
supply. Calculate the total current drawn from the supply, the current for each branch, the total
impedance of the circuit and the phase angle. Also construct the current and admittance triangles
representing the circuit.

Parallel RLC Circuit

1). Inductive Reactance, ( XL ):

2). Capacitive Reactance, ( XC ):

3). Impedance, ( Z ):

4). Current through resistance, R ( IR ):

5). Current through inductor, L ( IL ):

6). Current through capacitor, C ( IC ):

7). Total supply current, ( IS ):

8). Conductance, ( G ):

9). Inductive Susceptance, ( BL ):

10). Capacitive Susceptance, ( BC ):

11). Admittance, ( Y ):

12). Phase Angle, ( φ ) between the resultant current and the supply voltage:

Current and Admittance Triangles

Parallel RLC Circuit Summary

In a parallel RLC circuit containing a resistor, an inductor and a capacitor the circuit current IS is the
phasor sum made up of three components, IR, IL and IC with the supply voltage common to all three.
Since the supply voltage is common to all three components it is used as the horizontal reference
when constructing a current triangle.
Parallel RLC networks can be analysed using vector diagrams just the same as with series RLC
circuits. However, the analysis of parallel RLC circuits is a little more mathematically difficult than
for series RLC circuits when it contains two or more current branches. So an AC parallel circuit can
be easily analysed using the reciprocal of impedance called Admittance.
Admittance is the reciprocal of impedance given the symbol, Y. Like impedance, it is a complex
quantity consisting of a real part and an imaginary part. The real part is the reciprocal of resistance
and is called Conductance, symbol Y while the imaginary part is the reciprocal of reactance and is
called Susceptance, symbol B and expressed in complex form as: Y = G + jB with the duality
between the two complex impedance’s being defined as:

Series Circuit Parallel Circuit

Voltage, (V) Current, (I)

Resistance, (R) Conductance, (G)

Reactance, (X) Susceptance, (B)

Impedance, (Z) Admittance, (Y)

As susceptance is the reciprocal of reactance, in an inductive circuit, inductive susceptance, BL will be

negative in value and in a capacitive circuit, capacitive susceptance, BC will be positive in value. The
exact opposite to XL and XC respectively.
We have seen so far that series and parallel RLC circuits contain both capacitive reactance and
inductive reactance within the same circuit. If we vary the frequency across these circuits there must
become a point where the capacitive reactance value equals that of the inductive reactance and
therefore, XC = XL.
The frequency point at which this occurs is called resonance and in the next tutorial we will look at
series resonance and how its presence alters the characteristics of the circuit.
Problems:

1. A series R-L circuit takes 384 W at a power factor of 0.8 from a 120 V, 60 Hz supply.
What are the values of R and L?

Solution:

Given: V = 120 V, f = 60 Hz, P = 384 W and cos = 0.8

P = VI cos = 384

120 I x 0.8 = 384

I=4A

Impedance, Z = V/I = 120/4 = 30

Resistance, R = Z cos = 30 x 0.6 = 18

Now, XL = 2 fL = 18

L = 18 / 2 x 60 = 0.047 H
2. A voltage of 200 V is applied to a series circuit consisting of a resistor, an inductor and a
capacitor. The respective voltages across these components are 170, 150 and 100 V and the
current is 4 A. Find the power factor of the circuit.

Solution:

Current = 4A, VR = IR = 170, 4R = 170

R = 42.5

VL = I XL = 150

XL = 150 / 4 = 37.5

VC = I XC = 100

XC = 25

Impedance,

Z= R2 + (XL – XC)2

= 42.52 + 12.52 = 44.3

Power Factor,

cos = R / Z

= 42.5 / 44.3 = 0.96(lagging)

3.Find the reading of the ammeter when the voltmeter across the 3-ohm resistor in the circuit
shown in figure below reads 45 V.

Solution:

I1 = 45 / 3 = 15 A., I1 = 15 00 A
The applied vo lt a g e V = 15 00 x (3 j3) (V=IZ1)

= 15 00 x 4.24 450

= 63.6 450 V

I2 = V / Z2 = 63.6 450 / (5 +j2)

= 63.6 450 / 5.4 21.80

= 11.77 66.80 A

(converting polar to rectangular form)

= 4.64 – j10.8

I = I1 + I2 = (15 + j0) +(4.64 – j10.8) I = 19.64 – j10.8 (converting rectangular to polar form)

I=22.4 -28.80

Hence, ammeter reads 22.4

 THREE PHASE ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

There are two types of system available in electric AC circuit, single phase and three phase
system. In single phase circuit, there will be only one phase, i.e the current will flow through
only one wire and there will be one return path called neutral line to complete the circuit.

A poly phase system is a combination of several single-phase voltages having the same
magnitude and frequency but displaced from one another by equal angle (electrical), which
depends on the number of phases and determined from the following relation:

Electrical displacement = 3600 electrical degree/ number of phases

There fore for three phase system = 360/3 = 1200

Three phase circuit is the polyphase system where three

phases are send together from the generator to the load. Each
phase are having a phase difference of 120°, i.e 120° angle
electrically. So from the total of 360°, three phases are equally
divided into 120° each. The power in three phase system is
continuous as all the three phases are involved in generating
the total power. The sinusoidal waves for 3 phase system is shown below fig 1

Fig :2.2.1. Wave forms of 3 phase voltages [Ref : Wikipedia.]

The three phases can be used as single phase each. So if the load is single phase, then one phase
can be taken from the three phase circuit and the neutral can be used as ground to complete the
circuit.

Advantages of Three-Phase Systems:

The output of a three-phase machine is always greater than that of a single-phase machine
of the same size and less cost.
 For transmission and distribution of a power over a given distance, a three-phase
transmission line requires less copper than a single-phase line.
Three phase motors have uniform torque compared to 1-phase motors.
Single-phase motors are not self-starting. Three phase motors are self-starting.
Three phase generators work in parallel without difficulty.
In the case of three-phase star system, two different voltages can be obtained whereas in
the case of a single-phase system only one voltage can be obtained.
Overall performance of 3- phase motors is better compared to 1-phase motor.

Generation of three phase voltage:

Fig: 2.2.2 Generation of 3 phase voltage [Ref : threephasepower.org]

Consider three electrical coils a1 a2, b1 b2 and c1 c2 as shown in the fig 2 mounted on the same
axis but displaced from each other by 120 electrical. Let the three coils be rotated in
anticlockwise direction in a magnetic field with an angular velocity of radians/sec, as shown.

When the coil a1 a2 is moved with the position AB shown in figure, the magnitude and direction
of the emf‟s induced in the various coils is as under;

a) E.M.F induced in coil a1 a2 is zero and is increasing in the positive direction. This is
indicated by ea1a2 wave in figure
ea1 a2 = Em . sin t = e r
b) The coil b1 b2 is 1200 electrically behind coil a1 a2.. The emf induced in this coil is
negative and is approaching maximum negative value. This is shown by the eb1 b2 wave
eb1 b2 = Em. sin [ t 2 /3] = e y
 c) The coil c1 c2 is 2400 electrically behind a1 a2 or 1200 electrically behind coil b1b2. The
emf induced in this coil is positive and is decreasing. This is indicated by ec1 c2 wave
ec1 c2 = Em sin [ t 4 /3] = e b

If the three voltages are added vectorially , it can be observed that the sum of the three voltages at
any instant is zero.

That is e r + e y + e b = 0.

Important definitions related to three phase system.

Symmetrical system : a three phase system in which the three voltages are of same
magnitude and frequency and displaced from each other by 120 degree phase angle is
called as symmetrical system.
Phase sequence : The order in which the voltages in the phases reach their maximum
positive values is called the phase sequence. Three phases are usually represented by R-
Y-B and should be connected in this order called phase sequence. (Red, Yellow, Blue).
Three phase supply connections:
In single phase system, two wires are sufficient for transmitting voltage to the load that is
phase and neutral. But in case of three phase, two ends of each phase are available to
supply voltage to the load.
Using these connections two different three phase connections can be obtained which are
called as Star connection and Delta connection.

Star connection:

The star connection is formed by connecting starting ends of all the three windings
together. The common point is known as Neutral point. The remaining three ends are
brought out for connection to load. Star connected circuit is illustrated in the fig
 Delta connection:

The delta is formed by connecting one end of winding to starting end of other which
forms a closed loop.
The supply terminals are taken out from three junction points.
Delta connection always forms a closed loop. Delta connected circuit is illustrated in fig

Concept of Line and Phase values of Voltages and Currents.

The potential different between any two lines of supply is called line voltage and current
passing through any line is called line current. Line voltages are denoted as E L
Line current are denoted by I L .

The voltage across any branch of the three phase load is called phase voltage and the
current passing through any branch of the three phase load is called phase current.

Balanced Supply

A supply is said to be balanced if all three voltages are equal in magnitude and displaced by 120
degree. A three phase supply can be connected in two ways - Either in Delta connection or in
Star connection as shown in the figure 3.

Fig:2.2.3 Balanced supply [Ref : Wikipedia.]

Balanced Load

A load is said to be balanced if the impedances in all three phases are equal in magnitude and
phase A three phase load can be connected in two ways – Either in Delta connection or in Star
connection as shown in the fig
 Fig:2.2.4 Balanced load [ Ref : Wikipedia].

Star Connection: Relationship between line and phase values.

Fig:2.2.5 Star connected circuit [Ref: threephasepower.org]

The common point N at which similar ends are connected is called the neutral point.

The voltage between any line and the neutral point is called phase voltage; while the voltage
between any two lines is called line voltage.

For example, the potential difference between outers R and Y or line voltage ERY, is the vector
difference of phase emf‟s ER and EY or vector sum of phase emf‟s ER and ( EY).

i.e., ERY = ER EY

As phase angle between vectors ER and ( EY) is 60 ,

Therefore, from vector diagram shown in figure.

ERY = ER2 + EY2 + 2ER EY cos 60

Let ER = EY = EB = EP (phase voltage)

Then line voltage

ERY = EP2 + EP2 +(2 EP EP x 0.5)

= 3 EP

Similarly, potential difference between Y and B is

EYB = EY EB = 3 EP

In a balanced star system, ERY, EYB and EBR are equal in magnitude and are called line voltages.

EL = 3 EP

Since, in a star connected system, each line conductor is connected to a separate phase, the
current flowing through the lines and phases are the same.

i.e., Line current IL = Phase current IP

If the phase current has a phase difference of with the phase voltage.

Power output per phase = EPIP cos

Total power output,

P = 3EPIP cos
= 3(EL/ 3) IP cos
= 3 EL IL cos
 Mesh or Delta Connected System: Relationship between line and phase values.

Fig:2.2.6 Delta connected circuit[Ref: threephasepower.org]

IR, IY and IB are line currents and IRB, IBY and IYR are phase currents .

Line current, IR = IYR IRB

IR = IYR2 + IRB2 +2 IYRIRB cos 60

For a balanced load, the phase current in each winding is equal and let it be IP

2
Line current, IR = I P + IP2 +2 IP IP x 0.5

= 3IP

Similarly, line current, IY = IBY IYR = 3 IP

and line current, IB = IRB IBY = 3 IP

In a delta network, there is only one phase between any pair of lines, so the potential difference
between the lines (line voltage) is equal to phase voltage.

EL = EP

Power output per phase = EP IP cos ,

 Where cos is the power factor of the load.

Total power output,

P = 3EP IP cos
= 3 EL(IL/ 3) cos
= 3 ELIL cos

The Power Triangle:

Fig:2.2.7 Power triangle [Ref: PMC]

In the figure,

AB = √3 ELIL cos , represents the real power in watts or kW.

BC = √3 ELIL sin , represents the reactive power in VAR or kVAR.

AC = 3EI, represents the apparent power in VA or kVA.

i) (kVA)2 = (kW)2 + (kVAR)2

ii) Circuit power factor, cos = True power / Apparent power

iii) kVAR = kVA sin

= ( kW / cos ) x sin

= kW tan

Dept.of EEE,DSCE Page 60

 Measurement of Power in 3-Phase Circuits:

In three circuits total three phase power is given by 3 EL IL cos , in practice the problems in
measuring three phase power occur as power factor for different type of load. And the power
factor of induction motor and synchronous generators may vary with the load conditions, there
fore it is difficult to calculate power. Hence it is necessary to use wattmeter which can sense the
power factor and will give power in watts.

Wattmeter is a device which gives power reading , when connected in single phase or three
phase system in watts.

Fig:2.2.8 Single phase wattmeter[Ref: electrical basic projects.com]

It consists of two coils as shown in the circuit diagram fig 8.

Current coil: Senses the current and always to be connected in series with the
load.
Potential coil: This is also called as pressure coil. This senses the voltage and
always to be connected across the supply terminals.
The terminologies used to denote current coil and pressure coil are ML – CV.
M – From Mains for current coil
L – To Load for current coil
C – Common for voltage coil
V- Voltage for voltage coil

Three phase power can be measured by using two single phase watt meter connected to any of
the two phases, irrespective of the type (star or delta). Consider a balanced load of star type to
which two watt meters are connected W1 and W2 as shown in the circuit diagram fig 10.
Two Wattmeter Method – Balanced Load:

In the case of balanced load, (where impedances of all the 3 phases are equal) we can find the
power factor of the load from the two-wattmeter readings. Consider star-connected inductive
load (figure 9) the vector diagram for which is given in figure10.

Fig:2.2.9 Two watt meter connected to star connected load.[Ref: threephasepower.org]

Fig:2.2.10 Vector diagram of line current and line voltage[Ref: threephasepower.org]

Current through wattmeter W1 is = IR

The potential difference across the voltage coil of W1 is

ERB = ER – EB - vectorially

Reading of W1 = IR ERB cos(30 - )

Similarly, current through W2 = IY and potential difference across W2 = EYB = EY – EB

The angle between IY and EYB is (30 + ).

Reading of W2 = IY EYB cos (30 +

) ERB = EYB = Line voltage EL and

IY = IR = Line current IL (Since the load is balanced)

W1 = EL IL cos (30 - ) and W2 = EL IL cos (30 + )

W1 + W2 = 3 EL IL cos

= Total power in the 3-phase load.

Thus, the total power absorbed in the 3-phase load is given by the sum of the two-wattmeter
readings.

Power Factor – Balanced 3-Phase Load:

Case 1: Lagging power factor

W1 + W2 = 3 EL IL cos ------------ (i)

Similarly,

W1 - W2 = EL IL sin ------------ (ii)

Dividing equation (ii) by (i), we get

tan = 3 (W1 – W2 ) / (W1+W2) ------------ (iii)

Once tan is known, and hence power factor, cos can be found.

Power Factor – Balanced 3-Phase Load:

Case 2: Leading power factor

 W1 = EL IL cos (300 + ) and

W2 = EL IL cos (300 - )

W1 + W2 = 3 EL IL cos

W1 - W2 = - EL IL sin

tan = - 3 (W1 – W2 ) / (W1 + W2)

Effect of power factor on wattmeter reading:

Case 1: at cos =0

= 900
W1 = ½ EL IL
W2 = -½ EL IL

Case 2 : at cos = 0.5

= 600
W1 = EL IL cos 300
W2 = 0

Case 3 : at cos = 1

= 00
W1 = EL IL cos 300
W2 = EL IL cos 300

Numericals:

1.The power in a three-phase system is measured by two watt meters. If the input power is
100kW and power factor is 0.66 (lag)

a) What will be the reading of each wattmeter?

 b) For what power factor will one of the wattmeter read zero?

Solution:

a) P = 100 kW = W1 + W2
cos = 0.66
= 48.70
tan = 3 x (W1 - W2 ) / (W1 + W2)
Substituting the values in the above equation,
W1 - W2 = 65.7 kW
W1 + W2 = 100 kW
2 W1 = 165.7 kW
or W1 = 82.85 kW
W2 = 17.15 kW
b) If W2 = 0,
tan = 3
= 600
cos = 0.5

2.Two watt meters are connected to measure the input of a 15 HP, 50Hz, 3-phase induction
motor at full load. The full load efficiency and power factor are 0.9 and 0.8 lag respectively. Find
the readings of the watt meters.

Solution:

Efficiency = Output / Input

0.9 = (15 x 735.5) / Input

Input = 12258.3 = W1 + W2 -------------- (1)

cos = 0.8
= 36.86
tan = 3 x (W1 - W2 ) / (W1 + W2)
 0.75 = x (W1 - W2) /12258.3
W1-W2 = 5308 W -------------- (2)
From (1) and (2)
W1 = 8783 W
W2 = 3476 W

3.Three identical impedances are connected in delta to a 3- phase supply of 400v. The line
current is 35A, and the total power taken from the supply is 15kW. Calculate the resistance and
inductance values of each impedances.

Solution:

Delta connection
VL = 400 V = VPh
P = 15kW
IL = 35A
IPh = IL/ 3
= 35/ 3 = 20.2A
ZPh = VPh/ IPh
= 400/20.2
=19.8 ohms
We know that for 3- phase power
P = 3VL IL cos
15000 = x 400 x 35 x cos
cos = 0.62
= 51.68
sin = 0.78
RPh = Z cos = 19.8 x 0.62 = 12.3 ohms
XPh = Z sin = 19.8 x 0.785 = 15.54 ohms
 A. Balanced star connected load of (3 + j4) impedance is connected to 400V, three
phase supply. What is the real power consumed by the load?

Solution:

VL = 400 V
impedance / phase = Z = 3 + j4 = 5 53
In a star connected system,
Phase voltage
Current in each phase = 46.02 -53 A
Line current = 46.02 A Total
power consumed in the load
= 3VL IL cos
= X 400 X 46.02 X cos (− 53 )
= 19188 W