Unit -5 Notes

ENERGY METERS AND ENERGY CONSERVATION

Basic Instruments: The instruments which are designed to measure electrical quantities are
called electrical measuring instruments.

Classifications of measuring instruments: The secondary measuring instruments are broadly

classified into three types

1. Indicating instruments: it indicates the measuring value instantaneously by means of

pointer moving over calibrated scale
2. Recording instruments: It records the measuring quantity by a pen moving over a paper
for a period of time,
3. Integrating instruments: It not only measures and records the measuring quantity. But
also register the measured quantity which can be access by any time.

Operating principles of measuring instruments: various operating principles by which an

instrument can measures the electrical quantities are. Magnetic effect, thermal effects,
electromagnetic effects, chemical effects, electrostatic effects etc.

Essential features of measuring instruments are high sensitivity, fast response, high flexibility,
low weight, low power consumption and high degree of reliability.
Single phase Induction Type Energy Meter:

Fig:3.1.5. Induction Type Energy Meter[Ref: DSI ppt]

Construction:

It mainly consists of: 1. Driving system 2. Moving system 3. Braking system 4.

Recording system.

1.Driving system: It has two electromagnet

2.ts namely series magnet and shunt magnet. A coil of thick wire of few turns are
wounded on legs of series electromagnetic core connected in series with supply and
load which carries line current.

A coil of this wire and large number of turns are wounded on the central limb of shunt
electromagnet. This coil carries the current proportional to supply voltage since it is
connected parallel with supply. A copper shading band circuited copper rings are provided
on control limb of shunt magnet to obtain the current in shunt coil log behind the apply
voltage by 90degree.

3. Moving system; It consist of light weight aluminum disc mounted on the spindle
supported by Jewel bearings. The disc is set to rotate in the air gap between the
series and shunt electromagnet. Since control torque is not provided to moving disc.
Disc will rotate through an angle of 360degree.

4. Braking system: A adjustable brake magnet is placed near the edge of the
aluminum disc which induce an emf in the disc which circulate the eddy current in the
disc in such a direction to produce the torque opposite to rotation of disc. That means
it provides eddy current damping force to moving system.

5. Recording mechanism: It records a number of revolutions made by the disc during

the period of energy consumption by the load.

Operation: When the supply is connected to load through the energy meter. The flux
produced by the series electromagnet and shunt electro magnet interacts over the disc
which induced an emf and eddy current in the disc. According to Lenz‟s law the eddy
current flows in such a direction which oppose cause producing it induced voltage in
the disc. Disc is subjected to rotation power consumed by the load is number of disc
rotation and Energy power time Total number of disc revolution in „t‟ seconds directly
proportional to energy consumption by the load.

Physical Demonstration of different basic instruments:

Voltmeters and ammeters are used to measure voltage and current, respectively.

A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electrical potential difference between two
points in an electric circuit.

An ammeter is a measuring device used to measure the electric current in a circuit.

A voltmeter is connected in parallel with a device to measure its voltage, while an ammeter is
connected in series with a device to measure its current.
A voltmeter is an instrument that measures the difference in electrical potential between two
points in an electric circuit. An analog voltmeter moves a pointer across a scale in proportion to
the circuit’s voltage; a digital voltmeter provides a numerical display. Any measurement that can
be converted to voltage can be displayed on a meter that is properly calibrated; such
measurements include pressure, temperature, and flow.

An ammeter measures the electric current in a circuit. The name is derived from the name for the
SI unit for electric current, amperes (A).
In order for an ammeter to measure a device’s current, it must be connected in series to that
device.

This is necessary because objects in series experience the same current. They must not be
connected to a voltage source — ammeters are designed to work under a minimal burden, (which
refers to the voltage drop across the ammeter, typically a small fraction of a volt).

Basic Ammeter circuit:

Fig: 3.1.2. Ammeter circuit.[Ref: A.K Sawhney]

Basic ammeter circuit consists of PMMC meter coil in series with high value resistor.
When ammeter is used to measure the current. High voltage drop occurs at series
resistor and small voltage is available across the ammeter. Now scale of the meter is
calibrated to measure the main current in terms of current in the meter proportional to
voltage.
Basic voltmeter circuit:

Fig:3.1.3. Voltmeter circuit[Ref: A.K Sawhney]

Basic voltmeter circuit: It consists of PMMC meter coil in parallel with low value
resistor. When voltmeter is used to measure the voltage more current is diverted
through the shunt resistor and small value of current pass through the meter. Now the
voltmeter pointer deflects over the calibrated scale proportional to voltage drop across the
meter.

Wattmeter

The traditional analog wattmeter is an electrodynamic instrument. The device consists of a

pair of fixed coils, known as current coils, and a movable coil known as the potential coil.
The current coils are connected in series with the circuit, while the potential coil is connected
in parallel. Also, on analog wattmeters, the potential coil carries a needle that moves over a
scale to indicate the measurement. A current flowing through the current coil generates an
electromagnetic field around the coil. The strength of this field is proportional to the line
current and in phase with it. The potential coil has, as a general rule, a high-value resistor
connected in series with it to reduce the current that flows through it.
The result of this arrangement is that on a DC circuit, the deflection of the needle is
proportional to both the current (I) and the voltage (V), thus conforming to the equation
P=VI.
For AC power, current and voltage may not be in phase, owing to the delaying effects of
circuit inductance or capacitance. On an AC circuit the deflection is proportional to the
average instantaneous product of voltage and current, thus measuring true power, P=VI cos φ.
Here, cosφ represents the power factor which shows that the power transmitted may be less
than the apparent power obtained by multiplying the readings of a voltmeter and ammeter in
the same circuit.
 Digital Energy Meter

Introduction:

Digital energy meter is based on Digital Micro technology (DMT) and uses no moving parts.
So the digital energy meter is known as static energy meter. In digital energy meter the
accurate functioning is controlled by a specially designed IC Called Application specified
integrated circuit (ASIC). ASIC is constructed only for specific applications using embedded
system technology.

Fig. 4.1 Block diagram of digital energy meter

The basic block diagram of the digital energy meter is shown in figure 4.1.

There are two basic sensors are employed, they are voltage and current sensors. The voltage
sensor built around a step down element and potential divider network senses both the phase
voltage and load voltage. The second sensor is a current sensor; this senses the current drawn
by the load at any point in time. It is built around a current transformer and other active
devices (such as voltage comparator) which convert the sensed current to voltage for
processing. The output from both sensors is then fed into a signal (or voltage) conditioner
which ensures matched voltage or signal level to the control circuit, it also contain a signal
multiplexer which enable sequential switching of both signal to the analogue input of the
peripheral interface controller (PIC). The control circuit cantered on a PIC integrated circuit.
The PIC is selected because it contain ten bit analogue to digital converter (ADC), very
flexible to program and good for peripheral interfacing.

The ADC converts the analogue signals to its digital equivalent; both signals from the voltage
and current sensors are then multiplied by the means of embedded software in the PIC. Here
the error correction is taken as the offset correction by determining the value of the input
quality with short-circuited input and storing this value in the memory for use as the
correction value device calibration. The PIC is programmed in C language. Such that apart
from the multiplier circuit it simulates, it is able to use the received data to calculate power
consumption per hour, as well as the expected charges. These are displayed on the liquid
crystal display attached to the circuit.

In addition to ASIC, analogue circuits, voltage transformer, current transformer etc. are also
present in digital energy meter to sample current and voltage. The input data (voltage) is
compared with a programmed Reference Data (voltage) and finally a “voltage rate” will be
given to the output. This output is then converted into digital data by the Analogue-Digital
converter presented in the ASIC.

The digital data is then converted into an average value. Average value\mean value is the
measuring unit of power. The output of Analogue-Digital Converter is available in pulses
indicated by the Light Emitting Diode (LED) placed on the front panel of digital
energymeter. These pulses are equal to average Kilo Watt Hour (kwh\unit).

Advantage

 Portable size makes it easy to carry anywhere.

 More accurate
 The reading speed is increased as it is easier to read
 Digital meter have no moving parts. This makes them free from wear and shock
failures.
 They have very high input impedance
 Better accuracy
  Low current performance
 Low voltage performance
 Difficult to temper
 Digital display

Disadvantages:

 The LCD display depends on a battery or external power source. When the battery
is low, the display will be dim, making it difficult to read.

 In case of fluctuations or transients, it can record an error.

 Warming of the meter during its use can change its properties leading to errors in
measured value.

 The A/D converter has a limitation on word length which can cause quantization
noise giving rise to error in measured value.

 There is a voltage limitation. If it is increased beyond the The LCD display depends
on a battery or external power source. When the battery is low, the display will be
dim, making it difficult to read.

 In case of fluctuations or transients, it can record an error.

 Warming of the meter during its use can change its properties leading to errors in
measured value..

 The digital nature makes it unsuitable for adjusting tuning circuits or peaking
tunable responses.

 They are expensive due to high manufacturing cost.

 Incorrect magnitudes of fluxes.

 Change in strength of brake magnet.

 Change in disc resistance

 Abnormal friction of moving parts

Application of Digital Energy Meter

Digital energy meters are recently developed electronic components to measure electrical
energy. Measurement accuracy of the digital meter is about an order of magnitude better than
that of a mechanical meter, while power consumption is lower by about two orders of
magnitude. The digital energy meter is also better protection against tampering than its
mechanical predecessor, and units for prepaid operation(e.g., card readers) and remote meter
reading (e.g., wireless, telephone line, or internet) can easily be included.

NET METERING
Net metering (or net energy metering, NEM) is an electricity billing mechanism that allows
consumers who generate some or all of their own electricity to use that electricity anytime,
instead of when it is generated. This is particularly important with renewable energy sources
like wind and solar, which is non-dispatch able (when not coupled to storage). Monthly net
metering allows consumers to use solar power generated during the day at night, or wind
from a windy day later in the month. Annual net metering rolls over a net kilowatt-hour
(kWh) credit to the following month, allowing solar power that was generated in July to be
used in December, or wind power from March in August.
Net metering uses a single, bi-directional meter and can measure the current flowing in two
directions. Net metering can be implemented solely as an accounting procedure, and requires
no special metering, or even any prior arrangement or notification.
Net metering is a mechanism which allows domestic or commercial users who generate their
own electricity using solar panels or photovoltaic systems to export their surplus energy back
to the grid. The process of net metering provides system owners with the opportunity to gain
extra revenue by selling their excess power to the grid while also making up for shortfalls via
the grid. If the amount of energy generated is more than the amount of energy consumed,
then the owner gets compensated for the excess amount. However, if the amount of energy
consumed is more than the amount of energy generated, then it is imported from the utility
grid and the owner pays only the net amount.

Advantages of net metering

Extra financial credit:
If the amount of energy generated by the owner’s system is more than the amount of energy
consumed, then the owner will receive extra credits and revenue.

Eliminates the need for battery storage and backup generator:

Unlike off-grid PV systems, owners don’t require battery storage systems while using net
metering since the extra power is stored by the utility grid itself. It also eliminates the need
for exorbitant generators since the electricity grid also acts as a backup generator.
Inexpensive and low maintenance:
Since solar panels themselves are low maintenance, the main parts of a PV system that
require maintenance would be the battery and generator. However, through net metering, you
can eliminate these components and further decrease the maintenance requirements.

GROSS AND NET METERING

Two arrangements are often defined by governments when designing the regulations for solar
rooftop system – Gross and Net metering.

Gross metering is an arrangement in which a consumer is compensated at a fixed feed-in-

tariff for the total number of units of solar energy generated and exported to the grid
(accounted by a unidirectional ‘gross meter’) and has to pay the electricity distribution
company at retail supply tariff for the electricity consumed from the grid. The feed-in-tariff
and retail supply tariff are typically different rates.

FIGURE 1: GROSS METERING

Net metering is an arrangement in which electricity exports are adjusted against imports,
lowering the electricity bill, such that, electricity produced is deducted from the total
electricity consumed over a fixed period of time. The adjustment may be done either on a
monthly, half-yearly or annual basis. Typically, a bidirectional ‘net meter’ accounts for both
import and export of power. If the exported electricity is higher than the imported electricity,
a consumer may or may not be compensated for the excess electricity being fed into the grid
(depending up a state’s net metering policy).
 FIGURE 2: NET METERING

SOLAR NET-METERING
The Solar Net-Metering policy was announced in the state of Delhi in September 2014.
Under this policy, consumers planning to install grid-connected solar PV systems are eligible
to apply for solar net-metering.
The Solar net-metering is usually useful for Consumers whose energy consumption on certain
days in a week or certain months in a year is nil or quite low as compared to other week days.
The solar energy generated during these days is net-metered to the grid/ DISCOM and
therefore, the Consumer gets the full benefit from his/ her solar PV system.

Working of Solar Net-Metering

In grid-connected Solar PV systems, the DC output generated by the solar panels is converted
into AC (alternating current) output by a solar inverter. This output, from the solar inverter,
called solar energy, is connected to the distribution board or switch board of the building or
the home and is then consumed by the electrical appliances. If the solar energy produced is
more than what the loads in the building or home consume, the surplus solar energy is
automatically exported (energy export) to the DISCOM distribution network (the grid) with
the help of a two-way meter. If the solar energy produced is less than the total energy
required in the building, then the shortfall energy is automatically supplied by the grid
(energy import).

Bidirectional energy meter

In order to implement net-metering, your existing energy meter would need to be replaced
with a bidirectional (two-way) energy meter. This bidirectional energy meter can measure
both, energy import (from the grid to the consumer) and energy export (from the consumer to
the grid). These meters are also called import-export energy meters.
Electricity Bill with Solar net-metering

Under solar net-metering, the Consumer only pays for the difference in energy imported and
the energy exported. If a Consumer imports 1000 kWh in June billing period and exports 600
kWh in the same period, the Consumer will be charged for only 400kWh. If the import
energy in the July period is 500 kWh and the export again is 600kWh, then the excess
100kWh will be carried over to the next month's bill or next billing cycle and adjusted there.
At the end of the Settlement period (usually 12 months period), any balance and unadjusted
carried forward excess export will be paid to the Consumer at a pre-defined tariff (rate/kWh),
which will be notified time to time by the relevant authorities.

Illustration

(A case for a Delhi-based School open 6 days/week having monthly electricity bill of Rs 2
lakhs sets up a 60kW Solar PV system)

(A) Monthly Energy consumption (Import from Grid) : 16,500 units (kWh)

(B) Monthly Solar energy generation(Solar energy : 7,800 units

 consumed by School

(C) Solar energy consumed by School : 6,685 units

: 1,115 units (7,800 -

(D) Balance solar energy (Exported to Grid)
6,685)

: 9,815 units (16,500 -

(E) New Monthly import from grid
6,685)

As the net import export, the net billable units = 8,700 (16,500 - 6,685 - 1,115) leading to a
reduced monthly energy bill of Rs. 1,13,030, which is a saving of Rs. 86,970 per month.
Had export been greater than the import, the difference would have been carried forward to
the next billing cycle. Any unadjusted units are paid only at the end of the settlement period
at the APPC rate, which currently is Rs. 4.30 for Delhi.

Additionally, this Delhi school is also entitled to be paid an incentive for the monthly solar
generation at a rate of Rs 2 per unit under the Generation Based Incentive scheme, which
would mean another reduction of Rs 15,600, effectively reducing the monthly energy bill to
Rs 97,430 from the current number of Rs 2, 00,000.

Existing Electricity With Solar Net

Category
Connection Metering

Monthly Import from grid (units

16,500 9,815
or kWh)

Net billable units 16,500 8,700

Grid Electricity Bill 2,00,000 1,13,030

Generation Based Incentive* (Rs) N.A. 15,600

Grid Electricity Bill after

2,00,000 97,430
Incentive (Rs)

Net-metering / Gross-metering Highlights in Delhi

Item Policy Remarks

Item Policy Remarks

Only Net Metering policy is

Net metering or Gross metering Net metering
applicable

APPC rate prevailing at the

Applicable prevailing time of
4.30
APPC rate (Rs./kWh) Settlement will be
applicable

APPC rate prevailing at the

Adjustment at the end of
time of
settlement APPC rate
Settlement will be
period for any unadjusted units
applicable

Min 1 kWp; Max

Solar System size (kW)
1000 kWp

Sanctioned load 5kW, then

Max Solar System size based on
=100% max
sanctioned load (kW)
Solar System size 4kW

Discom cumulative capacity of

local LT - 15% ; HT - 30% LT - 15% ; HT - 30%
Distribution Transformer

Capping of Solar generation Not applicable Not applicable

Incentive (Rs./kWh generated)

for 2 years for
2.00
domestic net metered
connections (Rs/kWh)*

Settlement period Yearly Yearly

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS ON CALCULATION OF ELECTRICAL
ENERGY

1. If a 40 watt lamp is turned on for one hour, how many joules of electrical energy have
been converted by the lamp?

Energy (w) = Power x Time

Energy = 40 x 3600

= 14,400 joules

2. Calculate the heat produced by an electric iron, which has a resistance of 30 ohms and
takes a current of 3 amperes when it is switched on for 15 seconds.
Energy = Power x Time
Power = I2R
=32 * 30
= 270 watts
Energy = Power x Time
= 270 x 15
= 4050 joules

3. Calculate the units of electricity consumed in the month of November from the
following details. One 60W60W bulb is used for 55 hours daily.
One 100W100W bulb is used for 33 hours daily. One 1kW1kW electric heater is
used for 22 hours daily.

P1=60W=0.06kWP1=60W=0.06kW for t1=5hourst1=5hours.

P2=100W=0.1kWP2=100W=0.1kWfor t2=3hours
Electric heater rating P3=1kWP3=1kW for t3=2hours
E=P×t Therefore, E1=P1×t1
E1=0.06×5=0.3kWh

E2=0.1×3=0.3kWh
E3=1×2=2kWh
Total Electrical Energy = E1+E2+E3
E = 0.3+0.3+2=2.6kWh
Therefore, 2.6kWh is consumed in one day, November has 30 days, so total power
consumption in the month of November is given by
2.6×30=78kWh
Also, 1kWh=1unit
Therefore, 78 units are used in the month of November.
Electricity bill: Power rating of household appliances including air conditioners, PCs, laptop,
printer etc. Definition of “unit” used for consumption of electrical energy, two - part
electricity tariff,calculation of electricity bill.

UNIT USED FOR CONSUMPTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

A unit (as mentioned on the electricity bills) is represented in kWH or Kilowatt Hour. This is
the actual electricity or energy used. If you use 1000 Watts or 1 Kilowatt of power for 1 hour
then you consume 1 unit or 1 Kilowatt-Hour (kWh) of electricity. So the reading on the
electricity meter represents the actual electricity used. Just like the odometer on your vehicle
that shows the actual distance travelled by the vehicle, electricity meter shows the amount of
electricity that is used. So a 100-Watt bulb if kept on for 10 hours will consume:

100 x 10 = 1000 Watt-Hour = 1 Kilowatt-Hour (kWh) = 1 units (on your meter).

The unit of electrical energy consumed is 1 kWh.

One kilowatt-hour is the electrical energy consumed by an electrical appliance of power 1 kW when it
is used for one hour.
Thus,
1kWh=1kilowatt×1hour
=103watt×3600s
=103J/s×3600s
=3.6×106J
Thus, 1kWh=3.6×106J

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN kWh and kVAh

For domestic tariff, one unit of electric energy consumption is equal to kWh whereas, for
commercial and industrial tariff, the same is in kVAh. The reading of kVAh consumed is
higher than kWh due to power factor. Power factor is the ratio of actual power divided by
apparent power. Every appliance, mostly inductive load consume reactive power which does
not deliver any work but consumed electricity when billing is done in kVAh. There is always
an effort to match kVAh with kWh and for that capacitor banks are provided.

Electric Utility Bill Calculation

Calculation of Electric Energy Consumption
The following formula is used for electrical energy consumption.
E=Pxt … (Wh)
E = P x t ÷ 1000 … (kWh)
 Consumed Energy = Energy Used in Watts x Time in Hours
Where:
 E = Electrical Energy (Consumed in kWh)
 P = Power in Watts
 t = Time in hours per day
Wh (Watt-hour) is a small unit, so we divide the consumed energy on 1000 to get the value of
energy in kWh instead of Wh.

Example:
Suppose, a consumer consumes 1000 watts load per hour daily for one month. Calculate The
Total Energy bill of the consumer if per unit rate is 9 INR[Take 1 month = 30 Days].
Solution:
1 Unit = 1kWh.
So the Total kWh = 1000 Watts x 24 Hrs x 30 Days = 720000 … Watts / hour.
We want to convert it into electric units, Where 1 Unit = 1kWh.
So the total consumed units by user: = 720000 / 1000 … (k = kilo =1000).
Total Consumed Units = 720.
The cost of per unit electricity is 9.
Therefore, the total Cost of Electricity Bill = 720 units x 9 = 6480 INR

TARIFF
The total expenditure incurred by an electric company supplying power to a large number of
consumer is distributed equitably amongst them. With this end in view, the electric company
prepares a schedule of rates for supplying power to different types of consumers.This
schedule of rates is called TARIFF

TWO - PART ELECTRICITY TARIFF

In this type of tariff , the total charge on a consumer is split up into two components :
1. A component proportional to the maximum demand of the consumer
2. A component proportional to number of units of energy consumed.
Expressed as :
Total charge = a KW + b KWh
a = charge levied on each KW of maximum demand
b = charge levied on each KWh of energy supplied

Example : Assuming a = Rs.2/KW and b = 50 paise/KWh.

A Consumer has a maximum demand of 50Kw and the energy consumed per month is 500
units , determine the monthly electrical charges of the consumer.
Solution : a = 50*2 =100 KW
B = 500 * 0.50 = 25 KWh

Total charges in rupees = a KW + b KWh

= [50*2 + 500 * 0.50] = 100+25 = 350 rupees

POWER RATING OF HOUSEHOLD APPLIANCES

Sl.No Household appliancesMin Power Max Power Min Energy Max Energy
(in W) (in W) (in KWh) (in KWh)
1 Air Conditioner 1000 1500 1 1.5
2 Desktop Computer 100 450 0.10 0.45
3 Laptop Computer 40 120 0.04 0.12
4 Refrigerator 100 200 0.1 0.2
5 42 Inch LCD TV 110 130 0.11 0.13
6 Inkjet Printer 20 30 0.02 0.03
Power Consumption of Typical Home Appliances in Watts
The following table shows the estimated value of wattage rating (in Watts) for different and
common household devices, appliances and equipment.

Home Appliance Power in Watt

Fan 80

LED Light Bulb 25

AC – Air Conditioner 900

Refrigerator 250

Electric Heater 2000

Water Heater 4000

Hair Dryer 1500

Clothes Iron 1400

Microwave Oven 1000

Desktop Computer 150

Laptop Computer 100

TV – Television 120

Vacuum Cleaner 1200

Washing Machine 1500

Water Pump 800

Energy conservation
What is Energy conservation is the effort made to reduce the consumption of energy by
using less of an energy service. This can be achieved either by using energy more
efficiently (using less energy for a constant service) or by reducing the amount of
service used (for example, by driving less). Energy conservation is a part of the concept
of Eco-sufficiency.
Energy can only be transformed from one form to other, such as heat energy to motive
power in cars, or kinetic energy of water flow to electricity in hydroelectric power plants.
However machines are required to transform energy from one form to other. The wear
and friction of the components of these machine while running cause losses of very high
amounts of energy and very high related costs. It is possible to minimize these losses by
adopting green engineering practices to improve life cycle of the components.
Energy conservation measures (ECMs) in buildings reduce the need for energy
services and can result in increased environmental quality, national security, personal
financial security and higher savings. It is at the top of the sustainable energy hierarchy. It
also lowers energy costs by preventing future resource depletion.
Energy can be conserved by reducing wastage and losses, improving efficiency through
technological upgrades and improved operation and maintenance. On a global level
energy use can also be reduced by the stabilization of population growth.
Importance of Energy conservation
 We use energy faster than it can be produced - Coal, oil and natural gas - the
most utilized sources take thousands of years for formation.
 Energy resources are limited - India has approximately 1% of world’s energy
resources but it has 16% of world population.
 Most of the energy sources we use cannot be reused and renewed - Non
renewable energy sources constitute 80% of the fuel use. It is said that our
energy resources may last only for another 40 years or so.
 We save the country a lot of money when we save energy - About 75 per cent of
our crude oil needs are met from imports which would cost about Rs.1, 50,000
crore a year
 We save our money when we save energy - Imagine your savings if your LPG
cylinder comes for an extra week or there is a cut in your electricity bills
 We save our energy when we save energy - When we use fuel wood efficiently,
our fuel wood requirements are lower and so is our drudgery for its collection
 Energy saved is energy generated - When we save one unit of energy, it is
equivalent to 2 units of energy produced
 Save energy to reduce pollution - Energy production and use account to large
proportion of air pollution and more than 83 percent of greenhouse gas
emissions

An old Indian saying describes it this way - The earth, water and the air are not a
gift to us from our parents but a loan from our children. Hence we need to make
energy conservation a habit.

Energy conservation in lighting system

Here are efficient ways to start conserving energy yourself:

1. Adjust your day-to-day behaviors

2. Replace your light bulbs
3. Use smart power strips
4. Install a programmable thermostat
5. Use energy efficient appliances
6. Reduce water heating expenses
7. Install energy efficient windows
8. Weatherize your home

Below, we'll explore each of these options for energy conservation in detail.
1. Adjust your day-to-day behaviors

To reduce energy consumption in your home, you do not necessarily need to go out and
purchase energy efficient products. Energy conservation can be as simple as turning off
lights or appliances when you do not need them. You can also use energy-intensive
appliances less by performing household tasks manually, such as hang-drying your
clothes instead of putting them in the dryer, or washing dishes by hand.
The behavior adjustments that have the highest potential for utility savings are turning
down the heat on your thermostat in the winter and using your air conditioner less in
the summer. Heating and cooling costs constitute nearly half of an average home’s
utility bills, so these reductions in the intensity and frequency of heating and cooling
offer the greatest savings.
There are tools you can use to figure out where most of your electricity is going in your
home and which appliances are using the most electricity on a day-to-day basis.
2. Replace your light bulbs

Traditional incandescent light bulbs consume an excessive amount of electricity and

must be replaced more often than their energy efficient alternatives. Halogen
incandescent bulbs, compact fluorescent lights (CFLs), and light-emitting diode bulbs
(LEDs) use anywhere from 25-80 percent less electricity and last 3 to 25 times longer
than traditional bulbs.
Although energy efficient bulbs are more expensive off the shelf, their efficient energy
use and longer lifetimes mean that they cost less in the long run.
3. Use smart power strips

“Phantom loads,” or the electricity used by electronics when they are turned off or in
standby mode, are a major source of energy waste. In fact, it is estimated that 75% of
the energy used to power household electronics is consumed when they are switched
off, which can cost you up to $200 per year. Smart power strips, also known as
advanced power strips, eliminate the problem of phantom loads by shutting off the
power to electronics when they are not in use. Smart power strips can be set to turn off
at an assigned time, during a period of inactivity, through remote switches, or based on
the status of a “master” device.
4. Install a programmable or smart thermostat

A programmable thermostat can be set to automatically turn off or reduce heating and
cooling during the times when you are asleep or away. When you install a
programmable thermostat, you eliminate wasteful energy use from heating and cooling
without upgrading your HVAC system.
On average, a programmable thermostat can save you $180 per year. Programmable
thermostats come in different models that can be set to fit your weekly schedule.
Additional features of programmable thermostats can include indicators for when to
replace air filters or HVAC system problems, which also improve the efficiency of your
heating and cooling system.
5. Purchase energy efficient appliances

On average, appliances are responsible for roughly 13% of total household energy use.
When purchasing an appliance, you should pay attention to two numbers: the initial
purchase price and the annual operating cost. Although energy efficient appliances
might have higher upfront purchase prices, their operating costs are often 9-25% lower
than conventional models.
When purchasing an energy efficient appliance, you should look for appliances with the
ENERGY STAR label, which is a federal guarantee that the appliance will consume less
energy during use and when on standby than standard models. Energy savings differ
based on the specific appliance. For example, ENERGY STAR certified clothes washers
consume 25% less energy and 45% less water than conventional ones, whereas
ENERGY STAR refrigerators use only 9% less energy.
6. Reduce your water heating expenses

Water heating is a major contributor to your total energy consumption. Other than
purchasing an energy efficient water heater, there are three methods of reducing your
water heating expenses: you can simply use less hot water, turn down the thermostat
on your water heater, or insulate your water heater and the first six feet of hot and cold
water pipes.
If you are considering replacing your water heater with an efficient model, you should
keep in mind two factors: the type of water heater that meets your needs and the type of
fuel it will use. For example, tank less water heaters are energy efficient, but they are
also a poor choice for large families as they cannot handle multiple and simultaneous
uses of hot water. Efficient water heaters can be anywhere between 8% and 300% more
energy efficient than a conventional storage water heater.
7. Install energy efficient windows

Windows are significant source of energy waste - they can add up to 10-25% of your
total heating bill. To prevent heat loss through your windows, you can replace single-
pane windows with double-pane products instead.
For homes in colder regions, gas-filled windows with “low-e” coatings can significantly
reduce your heating expenses. In addition, interior or exterior storm windows can
reduce unnecessary heat loss by 10 to 20 percent. You should especially consider storm
windows if your region experiences frequent extreme weather events.
In warmer climates, heat gain through windows may be a problem. In addition to
minimizing heat loss, low-e coatings on windows can reduce heat gain by reflecting
more light and lowering the amount of thermal energy that enters your home.
Depending on where you live, ENERGY STAR windows can save you $20-$95 each year
on your utility bills. Window shades, shutters, screens, and awnings can also provide an
extra layer of insulation between your home and outside temperatures, leading to even
more energy conservation.
8. Weatherize your home

Weatherizing, or sealing air leaks around your home, is a great way to reduce your
heating and cooling expenses. The most common sources of air leaks into your home are
vents, windows, and doors. To prevent these leaks, you should ensure that there are no
cracks or openings between the wall and vent, window, or doorframe.
To seal air leaks between stationary objects, such as the wall and window frame, you
can apply caulk. For cracks between moving objects, such as operable windows and
doors, you can apply weather stripping. Weather stripping and caulking are simple air
sealing techniques that typically offer a return on investment in less than a year. Air
leaks can also occur through openings in the wall, floor, and ceiling from plumbing,
ducting, or electrical wiring.
Air leaking out of your home is most often from the home interior into your attic
through small openings. Whether it is through ducts, light fixtures, or the attic hatch, hot
air will rise and escape through small openings. As the natural flow of heat is from
warmer to cooler areas, these small openings can make your heating bill even higher if
your attic is not sufficiently insulated. To reap the full amount of savings from
weatherization, you should consider fully insulating your home.
Basic Terms in Lighting System and Features

Illuminance
This is the quotient of the illuminous flux incident on an element of the surface at a
point of surface containing the point, by the area of that element. The lighting level
produced by a lighting installation is usually qualified by the illuminance produced on a
specified plane. In most cases, this plane is the major planeof the tasks in the
interior and is commonly called the working plane. The illuminance provided by an
installation affects both the performance of the tasks and the appearanceof the
space.

Lux (lx)
This is the illuminance produced by a luminous flux of one lumen, uniformly
distributed over a surface area of one square meter. One lux is equal to one lumen
per square meter.

Luminous Efficacy (lm/W)

This is the ratio of luminous flux emitted by a lamp to the power consumed by the
lamp. It is areflection of efficiency of energy conversion from electricity to light form.

Color Rendering Index (RI)

Is a measure of the degree to which the colours of surfaces illuminated by a given
light source confirm to those of the same surfaces under a reference illuminent;
suitable allowance having been made for the state of Chromatic adaptation.
Lamps
Lamp is equipment, which produces light. The most commonly used lamps are
described
Briefly as follows:
 Incandescent lamps:
Incandescent lamps produce light by means of a filament heated to incandescence by
the flow of electric current through it. The principal parts of an incandescent lamp, also
 known as GLS (General Lighting Service) lamp include the filament, the bulb, the fill gas
and the cap.
 Reflector lamps:
Reflector lamps are basically incandescent, provided with a high quality internal mirror,
which follows exactly the parabolic shape of the lamp. The reflector is resistant to
corrosion, thus making the lamp maintenance free and output efficient.
 Gas discharge lamps:
The light from a gas discharge lamp is produced by the excitation of gas contained in
either a tubular or elliptical outer bulb.

The most commonly used discharge lamps are as follows:

 Fluorescent tube lamps (FTL)
 Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL)
 Mercury Vapour Lamps
 Sodium Vapour Lamps
 Metal Halide Lamps

LUMINOUS PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMONLY USED

LUMINARIES
Lumens / Watt Color Typical
Type of Lamp Range Avg. Rendering Typical Life
Index Application (hours)
Incandescent 8–18 14 Excellent Homes, 1000
restaurants,
general lighting,
emergency
lighting
Fluorescent 46–60 50 Good w.r.t. Offices, shops, 5000
Lamps coating hospitals,
homes
Compact 40–70 60 Very good Hotels, 8000–10000
fluorescent shops,
lamps (CFL) homes,
offices
LED( light 180-200 190 Very good Aviation 50000-80000
emitting lighting, fairy
diodes) lights,
automotive
headlamps,
advertising,
general
lighting,
traffic
signals.
Energy Efficient Replacement Options

The lamp efficacy is the ratio of light output in lumens to power input to lamps in
watts. Over the years development in lamp technology has led to improvements
in efficacy of lamps. However, the low efficacy lamps, such as incandescent bulbs,
still constitutea major share of the lighting load. High efficacy gas discharge lamps
suitable for different types of applications offer appreciable scope for energy
conservation. Typical energy efficient replacement options, along with the per cent
energy saving, are given in Table below.

SAVINGS BY USE OF HIGH EFFICACY LAMPS

Lamp type Power saving

Sector
Existing Proposed Watts %
Domestic/Commercial GLS 100 W CFL 25 W 75 75
Industry GLS 13 W CFL 9W 4 31
GLS 200 W Blended 160 W 40 20
TL 40 W TLD 36 W 4 10
Industry/Commercial HPMV 250 W HPSV 150 W 100 37
HPMV 400 W HPSV 250 W 150 35
*GLS-General lighting system, TL- Tube Luminescent, TLD- Tube Luminescent D type
(Thin-26mm), CFL-Compact fluorescent lamps, High pressure mercury vapor (HPMV), Low
pressure sodium vapor (LPSV).

Renewable energy source

A renewable energy source means energy that is sustainable - something that can't run
out, or is endless, like the sun. When you hear the term 'alternative energy' it's usually
referring to renewable energy sources too. It means sources of energy that are
alternative to the most commonly used non-sustainable sources - like coal.
Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas: electricity
generation, air and water heating/cooling, transportation, and rural (off-grid) energy
services.
Solar energy
Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of
ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating, photovoltaic’s, solar thermal energy, solar
architecture, molten salt power plants and artificial photosynthesis.
It is an essential source of renewable energy, and its technologies are broadly
characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on how they capture and
distribute solar energy or convert it into solar power. Active solar techniques include the
use of photovoltaic systems, concentrated solar power, and solar water heating to harness
the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting
materials with favorable thermal mass or light-dispersing properties, and designing
spaces that naturally circulate air.
 Block diagram representation of solar power generation
Wind power or wind energy
Wind power or wind energy is the use of wind to provide mechanical
power through wind turbines to turn electric generators for electrical power. Wind power is
a popular sustainable, renewable energy source that has a much smaller impact on the
environment compared to burning fossil fuels.
Wind farms consist of many individual wind turbines, which are connected to the electric
power transmission network. Onshore wind is an inexpensive source of electric power,
competitive with, or in many places cheaper than, coal or gas plants. Onshore wind
farms have a greater visual impact on the landscape than other power stations, as they
need to be spread over more land and need to be built in rural areas, which can lead to
"industrialization of the countryside" and habitat loss. Offshore wind is steadier and
stronger than on land and offshore farms have less visual impact, but construction and
maintenance costs are significantly higher. Small onshore wind farms can feed some
energy into the grid or provide power to isolated off-grid locations.

Block diagram representation of wind power generation

Geothermal energy
Geothermal energy is the thermal energy in the Earth's crust which originates from the
formation of the planet and from radioactive decay of materials in currently
uncertain but possibly roughly equal proportions. The high temperature and pressure
in Earth's interior cause some rock to melt and solid mantle to behave plastically,
resulting in parts of the mantle convicting upward since it is lighter than the surrounding
rock and temperatures at the core–mantle boundary can reach over 4000 °C (7200 °F).
Geothermal heating, for example using water from hot springs has been used for bathing
since Paleolithic times and for space heating since ancient Roman times, however more
recently geothermal power, the term used for generation of electricity from geothermal
energy, has gained in importance. It is estimated that the earth's geothermal resources
are theoretically more than adequate to supply humanity's energy needs, although only
a very small fraction is currently being profitably exploited, often in areas near tectonic
plate boundaries.

Block diagram representation of Geothermal power plant

Biomass Energy
Biomass is plant or animal material used as fuel to produce electricity or heat. Examples
are wood, energy crops and waste from forests, yards, or farms. Since biomass
technically can be used as a fuel directly (e.g. wood logs), some people use the terms
biomass and bio-fuel interchangeably. More often than not, the word biomass simply
denotes the biological raw material the fuel is made of. The word bio-fuel is usually
reserved for liquid or gaseous fuels, used for transportation.
 Block diagram representation of Biogas production
Tidal power or tidal energy
Tidal power or tidal energy is harnessed by converting energy from tides into useful
forms of power, mainly electricity using various methods.
Although not yet widely used, tidal energy has the potential for future electricity
generation. Tides are more predictable than the wind and the sun. Among sources
of renewable energy, tidal energy has traditionally suffered from relatively high cost and
limited availability of sites with sufficiently high tidal ranges or flow velocities, thus
constricting its total availability. However, many recent technological developments and
improvements, both in design (e.g. dynamic tidal power, tidal lagoons) and turbine
technology (e.g. new axial turbines, cross flow turbines), indicate that the total availability
of tidal power may be much higher than previously assumed and that economic
and environmental costs may be brought down to competitive levels.
 Block diagram representation of Biogas production

References
 https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/
 https://www.energysage.com/
 https://en.wikipedia.org/
 Bureau of Energy Efficiency
 Text Book:: Renewable energy sources by G D Rai
 Craic B. SMITH, “Energy Management Principles”, Pergamon Press inc.1981
edition