EXPERIMENT NO.

AIM

Determination of the equivalent circuit parameters of a single phase

transformer.

OBJECTIVE

 To obtain the equivalent circuit parameters from Open Circuit and Short
Circuit tests.
 To calculate the efficiency as well as regulation of the transformer at
given load condition.
 To conduct Sumpner’s test on two identical single phase transformer &
to verify the results with OC & SC tests.
 To obtain the B-H curve for a single-phase transformer.

THEORY

The physical basis of the transformer is mutual induction between two

circuits linked by a common magnetic field. Transformer is required to pass
electrical energy from one circuit to another, via themedium of the pulsating
magnetic field, efficiently and economicallyas possible. This could beachieved
using either iron or steel which serves as a good permeable path for the
mutual magnetic flux.

The principle of operation of this circuit can beexplained as follows:

Let an alternating voltage v1 be applied to a primary coil of N1 turns linking a
suitable iron core. A current flows in the coil, establishing a flux Φ pin the core.
This flux induces an emfe1 in the coil tocounterbalance the applied voltage v1.
This e.m.f. is

{1}
Assuming sinusoidal time variation of the flux, let Φp= Φmsin ωt. Then,

e1  N 1 m cos t {2}
The r.m.s. value of this voltage is given by:

E1  4.44 fN 1m1 {3}

Now if there is a secondary coil of N2 turns, wound on the same core, then by
mutual induction an emfe2 is developed therein. The r.m.s. value of this
voltage is given by:

{4}

Where Φm2is the maximum value of the (sinusoidal) flux linking the secondary
coil (Φs).If it is assumed thatΦp=Φs then the primary and secondary e.m.f.'s
bear the following ratio:

E2 N 2
 {5}
E1 N 1

But, in actual practice, Φp≠ Φssince some of the flux paths linking the primary
coil do notlink the secondary coil and similarly some of the flux paths linking
the secondary coil do not link the primary coil. The fluxes which do not link
both the coils are called the leakage fluxes of the primary and secondary coil.

In a practical transformer a very large proportion of the primary and

secondary flux paths are common and leakage fluxes are comparatively small.
ThereforeΦp≈ Φs.

If in addition, winding resistances are neglected being usually small in a

practical transformer, then
V 1 ≈ E1 {6}
V 2 ≈ E2 {7}
Although the iron core is highly permeable, it is not possible to generate a
magnetic field in it withoutthe application of a small m.m.f(magneto-motive
force), denoted by Mm. Thus even when the secondary winding is open
circuited, a small magnetizing current (im) is needed to maintain the magnetic
flux. The current of the primary circuit on no-load is of the order of 5% of full
load current. Also, the pulsation of flux in the core is productive of core loss,
due to hysteresis and eddy currents.These losses are given by:

Ph  KhB max1.6 f {8}

Pe  KeB max 2 f 2 {9}

Pc  Pe  Ph {10}

WherePh, Peand Pcare hysteresis, eddy current and core losses respectively,
Khand Keare constantswhich depend on the magnetic material, and Bmaxis the
maximum flux density in the core. These losseswill remain almost constant if
the supply voltage and frequency are held constant. The continuous lossof
energy in the core requires a continuous supply from the electrical source to
which the primary isconnected. Therefore, there must be a current
component icwhich accounts for these losses. It shouldbe noted that
magnetizing current (im) and core loss component of current(ic) are
perpendicular to each other. The resultant of these two currents is the no-load
current io. Generally the magnitude of this currentis very small compared to
that of the rated current of the transformer (of the order of 5%of the rated
current). This current makes a phase angle Φ₀of the order of (cos-1(0.2)) with
the applied voltage.

If a load of finite impedance is connected across the second coil, a current

i2will flow through it.This tends to alter the mmf and thereby the flux in the
core. But this is prevented by an immediateand automatic adjustment of the
primary current i1, thereby maintaining the flux Φ at the original value. This
value of flux is required to produce the emf of self-induction e1. Any reduction
of the fluxwould cause a reduction of e1, leaving a voltage difference between
v1 and e1which would be sufficientto increase the primary current and
thereby re-establish the flux. Thus any current which flows in thesecondary
causes its counterpart to flow in the primary so that the flux Φ (and therefore
the mmf -Mm) shall always be maintained at a value such that the voltage
applied v1 to the primary terminalsshall be balanced by the induced emfe1
(neglecting voltage drops due to resistance and leakage flux effects). Thus if
 N2
current flows in the secondary (i2),then i1  i 0  i 2 so that effective mmf in
N1
the core remains at Mm.

Figure 1: No Load Phasor Diagram

In phasor notation:

N2
i1  i 0  i2 {11}
N1
i0 is quite small compared to the rated current and is usually neglected if
transformer is loaded. Thus:

N2
i1  i2 {12}
N1
Thus by making the assumptions:
 Winding resistances are small
 Magnetizing current is small
 Core losses are small
 Leakage fluxes are small
We can write:

I1 E2 N 2 V 2
   {13}
I 2 E1 N 1 V 1
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER

The practical transformer has coils of finite resistance. Though this resistance
is distributed uniformly, it can be takenas concentrated. Also, all the flux
produced by the primary currentcannot be confined into a desired path
completely as an electric current. Though a greater proportionlinks both the
coils (known as mutual flux), a small proportion called the leakage flux links
one or otherwinding, but not both. It does not contribute to the transfer of
energy from primary to secondary. Onaccount of the leakage flux, both the
windings have a voltage drop which is due to leakage reactance.The
transformer shown in Figure1 can be resolved into an equivalent circuit as
shown in Figure 2 in whichthe resistance and leakage reactance of primary
and secondary respectively are represented by lumpedR1, X1, R2 and X2.

I1  I2  Io R 1 X1 I 2  K I 2 R2 X2 I2
Io
Iw Im
E2
ZL
V1 Xo E1 V2
Ro

Figure 2: Equivalent Circuit

This equivalent circuit can be further simplified by referring all quantities in
thesecondary side of the transformer to primary side and is shown in Figure
3.

R1  R2 X1  X 2

L
O
V1 Rm Xm V2 A
D

Figure 3: Equivalent Circuit

DETERMINATION OF EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT PARAMETERS

The equivalent circuit parameters can be determined by performing tests that

involve little power consumption. Two tests, a no-load test (or open circuit
test) and short circuit test will provide data for determining the parameters of
the equivalent circuit.

SHORT CIRCUIT TEST

Consider the circuit shown in Figure 3. Suppose the input voltage is reduced
to a small fraction of ratedvalue and secondary terminals are short-circuited.
A current will circulate in the secondary winding.Since a small fraction of
rated voltage is applied to the primary winding, the flux in the core and
hencethe core loss is very small. Hence, the power input on short circuit is
dissipated as heat in the winding.The circuit diagram is shown in Figure 4.

W
220 V, 50 Hz
Variac
AC

High Voltage Side Low Voltage Side

Figure 4: Short circuit test diagram

In this test, the LV terminals of thetransformer are short circuited. The

primary voltage is gradually applied till the rated current flows inthe winding.
Since, the applied voltage is very small (may be of the order of 5-8%), the
magnetizingbranch can now be eliminated from the equivalent circuit. The
modified equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 5.
R1  R2 X1  X 2

Vsc

Figure 5: Equivalent circuit diagram of short circuit test

If Vscis the applied voltage to circulate the rated current (I2′) on short circuit,
and Pcis thepower input to the transformer then,

Vsc
Zsc 
I 2 {14}

Pc
cos  
VscI 2 {15}

Therefore,

R1  R2  Zsc cos {16}

X 1  X 2  Zsc sin  {17}

PROCEDURE

 Set up the circuit as shown in figure. Here, the secondary terminals are
sorted. Use appropriate range for current coil of wattmeter, 5 Ampere
range for ammeter and 150 Volts range for the potential coil of the
wattmeter. Only a low voltage is to be applied to the primary of the
transformer. This is done by setting variac output to zero initially and
increasing it very slowly. If normal voltage is applied to the transformer
under short circuit condition, a very large current will flow through it
causing damage to the windings, the ammeter and the wattmeter. Using
a multimeter, a small voltage (maximum of 24 Volts) is to be supplied to
the transformer for the test.
 Measure the voltage from the multimeter reading. Adjust the variac to
obtain full load current through the transformer primary
OPEN CIRCUIT/NO LOAD TEST

The shunt branch parameters are determined by performing this test. Since,
the core loss and themagnetizing current depend on applied voltage, this test
is performed by applying the rated voltageto one of the windings keeping the
other winding open (generally HV winding is kept open and ratedvoltage is
applied to LV winding). The circuit diagram to conduct this test is shown in
Figure 6.

W
220 V, 50 Hz
Variac
AC

Low Voltage Side High Voltage Side

Figure 6: Open circuit test diagram

Since,the secondary terminals are open (no load is connected across

thesecondary), currentdrawn from thesource is called as no load current. On
no-load, the approximate equivalent circuit shown in Figure 6 can be further
reduced and is shown in Figure 7.
 Io
Iw Im
V1 Ro Xo

Figure 7: Equivalent circuit diagram of open circuit test

Under no-load condition the power input to thetransformer is equal to the

sum of losses in the primary winding resistance R1, and coreloss. Since,
noload current is very small, the loss in winding resistance is neglected.
Hence, on no loadthe power drawn from the source is dissipated as heat in the
core. If Ioand Piare the current andinput power drawn by the transformer at
rated voltage V1 respectively, then

Pi
cos  o  {18}
V 1io
ic  io cos  o {19}

im  io sin  o {20}
Therefore,

V1
Ro 
ic {21}
 V1
Xm  {22}
im

PROCEDURE

 Set up the circuit as shown in the figure. The secondary terminals are
left open. Use 1 Ampere range of ammeter and the current coil of the
wattmeter, and 300 Volts range for the potential coil of the wattmeter.

 Adjust the voltage to the transformer to 240 Volts using the variac and
the multimeter. Note down the meter readings.

SUMPNER’S TEST
The Sumpner's test is another method of determining efficiency, regulation
and heating under load conditions. The O.C. and S.C. tests give us the
equivalent circuit parameters but cannot give heating information under
various load conditions. The Sumpner's test gives heating information also. In
O.C. test, there is no load on the transformer while in S.C. circuit test also only
fractional load gets applied. In all in O.C. and S.C. tests, the loading conditions
are absent. Hence the results are inaccurate. In Sumpner's test, actual loading
conditions are simulated hence the results obtained are much more accurate.
Thus Sumpner’s test is much improved method of predetermining regulation
and efficiency than O.C. and S.C. tests.
 The Sumpner's test requires two identical transformers. Both the
transformers are connected to the supply such that one transformer is loaded
on the other. Thus power taken from the supply is that much necessary for
supplying the losses of both the transformers and there is very small loss in
the control circuit.
While conducting this test, the primaries of the two identical transformers
are connected in parallel across the supply V1. While the secondaries are
connected in series opposition so that induced e.m.f.s in the two secondaries
oppose each other. The secondaries are supplied from another low voltage
supply are connected in each circuit to get the readings. The connection
diagram is shown in the Figure 8.

A T1 E
I T1,T2:IDENTICAL

- W2 TRANSFORMER

A2
S
K B F + A
C G T
- V LOW
V2 VOLTAGE
2Io
+ SUPPLY 2
J L
D T2 H
REGULATING
LV HV TRANSFORMER

W1

A A1
V

V1
+ -
Figure 8: Circuit Diagram for Sumpner test

T1 and T2 are two identical transformers. The secondaries of T1 and T2 are

connected in series opposition. So EEF = EGH i.e. induced in two secondaries
are equal but the secondaries are connected such that E is connected to G and
F is connected to H. Due to such series opposition, two e.m.f.s act in opposite
direction to each other and cancel each other. So net voltage on the local
circuit of secondaries is zero, when primaries are excited by supply 1 of rated
voltage and frequency. So there is no current flowing in the loop formed by
two secondaries. The series opposition can be checked by another voltmeter
connected in the secondary circuit as per polarity test. If it reads zero, the
secondaries are in series opposition and if it reads double the induced e.m.f. in
each secondary, it is necessary to reverse the connections of one of the
secondaries.
As per superposition theorem, if V2 is assumed zero then due to phase
opposition to current flows through secondary and both the transformers T1,
T2 are as good as on no load. So O.C. test gets simulated. The current drawn
from source V1 in such case is 2Io where Io is no load current of each
transformer. The input power as measured by wattmeter W1 thus reads the
iron losses of both the transformers.
... Pi per transformer =W1 /2 as T1, T2 are identical
Then a small voltage V2 is injected into the secondary with the help of low
voltage transformer, by closing the switch S. With regulation mechanism, the
voltage V2 is adjusted so that the rated secondary current I2 flows through the
secondaries as shown. I2flows from E to F and then from H to G. The flow of
I1 is restricted to the loop B A I J C D L K B and it does not pass through W 1.
Hence W1 continues to read core losses. Both primaries and secondaries carry
rated current so S.C. test condition gets simulated. Thus the wattmeter W2
reads the total full load copper losses of both the transformers.
... (Pcu) F.L.per transformer = W2 /2
PROCEDURE
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Rated voltage of 110V is adjusted to get in voltmeter by adjusting the
variac of the Auto Transformer which would be in zero before switching
on the supply at the primary side.
3. The readings of voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter are noted on the
primary side.
4. A voltmeter is connected across the secondary and with the secondary
supply off i.e switch S is kept open. The voltmeter reading is noted.
5. If the reading of voltmeter reads higher voltage, the terminals of any
one of secondary coil is interchanged in order that voltmeter reads zero.
6. The secondary is now switched on and switch is closed with variac of
auto transformer is zero.
7. After switching on the secondary the variac of transformer (Auto) is
adjusted so that full load rated secondary current flows.
8. Then the readings of wattmeter, Ammeter and voltmeter are noted.
9. The Percentage Efficiency and percentage regulation are calculated and
equivalent circuit is drawn.

EFFICIENCY

Efficiency of the transformer is defined as:

output power

input power {23}
Interms of losses,

output power

output power  ironlosses  copper losses {24}

REGULATION

From Figure 4 it can be seen that if the input voltage is held constant, the
voltage at the secondaryterminals varies with load. Regulation is defined as
the change in magnitude of secondary (terminal)voltage, when the load is
thrown off with primary voltage held constant. Since, the change in
secondaryvoltage depends only on the load current, the equivalent circuit is
further simplified and is shown in Figure 9.

R1  R2 X1 X2 I 2

L
O
V1 V2
A
D

Figure 9: Equivalent circuit to determine regulation

The expression for regulationis given by

I 2Req cos  o  I 2Xeq sin  o

regulation  100 {25}
V2

MAGNETIC CIRCUIT

When magnetic force is applied to a material, the B and H fields which result
are related according to the following expression:

B  H {26}

where    o r is permeability of the material.

µo = 4πx 10-7 H/m and µr is the relative permeability of the
material.
B = Flux density
H = Magnetic Field

The relative permeability for non-magnetic material is 1. The relative

permeability of common transformer grade steel lamination, on the other
hand, is in the order of thousands.

For a transformer having its primary winding excited with a current, I and its
secondary winding open circuited (Refer to Figure 10), the relation between
the peak magnetic field intensity, Hm and the exciting rms current, I is a
follows:

HmL  N 1 2 I1 {27}
The magnetic core of the transformer is assumed to have a uniform cross-
section area and effective length of L. N1 is the number of turns of the primary
winding. Hence,

Hm  I {28}

The value of electromotive force (e.m.f) induced in the secondary winding N2

is

V 2  4.44 fABmN 2 {29}

Where V2 is secondary e.m.f. in r.m.s, f is the supply frequency and Bm is the

maximum flux density in the transformer core.

Thus the B-H curve may be experimentally determined from simple voltage
and current measurements.

220 V, 50 Hz

V1 V2

N1 : N2
330 : 37

Figure 10: Circuit Diagram for B-H curve

PROCEDURE

1. The circuit as in Figure 10 is connected. The effective length, L and

cross-section area, A are measured. L=0.806 m, A=0.003276 sq. m
2. The variac reading is set to zero and is switched on.
3. The variac is set to maximum voltage & corresponding current is noted
(Imax= 4 A).
4. The variac is increased from 0 and the primary current, I1 and the open-
circuited secondary voltage, V2 are measured.
5. The curves of Bm versus Hmare plotted.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

SL NO APPARATUS RANGE
1. AC ammeter (0-10) A
2. AC Voltmeter (0-300) V
3. Autotransformer 6 A, (0-270)V
4. Wattmeter 300 V, 1500 division
5. Single Phase core type transformer 1 kVA, 220/24 V,
4.54/40.5 A, 330:37

PRE EXPERIMENT QUESTIONS:

1. What is the operating principle of a single phase transformer?
2. Draw & explain the phasor diagram of a single phase transformer for
leading & lagging power factor.
3. Explain core & copper losses in a transformer & how these losses can
be calculated with the help of Open circuit & short circuit test.
4. Draw the equivalent circuit of a transformer.
 5. Why short circuit test is performed on high voltage side?
6. Why open circuit test is performed on low voltage side?
7. What will happen if primary of the transformer is connected to D.C.
supply?
8. Why does the core of the transformer get saturated?
9. What is the purpose of conducting the Sumpner’s test?
10. Why transformers are rated in KVA?

POST EXPERIMENT QUESTION

1. What are the ratings of the various instruments used during the
experiment?
2. Why are iron losses constant at all loads in a transformer?
3. Why the B-H curve of the transformer does not depend upon the load?
4. Calculate the parameters of the transformer with the help of readings
taken and draw phasor diagrams for OC and SC test using the calculated
parameters.
5. How are the parameters referred to the HV or LV side? Explain with an
example.
6. Why LPF wattmeter is used in OC test?
7. What are the advantages of Sumpner’s test over OC & SC tests?
8. What is the difference between a single phase transformer & an
autotransformer?
9. What changes do resistance & leakage reactance bring about in a
practical loaded transformer?
10. What is the importance of referring the parameters of a transformer
with respect to a particular side?
EXPERIMENTAL DATA

(For Open Circuit Test)

VOLTMETER READING AMMETER READING WATTMETER READING

(Voc) Volts (Ioc) Ampere (Woc) Watts

(For Short Circuit Test)

VOLTMETER READING AMMETER READING WATTMETER READING

(Voc) Volts (Ioc) Ampere (Woc) Watts

(For Sumpner Test)

Open circuit

VOLTMETER READING AMMETER READING WATTMETER READING

(Voc) Volts (Ioc) Ampere (Woc) Watts

Short Circuit

VOLTMETER READING AMMETER READING WATTMETER READING

(Voc) Volts (Ioc) Ampere (Woc) Watts

(For B-H Curve)

Primary Current, Secondary Voltage, Magnetic Force, Max. Flux Density,

√
I1 (A) V2 (V) = = .