Transformers

Introduction
In the power station, the three-phase ac generator generates a three-phase alternating voltage in
the range between 11 and 20 kV. The magnitude of the generated voltage is increased to 120 kV
or more by means of a power transformer. This higher magnitude of voltage is then transmitted
to the grid substation by a three-phase transmission lines. A lower line voltage of 415 V is
achieved by stepping down either from the 11 or 33 kV lines by a distribution transformer. In
these cases, a three-phase transformer is used in either to step-up or step-down the voltage.
Since a transformer plays a vital role in feeding an electrical network with the required voltage,
it becomes an important requirement of a power system engineer to understand the fundamental
details about a transformer along with its analytical behaviour in the circuit domain.

A transformer, irrespective of its type, contains the following characteristics

(i) it has no moving parts,
(ii) no electrical connection between the primary and secondary windings,
(iii) windings are magnetically coupled,
(iv) rugged and durable in construction,
(v) efficiency is very high i.e., more than 95%, and
(vi) frequency is unchanged

Working Principle of Transformer

Fig.1. Single-phase Transformer

The Fig.1 shows a schematic diagram of a single-phase transformer. There are two types of
windings in a single-phase transformer. These are called primary and secondary windings or
coils. The primary winding is connected to the alternating voltage source and the secondary
winding is connected to the load. The primary and secondary winding parameters are
represented by the suffix p or 1 and s or 2, respectively. A sinusoidal current flows in the
primary winding when it is connected to an alternating voltage source. This current establishes a
flux  which moves from the primary winding to the secondary winding through low reluctance
magnetic core.

About 95% of this flux moves from the primary to the secondary through the low reluctance
path of the magnetic core and this flux is linked by the both windings and a small percent of this
flux links to the primary winding.
Therefore an e.m.f is induced in the primary winding and an e.m.f. is induced in the secondary
winding.

e1=-N1 --------------------------- eqn.1

e2=-N2 --------------------------- eqn.2

therefore,

= = K , where k is called transformation ratio of the transformer.

When load is connected to the secondary winding, a current I2 flows through the load.V2 is the
terminal voltage across the load.
As the power transferred from the primary winding to the secondary winding is same,
Power input to the primary winding=Power output from the secondary winding.
E1I1=E2I2

the directions of the e.m.f‟s E1 and E2 induced in the primary and secondary windings are such
that they always oppose the primary applied voltage V1.
Flux in a Transformer

The current in the primary winding establishes a flux. The flux that moves from primary to
secondary and links both the windings is called the mutual flux and its maximum value is
represented by m.

Flux which links only the primary winding and completes the magnetic path through the
surrounding air is known primary leakage flux. The primary leakage flux is denoted by 1l.
Similarly, secondary leakage flux is that flux which links only the secondary winding and
completes the magnetic path through the surrounding air. The secondary leakage flux is denoted
by 2l. Mutual and leakage fluxes are shown in Fig.2.

Fig.2 Mutual and Leakage fluxes

Ideal Transformer

An ideal transformer is one which does not supply any energy to the load i.e., the secondary
winding is open circuited. The main points of an ideal transformer are,
(i) no winding resistance,
(ii) no leakage flux and leakage inductance,
(iii) self-inductance and mutual inductance are zero,
(iv) no losses due to resistance, inductance, hysteresis or eddy current and
(v) coefficient of coupling is unity.

The Fig.3(a) shows an ideal transformer where the secondary winding is left open. A small
magnetizing current Im will flow in the primary winding when it is connected to the alternating
voltage source, V1. This magnetizing current lags behind the supply voltage, V1 by 90° and
produces the flux , which induces the primary and secondary emfs. These emfs lag behind the
flux,  by 90°. The magnitude of primary induced emf E1 and supply voltage V1 is the same, but
are 180° out of phase as shown in Fig.3(b).

Fig.3(a). Ideal Transformer

Fig.3(b). Phasor diagram

E.M.F. Equation of Transformer

The primary winding draws a current when it is connected to an alternating voltage source. This
primary sinusoidal current produces a sinusoidal flux  that can be expressed as,

  m sin t (1)
Instantaneous emf induced in the primary winding is,
d
e1   N1 (2)
dt
Similarly, instantaneous emf induced in the secondary winding is,
d
e2   N 2 (3)
dt
Substituting Eq.(1) into the Eq.(2) yields,
e1   N1 m sin t 
d
(4)
dt
e1   N1 m cost (5)

e1   N1m sin t  90o  (6)
The maximum value of e1 is,
Em1  N1 m (7)
The rms value of the primary emf is,
Em1
E1  (8)
2
Substituting Eq.(7) into Eq.(8) yields,
N1 2fm
E1  (9)
2
E1  4.44 fm N1 (10)
Similarly, the expression of the secondary emf is,
E2  4.44 fm N 2 (11)
The primary and secondary voltages can be determined from Eq.(10) and Eq.(11) if other
parameters are known.

Transformation Ratio

(1) Voltage Transformation Ratio

(2) Current Transformation Ratio

Voltage Transformation Ratio:

Voltage transformation ratio can be defined as the ratio of the secondary voltage to
the primary voltage denoted by K

Mathematically given as
Current Transformation Ratio:

Consider an ideal transformer and we have the input voltampere is equal to output
voltampere.

Mathematically, Input Voltampere = Output Voltampere

Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

No load equivalent circuit:

Windings of a transformer are not connected electrically. The windings are magnetically
coupled with each other. In this case, it is tedious to do proper analysis. Therefore, for easy
computation and visualization, the practical transformer needs to be converted into an equivalent
circuit by maintaining same properties of the main transformer. In the equivalent circuit, the
related parameters need to be transferred either from the primary to the secondary or vice versa.
A two windings ideal transformer is shown in Fig.4.
 Fig.4. Two windings Transformer

Exact Equivalent Circuit

The Fig.5 shows an exact equivalent circuit referred to the primary where all the parameters
are transferred from the secondary to the primary and

Fig.5. Exact equivalent circuit referred to primary

• The effect of circuit parameters shouldn‟t be changed while transferring the parameters
from one side to another side
• It can be proved that a resistance of R2 in sec. is equivalent to R2/k2 will be denoted as
R2‟(ie. Equivalent sec. resistance w.r.t primary) which would have caused the same loss
as R2 in secondary,
 I12 R2'  I 22 R2
2
I 
R   2  R2
'
2
 I1 
R
 22
k

The Fig.6 shows the exact equivalent circuit referred to the secondary where all the
parameters are transferred from the primary to the secondary.

These parameters are,

Similarly exciting circuit parameters are also transferred to secondary as Ro‟ and Xo‟

Fig.6. Exact equivalent circuit referred to secondary

Approximate Equivalent Circuit

The no-load current is very small as compared to the rated primary current. Therefore, there is a
negligible voltage drop due to R1 and X1. In this condition, it can be assumed that the voltage
drop across the no-load circuit is the same as the applied voltage without any significant error.
The approximate equivalent circuit can be drawn by shifting the no-load circuit across the
supply voltage, V1. The Fig.7 shows an approximate equivalent circuit referred to the primary.
 Fig.7. Approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary

The total resistance, reactance and impedance referred to the primary are,

The no-load circuit resistance and reactance are,

V1
R0 
Ic
V1
X0 
Im
The Fig.8 shows an approximate equivalent circuit referred to the secondary.
 Fig.8. Approximate equivalent circuit referred to secondary

The total resistance, reactance and impedance referred to the secondary is,
R02  R2  R1'  R2  R1K 2
X 02  X 2  X1'  X 2  X1K 2
Z 02  R02  jX 02
The no-load circuit resistance and reactance referred to the secondary are,
V'
R0'  1'
Ic
V1'
X 0' 
I m'

Since the noload current is 1% of the full load current, the nolad circuit can be neglected

Losses in a transformer:

The losses that occur in a transformer are:

 Iron losses
 Copper losses

Iron Loss(Wi):-
 It is also called as core loss; there are two types: eddy current loss and hysteresis loss.
The eddy current loss occurs due to the flow of eddy currents in the laminations of the core.
The eddy currents are induced in the laminations, because the alternating flux produced by the
primary winding links them. These eddy currents cause power loss in the core and heats up the
core of the transformer. The eddy current loss in core is given by empirical formula,

We=βBm2 f2t2V watts.

We= eddy current loss in watts
Bm=Maximum value of flux density in core in Wb/m2+.
f= frequency of supply in Hz.
t-thic kness of laminations in metre.
V-volume of core in m3.
β- constant, (value depends on quality of magnetic material used for making the core.)
To limit the eddy current loss, the core is made of thin laminations of high permeability
magnetic material, such as silicon steel and they are insulated from one another by coating
them with varnish or an oxide layer.
The hysteresis loss(Wh) occurs because, the core of the transformer is subjected to cycles of
magnetization.
The hysteresis is caused by continuous magnetization & demagnetization of core.

This causes some loss, which is determined by plotting graph of B(magnetic flux density) Vs
H(magnetic field strength); which gives curve called as hysteresis loop. The hysteresis loss is
noting but area of this hysteresis loop.

The hysteresis loss can be reduced by implementing material having smallest area of hysteresis
loop.
So generally silicon steel is used, which is having least hysteresis loop area.

Wh=
 where
Wh= hysteresis loss in watts
Bm=maximum flux density in Wb/m2
f=frequency of supply in Hz.
V-Volume of the core in m3.
- constant (value depends on th equality of magnetic material used for making the core.)
Wi= We+Wh
Iron loss in the transformer is considered to be constant loss at all loads including No-Load.
The iron losses are minimized by using high grade core material like silicon steel have low
hysteresis loop and by manufacturing core in the form of laminations.
Copper loss:
The copper losses are due to power wasted in the form of I2R loss due to resistances of
primary and secondary windings.
The copper loss depends on the magnitude of the currents flow through the windings.
Total copper loss=
If the current through the windings is full load current , we get copper loss at full load.
If the load on the transformer is half, then we get copper losses at half full load.
Thus copper losses are variable losses.
Pcu α I2 α(KVA)2
Copper losses are kept minimum by designing the windings with low resistances values.
Therefore total losses= Pi+ Pcu

Open Circuit And Short Circuit Test On Transformer

Oc and SC tests are performed to find the parameters of equivalent circuit of

transformer and losses of the transformer.
Open circuit test and short circuit test on transformer are very economical and convenient
because they are performed without actually loading of the transformer.

Open Circuit Or No Load Test On Transformer

Open circuit test or no load test on a transformer is performed to determine 'no load loss (core
loss)' and 'no load current I0'. The circuit diagram for open circuit test is shown in the figure
below.
Usually high voltage (HV) winding is kept open and the low voltage (LV) winding is connected
to its normal supply. A wattmeter (W), ammeter (A) and voltmeter (V) are connected to the LV
winding as shown in the figure. Now, applied voltage is slowly increased from zero to normal
rated value of the LV side with the help of a variac. When the applied voltage reaches to the
rated value of the LV winding, readings from all the three instruments are taken.
The ammeter reading gives the no load current I0. As I0 itself is very small, the voltage drops
due to this current can be neglected.
when the transformer is on no load, the no load current or primary current is very small,
typically 3 to 5 percent of the rated current value. Thus, the copper loss in the primary winding
is negligible. In OC test, transformer is operated at rated voltage at rated frequency so the
maximum will be the flux in the core. Since the iron or core losses are at rated voltage, the
power input is drawn to supply the iron losses by the transformer under no load.

Wo = Iron losses

The no load shunt parameters are calculated from the OC test as

The no load power factor, Cos Φo = Wo/VoIo

Once the power factor is obtained, the no load component currents are determined as

Magnetizing component of no load current, Im = Io sin Φo

Core loss component of no load current, Im = Io cos Φo

Then, the magnetizing branch reactance, Xo= Vo / Im

Resistance representing core loss, Ro = Vo / Ic

When the transformer is operating on no load, the current drawn by the shunt or parallel
parameters is very small about 2 to 5 percent of the rated current. Thus, a low current will flow
through the circuit during OC test. In order to be readable by the instruments, the measurements
of voltage, current and power must be performed in the low voltage side.

And also, low range current coils and low range ammeter must be selected. The power factor of
the transformer on no load is too low which is typically below 0.5 . So in order work with this
low value, a LPF watt meter is selected. The equivalent circuit obtained by the OC test is shown
below.

Short Circuit Or Impedance Test On Transformer

The connection diagram for short circuit test or impedance test on transformer is as shown in
the figure below. The LV side of transformer is short circuited and wattmeter (W), voltmere (V)
and ammeter (A) are connected on the HV side of the transformer. Voltage is applied to the HV
side and increased from the zero until the ammeter reading equals the rated current. All the
readings are taken at this rated current.
The ammeter reading gives primary equivalent of full load current (Isc).
The voltage applied for full load current is very small as compared to rated voltage.
the voltage applied to the primary winding is very low, thereby the flux level in the core is very
small. In turn there is negligible core loss. Therefore, the no load shunt branch is considered as
absent in equivalent circuit of this test as core loss is negligible.

As the iron or core losses are function of voltage, these losses are very small. Therefore the
wattmeter reading shows the power loss or I2 R loss equal to the full load copper losses of the
whole transformer.

Wsc = Full load copper losses

Form the test results we determine the series branch parameters of an equivalent circuit as
Equivalent resistance referred to HV side,
R01 = Wsc/ Isc2
Equivalent impedance referred to HV side, Z01 = Vsc / Isc
Equivalent leakage reactance referred to HV side, X01 = √ (Z201 – R201)

And also short circuit power factor, Cos Φsc = Wsc / VscIsc

The equivalent circuit obtained from this test is shown below.

It should be noted that, before parameters calculation, one must aware in which side (primary or
secondary) the test reading being recorded. Suppose if the transformer is step-up transformer,
then we carry out the SC test on secondary side (HV side) while primary or low voltage side is
shorted.

In such case we get the parameters referred to the secondary from calculations such as R02, X02
and Z02. If it is a step-down transformer, we get the parameter values as R01, X01 and Z01 because
the meters are connected to the HV side of the primary.
From the OC test we get, shunt branch parameters referred to the LV side and from SC test we
get series branch parameters referred to HV side. Therefore, for a meaningful equivalent circuit,
all the parameters must be referred to the one particular side.

Sumpner’s Test Or Back-To-Back Test On Transformer:

Sumpner‟s test provides data for finding the regulation, efficiency and heating under load
conditions and is employed only when two similar transformers are available. The O.C. and S.C.
tests give us the equivalent circuit parameters but can not give heating information under various
load conditions. The Sumpner‟s test requires two identical transformers. One transformer is
loaded on the other and both are connected to supply. The power taken from the supply is that
necessary for supplying the losses of both transformers and the negligibly small loss in the
control circuit. Sumpner’s test is also called as back to back test on transformers because of
connections are in parallel at input side and connections are in series at output side.
The Sumpner test is carried out on two identical transformers to compute the efficiency of each
transformer.

Here, two identical transformers are connected back to back, such that their primaries are in
parallel across the same voltage source and the secondarys in series so that one transformer is
loaded on the other

The Sumpner's test(back to back test) is the very practical, convenient, efficient and minimum
power consumption without actual loading(heat run(Temp. rise) test for Hrs.) method to find
regulation and efficiency of large power transformer, used in practice. Only needed are two
identical power transformers, and is very conveniently used by large power transformer
manufectorers, compare to O.C&S.C test. Two transformers can be tested at a time.

Determination of Iron Loss and Copper Loss

The wattmeter W1 measures the power loss which is equal to the iron loss of the transformer.
For determining the iron loss, the primary circuit of the transformer is kept closed. Because of
the primary closed circuit, no current flows through the secondary windings of the transformer.
The secondary winding behaves like an open circuit. The wattmeter is connected to
their secondary terminal for the measurement of iron loss. The copper loss of the transformer is
determined when the full load current flows through their primary and secondary windings. The
additional regulating transformer is used for exciting the secondary windings. The full load
current flows from the secondary to the primary winding. The wattmeter W2 measures the full
load copper loss of the two transformers.

Iron losses of each transformer = Wi = Woc /2 watts.

Full load copper loss of each transformer = Wc =

wsc /2 watts The percentage efficiency of each of

the transformers can be pre-calculated using the equation.

%  = X (kVA rating x 103 ) Cos  / ( X (kVA rating x 103) Cos  + Wi + X2 Wc )

Where X is the fraction of full load kVA at which % is to be predetermined and Cos  is the

p.f of load.

Determination of Temperature Rise

The temperature rise of the transformer is determined by measuring the temperature of their oil
after every particular interval of time. The transformer is operating back to back for the long
time which increases their oil temperature. By measuring the temperature of their oil the
withstand capacity of the transformer under high temperature is determined.

Efficiency of a transformer
Transformers which are connected to the power supplies and loads and are in
operation are required to handle load current and power as per the requirements of the load.
An unloaded transformer draws only the magnetization current on the primary side, the
secondary current being zero. As the load is increased the primary and secondary currents
increase as per the load requirements. The volt amperes and wattage handled by the
transformer also increases. Due to the presence of no load losses and I2R losses in the
windings certain amount of electrical energy gets dissipated as heat inside the transformer.
This gives rise to the concept of efficiency.
Efficiency of a power equipment is defined at any load as the ratio of the power output to

the power input. Putting in the form of an expression,

While the efficiency tells us the fraction of the input power delivered to the load, the
deficiency focuses our attention on losses taking place inside transformer. As a matter of fact
the losses heat up machine. The temperature rise decides the rating of the equipment.
 The temperature rise of the machine is a function of heat generated the structural
configuration, method of cooling and type of loading (or duty cycle of load). The peak
temperature attained directly affects the life of the insulations of the machine for any class of

insulation.

A typical curve for the variation of efficiency as a function of output is given in Fig.
The losses that take place inside the machine expressed as a fraction of the input is some
times termed as deficiency. Except in the case of an ideal machine, a certain fraction of the
input power gets lost inside the machine while handling the power. Thus the value for the
efficiency is always less than one. In the case of a.c. machines the rating is expressed in
terms of apparent power. It is nothing but the product of the applied voltage and the current
drawn. The actual power delivered is a function of the power factor at which this current is
drawn. As the reactive power shuttles between the source and the load and has a zero
average value over a cycle of the supply wave it does not have any direct effect on the
efficiency. The reactive power however increases the current handled by the machine and the
losses resulting from it. Therefore the losses that take place inside a transformer at any
given load play a vital role in determining the efficiency.
Due to the losses, output power of a transformer is less than the power input applied.
Hence , Power input= Power output + Total losses
The efficiency of any device is defined as the ratio of power output to the power input.

= =

Power output= V2I2COS φ, COS φ- load power factor

V2I2= VA rating of transformer

I2= full load secondary current

Let „n‟ be fraction by which load is less than full load, when load changes, the load current
changes by same proportion.
New I2=n(I2)F.L
New Pcu= n2(Pcu)F.L
In general for fractional load,

Condition for maximum efficiency:

Efficiency is the function of load, i.e load current I2 assuming COSφ2 constant, V2 is also
constant.

For maximum efficiency, =0

( )

(V2I2 cos φ2+Pi+ R2e)(V2cos φ2)-( V2I2 cos φ2)( V2cos φ2+2I2R2e)=0
Pi- =0
P1=Pcu, for ηmax
Load current at ηmax:-
I2= I2m for maximum efficiency

I2m=√

I2m=√

Let

= √

I2m=(I2)F.L√

KVA supplied at maximum efficiency = V2I2m

=V2(I2)F.L√

Regulation of a transformer:
It is observed that the secondary terminal voltage drops from its no load value (E2) to load
value (V2) as load and load current increases.
The regulation is defined as the change n magnitude of the secondary terminal voltage , when
full load of specified power factor supplied at rated voltage is reduced to no load, with primary
voltage maintained constant expressed as percentage of rated terminal voltage.
Let E2- secondary terminal voltage on no load.
V2- secondary terminal voltage on given load.

% voltage regulation = * 100

The regulation depends on power factor of the load.

Voltage regulation is a measure of the change in the terminal voltage of a
transformer between No load and Full load. A good transformer has least value of the
regulation of the order of ±5%.

% regulation = *100
„+‟ for lagging power factor
„-„ for leading power factor.
All Day Efficiency of a Transformer
For a transformer, the efficiency is defined as the ratio of output power to input power. This
is its efficiency. But power efficiency is not the true measure of the performance of some special
types of transformers such as distribution transformers.
Distribution transformer serve residential and commercial loads. The load on such
transformers vary considerably during the period of the day. For most period of the day these
transformers are working at 30 to 40 % of full load only or even less than that. But the primary
of such transformers is energised at its rated voltage for 24 hours, to provide continuous supply
to the consumer. The core loss which depends on voltage, takes place continuously for all the
loads. But copper loss depends on the load condition. For no load, copper loss is negligibly
small while on full load it is at its rated value. Hence power efficiency can not give the measure
of true efficiency of such transformers. in such transformers, the energy output is calculated in
kilo watt hour (kWh). Then ratio of total energy output to total energy input (output + losses) is
calculated. Such ratio is called energy efficiency or All Day Efficiency of a transformer. Based
on this efficiency, the performance of various distribution transformers is compared. All day
efficiency is defined as,
The all day efficiency is thus the ratio of the energy output of the transformer over a day to the
corresponding energy input. One day is taken as a duration of time over which the load pattern
repeats itself. This assumption, however, is far from being true. The power output varies from
 zero to full load depending on the requirement of the user and the load losses vary as the
square of the fractional loads.

Example 1 : A 400 KVA, distribution transformer has full load iron loss of 2.5 kW and copper
loss of 3.5 kW. During a day, its load cycle for 24 hours is,
No of Load kw Power
hours factor
6 300 0.8
10 200 0.7
4 100 0.9

Determining its all day efficeincy.

Solution : Given values are,
Pi = 2.5 kW, (Pcu ) F.L. = 3.5 kW, 400 KVA
Iron losses is constant for 24 hours. So energy spent due to iron losses for 24 hours is,
Pi = 2.5 x 24 hours = 60 kWh
Total energy output in a day from given load cycle is,
Energy output = 300 x 6 hours + 200 x 10 hours + 100 x 4 hours
= 4200 kWh
To calculate energy spent due to copper loss,
i) Load 1 of 300 kW at cos Φ = 0.8
... KVA supplied = kW/cos Φ = 300/0.8 = 375 KVA
... n = load KVA/ KVA rating = 375/400 = 0.9375
Copper losses are proportional to square of KVA ratio i.e. x2.
... Load 1 Pcu = x2 x (Pcu) F.L. = (0.9375)2 x 3.5
= 3.076 kW
.
.. Energy spent = 3.076 x 6 hours = 18.457 kWh
ii) Load 2 of 200 kW at cos Φ = 0.7
... KVA supplied = kW/cos Φ = 200/0.7 = 285.7142 KVA
... x = Load KVA/KVA rating = 285.7142/400 = 07142
.
.. Load 2 Pcu = x2 x (Pcu) F.L. = (0.7142)2 x 3.5
= 1.7857 kW
.
.. Energy spent = 1.7857 x 10 = 17.857 kWH
iii) Load 3 of 100 kW at cos Φ = 0.9
... KVA supplied = kW/cos Φ = 100/0.9 = 111.111 KVA
.
.. x = 111.111/400 = 0.2778
... Load 3 Pcu = n2 x (Pcu) F.L. = (0.2778)2 x 3.5 = 0.2701 kW
.
.. Energy spent = 0.2701 x 4 = 1.0804 kWh
iv) No load hence negligible copper losses.
No of Load kw Power Load in Copper
hours factor kva loss at
different
KVA
 6 300 0.8 375 3.076 3.076 x 6 hours = 18.457
kWh

10 200 0.7 285.7142 1.7857 1.7857 x 10 = 17.857

kWH
4 100 0.9 111.111 0.2701 0.2701 x 4 = 1.0804 kWh

... Total energy spent = Energy spent due to (Iron loss + Total copper loss)
= 60 + 18.457 + 17.857 + 1.0804 = 97.3994 kWh
and Total output = 4200 kWh

All day efficiency is always less than the commercial efficiency

Why transformer rating is expressed in KVA ?
When electrical power is transferred from primary to secondary winding, there are few power
losses.
Pcu are dependent on „I‟ through the windings, while „Pi‟ depends on voltage as frequency is
constant, none of the losses depend on power factor of load, hence losses decide rating of
transformer and are expresses in „KVA‟.
Can D.C.Supply be used for transformers?
D.C. Supply cannot be used for transformers.
Practically, winding resistance is very small. For D.C , XL 0 (no frequency), total impedance
is very low. Thus winding draws very high current and may damage the windings and saturate
the core.
Problems:
Q1. A single phase, 20KVA transformer has 1000 primary turns and 2500 secondary
turns. The net cross-sectional area of the core is 100cm2, when the primary winding is
connected to 500V, 50Hz supply, Calculate
I. maximum value of flux density in the core.
II. The voltage induced in secondary winding.
III. The primary and secondary full load current.

Solution:
E1=4.44f φmN1
500=4.44*50*φm*1000
 Therefore, φm=2.252 mWb.

Bm= = 0.2252 Wb/m2

Therefore, E2=1250 V

I1=(KVA*1000)/E1=40A
Q2.Find the number of turns on primary and secondary side of a 440/230V, 50Hz, single
phase transformer, If the net area of cross section is 30cm2 and maximum value of flux
density is 1Wb/m2.
Solution:
E1=4.44f φmN1
N1=660.667 turns

N2=345.35 turns
Q3. A 50KVA, 2500/250 V single phase transformer has primary winding resistance of
3Ω and a reactance of 5Ω. The secondary winding resistance and reactance are 0.02Ω
and 0.03Ω respectively. Find (i) (Req)1 , (Xeq)1 and Z01 and also (ii) (Req)2 , (Xeq)2 and Z02
(iii) Pcu.
Solution:

K= = 0.1

(Req)1=R1+ =5Ω

(Xeq)1=X1+ =8Ω

Z01=√( ) ( ) =9.43Ω

(Req)2=R2+K2R1 = 0.05Ω

(Xeq)2=X2+K2X1 =0.08Ω
Z02=0.094Ω

I1= = 20A,

Pcu= R01 = 2000W

Q4. The high voltage and low voltage windings of 2500/250 V, single phase transformer
have resistances of 5Ω and 0.05Ω and reactances 3Ω and 0.02Ω respectively. The LV
winding is connected to a load of (8+j6)Ω. Determine (i)current in low voltage (ii)
current in high voltage winding (iii) secondary terminal voltage (iv) power consumed by
the load.
 Solution:

K= = =0.1

(Req)2= R2+K2R1=0.1 Ω
(Xeq)2= X2+K2X1=0.05 Ω

(Zeq)2=(0.1+j 0.05)Ω

I2= =24.73-36.76 A

(ii) current in H.V. winding

If no load current is neglected,

I1= =KI2 =2.473-36.76

(iii) secondary terminal voltage

V2=I2ZL= 247.30.11 V

(iv) power consumed by the load, =I2RL= 4.892KW

Q5. A supply frequency 50 Hz produces a flux density varying sinusoidally having a

maximum value of 1Wb/m2 and an eddy current loss of 60W. Find We when supply
frequency is raised to 60Hz and Bm being reduced to 0.5 Wb/m2.

Solution:

We α

(i) When frequency is 50 Hz

60α 12*502…………………………………..(a)
At frequency =60Hz
We α (0.5)2*(60)2……………………………….(b)

Dividing equation (b) by (a)

We get We= 21.6 W

Q6. The iron loss in magnetic specimen is 120W at 40Hz and 80W at 30Hz, flux density
remaining the same. Find the eddy current loss and hysteresis loss at 50Hz.

Solution:
As Bm is constant
Weα f2 =Af2
Whα f = Bf
Therefore, Wi=Wh+We= Af2+Bf
At 40 Hz,
 120=1600A+40B

At 30 Hz,
80=900A+30B

Solving ,
A=0.033, B=1.667
At 50 Hz,
We= 83.25W, Wh=83.38W

Q7. A transformer is rated at 100KVA, at full load Pcu=1200W and Pi=960W. Calculate
I. Efficiency at full load , U.P.F
II. Efficiency at half load, 0.8 P.F
III. The load KVA at which ηmax occurs.
IV. ηmax at 0.85 P.F.

solution:

I. n=1, cos =1
η=97.88%
II. n=1/2, cos =0.8
η=96.94%
III. KVA for ηmax = KVA√ = 89.427KVA

IV. For ηmax, Pi=Pcu=960W, cos =0.85

% ηmax= *100
n =97.53%

Q8. A 600KVA, single phase transformer has efficiency of 92% both at full load and half
load, UPF.Detremine its efficiency at 75% of full load, 0.9 P.f.

Solution:
On full load,
0.92= = ……………………..(1)

On half load,

0.92=

…………………………………………..(2)
Pi=17391.3053W,
 (Pcu)F.L= 34782.6W

% = 91.64%

Tap-changing Transformers
A tap changer is a mechanism in transformers which allows for variable turn ratios to be
selected in discrete steps. Transformers with this mechanism obtain this variable turn ratio by
connecting to a number of access points known as taps along either the primary or secondary
winding. These systems usually possess 33 taps (one at centre "Rated" tap and sixteen to
increase and decrease the turn ratio) and allow for ±10% variation (each step providing 0.625%
variation) from the nominal transformer rating which, in turn, allows for stepped voltage
regulation of the output.
Tap changers exist in two primary types,
1. no load tap changers (NLTC) which must be de-energized before the turn ratio is
adjusted and
2. on load tap changers (OLTC) which may adjust their turn ratio during operation.
The tap selection on any tap changer may be made via an automatic system, as is often the case
for OLTC, or a manual tap changer, which is more common for NLTC. Additionally, tap
changers are often placed on the high voltage (low current) transformer winding for easy access
and to minimize the current load during operation.
No Load Tap Changers
Also called 'Off-Circuit Tap Changer, Off-Load Tap Changer, or De-Energized Tap Changer
(DETC).
No load tap changers are often utilized in situations in which a transformer's turn ratio does not
require frequent changing and it is permissible to de-energize the transformer system. This type
of transformer is frequently employed in low power, low voltage transformers in which the tap
point often may take the form of a transformer connection terminal, requiring the input line to be
disconnected by hand and connected to the new terminal. Alternatively, in some systems, the
process of tap changing may be assisted by means of a rotary or slider switch.
No load tap changers are also employed in high voltage transformers in which the system
includes a no load tap changer on the primary winding to accommodate system variations within
a narrow band around the nominal rating. In such systems, the tap changer will often be set just
once, at the time of installation, although it may be changed later during a scheduled outage to
accommodate a long-term change in the system voltage profile.
In this method, the transformer is disconnected from the main supply when the tap setting is to
be changed. The tap setting is usually done manually. The off load tap changing transformer is
shown in the figure below
 On Load Tap Changers
Also called On Circuit Tap Changer
For many power transformer applications, a supply interruption during a tap change is
unacceptable, and the transformer is often fitted with a more expensive and complex on load tap
changing (OLTC, sometime es Load Tap Changer, LTC) mechanism. On load tap changers
may be generally classified as either mechanical, electronically assisted, or fully electronic.
A On load tap changer(OLTC), also known as under- load tap changer (ULTC)'.
In order that the supply may not be interrupted, on-load tap changing transformer are used. Such
a transformer is known as a tap-changing under load transformer. While tapping, two essential
conditions are to be fulfilled.

 The load circuit should not be broken to avoid arcing and prevent the damage of contacts.
 No parts of the windings should be short–circuited while adjusting the tap.

The tap changing employing a center tapped reactor R show in the figure above. Here S is the
diverter switch, and 1, 2, 3 are selector switch. The transformer is in operation with switches 1
and S closed. To change to tap 2, switch S is opened, and 2 is closed. Switch 1 is then opened,
and S closed to complete the tap change. It is to be noted that the diverter switch operates on
load, and no current flows in the selector switches during tap changing. During the tap change
only half of the reactance which limits the current is connected in the circuit.
Applications of Transformers
There are four principal applications of transformers viz.
(i) power transformers (ii) distribution transformers
(iii) autotransformers (iv) instrument transformers

(i) Power Transformers. They are designed to operate with an almost constant load which
is equal to their rating. The maximum efficiency is designed to be at full-load. This means
that full-load winding copper losses must be equal to the core losses.

(ii) Distribution Transformers. These transformers have variable load which is usually
considerably less than the full-load rating. Therefore, these are designed to have their
maximum efficiency at between 1/2 and 3/4 of full- load.

(iii) Autotransformers. An autotransformer has only one winding and is used in cases
where the ratio of transformation (K), either step-up or step down, differs little from 1.
For the same output and voltage ratio, an autotransformer requires less copper than an
ordinary 2-winding transformer. Autotransformers are used for starting induction motors
(reducing applied voltage during starting) and in boosters for raising the voltage of
feeders.

(iv) Instrument transformers. Current and voltage transformers are used to extend the range
of a.c. instruments.

Auto transformer
It works on the principle of both induction and conduction. Power transfer also takes by both
induction and conduction.
 Also, V1I1 = V2I2 (Input apparent power = Output apparent power)

Output
Since the primary and secondary windings of an autotransformer are connected
magnetically as well as electrically, the power from primary is transferred to the
secondary inductively (transformer action) as well as conductively (i.e., conducted
directly from source to the load).
Output apparent power = V2I2
Apparent power transferred inductively = V2(I2 1) = V2(I2 2)
= V2I2 1I1
Power transferred inductively = Input K)
Power transferred conductively = Input Input (1 K)

Suppose the input power to an ideal autotransformer is 1000 W and its voltage
transformation ratio K= 1/4. Then,
Power transferred inductively = Input (1-¼)
Power transferred conductively Input
Note that input power to the autotransformer is 1000 W. Out of this, 750 W is transferred to
the secondary by transformer action (inductively) while 250 W is conducted directly from the
source to the load (i.e., it is transferred conductively to the load).

Advantages of Autotransformer
 Auto-transformers in comparison with the double winding transformers are generally
advantageous of the voltage ratio is favorable from the point of view of the equivalent
size.
 The reduction in the equivalent power in relation to the reduction in the weight and size,
reduction in the no load (iron losses) and on load losses (cooper losses),
 reduction in the no load current and the short circuit impedance
 Lower leakage reactance
 If P is the power of the transformer, linear dimensions of the auto tranobtainesformer
vary as P0.25 and the weight and volume vary as P0.75 thus reducing the losses and weight
of the transformer
 The short circuit impedance of the auto-transformer goes down with equivalent rating
which is advantageous because of the lower voltage drop and better regulation.
 For connections between the two systems at very high voltage, where the power is to be
transmitted in the order of GVA (Giga Volt-amperes), the use of auto transformer make
it possible for high power equipment and can be easily transportable. This will not be
possible with normal transformers
 Variable output voltage can be obtained when a sliding contact is used for the secondary.
Disadvantages of Autotransformer

 An electrical connection between the primary and secondary is not always desirable,
particularly when the voltages levels on both the sides of transformer are quite different.
If the neutral point is not solidly earthed, the lower voltage side can be subjected to high
potential in the event of earth fault on high voltage side. In general practice, auto
transformers are only used on distribution systems where the neutral is connected to the
earth
 Auto-transformers are particularly sensitive to the atmospheric over-voltages. Therefore
the auto-transformer requires much highs standard of insulation compared to normal
transformer. Surge Arrester protection is required
 As the short circuit impedance values of the auto-transformer are low, short circuit
currents can reach higher critical values.

Applications of Autotransformer

Autotransformers are used when transformation ratio K is nearly equal to unity and where there
is no objection to direct electrical connection between primary and secondary. Hence
autotransformers are extensively used for ratio ranging form 0.4 to 1.0 for the following
applications:

 It is used as variac for starting of machines like Induction machines, Synchronous

machines, known as auto starters.
 A continuously variable auto-transformer finds useful application in electrical testing
laboratory.
 The voltage drop is compensated and acts as booster to raise the voltage in an AC
feeder.
 It used as furnace transformers for getting a convenient supply to suit the furnace
winding.
 It can be connected between two systems operating at same voltage level.
 It can be used to obtain a neutral in a 3-wire AC distribution system in the same way as
a balancer set is used in a 3-wire DC distribution system. The autotransformer used in
this way is known as balance coil. The balance coil is cheaper and more efficient than
balance set.
Solved Problems
Review Questions
Common Causes of Transformer Failure

All power utilities are much worried these days due to high rate of failure of distribution
transformers and service. The failure rate of transformers in India is in the order of 12 to15%
as against less than 1% in developed countries. No one wants to share responsibility of
failure. Manufacturers often blame the users for running the transformers in overload for
single phasing or unbalancing. Users are of the opinion that the cause of failure is due to
faulty design or bad materials or poor workmanship. But the fact is – responsibility should be
shared equally by both.
Collection of failure data is the first major task. In free repair service or in repair contract,
very little effort is made by utilities to find out the root cause of failure, which could be one of
the reasons why a damaged transformer is replaced by a new one without removing the cause
of damage, leading to failure immediately or within a very short period.
Transformer failures can cause a huge problem in power system, since it‟s one of the
most critical link and it can take a while to replace if it fails. Let‟s discuss now about what
are the main causes of the transformer failures:
 Insulation Failures – In a recent study insulation failure was shown to be the leading
cause of transformer failure. This does not include cases in which there is evidence of
lightning of power surges. The four factors that are related to insulation failure are
oxidation, acidity, moisture, and heat. The average age of transformers that had
insulation failure is 18 years.

 Manufacturing Errors – Sadly, this is the second most frequent cause of transformer
failure. We are dedicated to make sure our transformers are not subject to
manufacturing errors. Most manufacturing errors involve loose blocking, poor
brazing, weak short circuit strength, and objects that are left in the tank and shouldn‟t
be.

 Oil Contamination – Sludging and carbon tracking can shorten a transformers

lifespan.

 Overloading – Make sure you only use your transformer to the nameplate capacity. If
you overload your transformer, you should know that you are shortening it‟s life span
and pulling money out of your pocket for saved “efficiency”.

 Loose Connection – It is important that you use good repairmen and maintain your
transformer with experts. Make sure that your maintenance workers know the proper
torquing for the bolts.
 Mistake in the operation, and carelessness in the arrangement of the protection
circuits.
 Insufficient inspection of the gaskets and valves.
 Poor maintenance of the accessories. Abnormal voltage

Some other causes of transformer failure are fires and explosions, flooding, lightning,
moisture, and line surges.
How to detect internal failures?

As additional protection, use the different relays that the transformer has to detect and be
protected of failures. Next you can find which parts are used to protect the transformer from
internal failures:

 Those devices that are attached directly to the transformer, and detect failures
mechanically:
 Buchholz relay,
 Pressure rise relay,
 Pressure relief device.
 Those devices that are indirectly joined to the control cabinet which detect failures
electrically:
 Differential relay,
 Overcurrent relay,
 Ground current relay.