Micromachines 07 00014

micromachines
Review
CMOS MEMS Fabrication Technologies and Devices
Hongwei Qu
Received: 31 August 2015; Accepted: 15 January 2016; Published: 21 January 2016
Academic Editor: Ching-Liang Dai
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Oakland University, 2200 N. Squirrel Road, Rochester,
MI 48309, USA; [email protected]; Tel.: +1-248-370-2205
Abstract: This paper reviews CMOS (complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor) MEMS

(micro-electro-mechanical systems) fabrication technologies and enabled micro devices of various
sensors and actuators. The technologies are classified based on the sequence of the fabrication of
CMOS circuitry and MEMS elements, while SOI (silicon-on-insulator) CMOS MEMS are introduced
separately. Introduction of associated devices follows the description of the respective CMOS MEMS
technologies. Due to the vast array of CMOS MEMS devices, this review focuses only on the
most typical MEMS sensors and actuators including pressure sensors, inertial sensors, frequency
reference devices and actuators utilizing different physics effects and the fabrication processes
introduced. Moreover, the incorporation of MEMS and CMOS is limited to monolithic integration,
meaning wafer-bonding-based stacking and other integration approaches, despite their advantages,
are excluded from the discussion. Both competitive industrial products and state-of-the-art research
results on CMOS MEMS are covered.
Keywords: CMOS (complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor); MEMS (micro-electro-mechanical

systems); CMOS MEMS; integration; sensors; actuators
1. Introduction
Last decade has seen the rapid maturity of the MEMS (micro-electro-mechanical systems) industry.
MEMS are now prevalent in our daily life. Probably the most popular gadget in which MEMS have
significant applications, known or unknown to the user, is a smart phone. MEMS motion sensors,
including accelerometers and gyroscopes with 6 degrees of freedom, along with MEMS microphones,
pressure sensors, magnetometers, etc., have greatly contributed to the operation of the smart phone,
which can be considered a little do-everything device. In automobiles, in addition to the well-known
MEMS devices for vehicle performance and safety, such as pressure sensors for manifold intake vacuum
measurement, smart tire pressure monitoring, accelerometers for airbag deployment, accelerometers
and gyroscopes for electronic stability programs (ESP), inclinometer for sliding prevention, etc., MEMS
have found new applications in environmental monitoring for driving and riding comfort and safety
improvements. In other areas, MEMS are serving us in inkjet printers with MEMS print heads and
portable electronics with MEMS resonators as frequency references, just to name a few. In the past few
years, MEMS market has enjoyed consecutive double-digit growth. The worldwide MEMS market is
predicted to top 22 billion U.S. dollars by 2018 [1].
The ultimate goals for MEMS have been and will continue to be continuous miniaturization,
expanded functionalities, lower cost, and improved performance and reliability. The purpose of MEMS
demands direct integration of mechanical structures with electronics that are normally fabricated
by CMOS (complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor) technologies. In the last couple of decades,
with breakthroughs in individual technologies and enabling tools, great efforts have been made to
integrate MEMS structures with integrated circuits (IC) on a single CMOS substrate, for the so-called
monolithic CMOS MEMS integration. Integration of those subsystems into new materials such as
Micromachines 2016, 7, 14; doi:10.3390/mi7010014 www.mdpi.com/journal/micromachines

Micromachines 2016, 7, 14 2 of 21
silicon-on-insulators (SOI) has been attempted as well. Numerous microfabrication and integration
approaches have been attempted [2].
CMOS MEMS are micromachined systems in which MEMS devices are integrated with CMOS
circuitry on a single chip to enable miniaturization and performance improvement. CMOS MEMS
also refers to microfabrication technologies and processes that are involved in the creation of these
integrated devices. One of the best-known commercial monolithic CMOS-MEMS devices is the digital
micromirror device (DMD) manufactured by Texas Instruments [3]. In the research community, one
of the pioneering efforts for CMOS MEMS transducers was made by H. Baltes and his coworkers at
the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich (ETH) [4]. They employed both wet bulk silicon
micromachining and surface micromachining techniques in the fabrication of integrated CMOS MEMS
devices. With advancement of both CMOS and micromachining technologies, CMOS MEMS have also
evolved tremendously in recent years [5].
From a historical perspective, this paper summarizes a variety of CMOS MEMS monolithic
integration technologies and associated devices that have made use of the respective technologies.
Due to the huge diversity of CMOS-MEMS integrated devices and systems, though other systems
and associated technologies such as CMOS-bioMEMS devices and integration for fluid handling and
analysis are emerging, as reported in references [6–10] and thereafter, only conventional MEMS devices,
including a variety of physical sensors, resonators, and actuators, are used as examplesl featuring the
respective CMOS MEMS technologies.
2. Classification of CMOS MEMS Technologies

MEMS can be integrated with CMOS electronics monolithically in number of different ways.
Despite the availability of various materials used in CMOS MEMS, one common way to categorize
CMOS MEMS technologies is from the perspective of manufacturing processes. Based on the sequence
of processing the electronic circuitry and MEMS structures, CMOS-MEMS technologies can be classified
into three categories: pre-CMOS, intra-CMOS and post-CMOS, in which the formation of MEMS is
prior to, intermediate with or after the fabrication of CMOS or BiCMOS circuitries [11]. Due to its
greater flexibility of accessibility to manufacturing foundries, post-CMOS approaches are more widely
utilized than the others. The following sections depict these CMOS MEMS integration technologies
with exemplary devices. Focus has been placed on post-CMOS MEMS integrations.
3. Pre-CMOS MEMS
It is widely accepted that pre-CMOS technologies are represented by the modular integration
process originally developed at Sandia National Laboratories (SNL), called the integrated MEMS
(iMEMS) process. As suggested by the name, in pre-CMOS technology, MEMS structures are
pre-defined and embedded in a recess trench in a silicon wafer and the recess is then filled with
oxide or other dielectrics, as illustrated in the cross-section in Figure 1. The wafer is then planarized
prior to the following process steps for CMOS electronics [12]. In this “MEMS first” process, although
MEMS structures are pre-defined, a wet etch after the completion of the standard CMOS processes is
required to release the pre-defined MEMS structures. Due to the involvement of a photolithography
process needed for patterning the MEMS in the recess, the thickness of the MEMS structures is
constrained by the lithographical limit related to achievable focus depth.
Figure 2 shows a die photo of an integrated 3-axis accelerometer that was developed by
Lemkin et al. at the Berkeley Sensors and Actuator Center (BSAC) and fabricated using the iMEMS
process at Sandia [13].
Other methods for the formation of MEMS structures in pre-CMOS technologies, including wafer
bonding and thinning for epitaxial and SOI wafers in which MEMS are pre-fabricated, have also been
reported in the fabrication of a variety of MEMS devices. Since this paper focuses on monolithic
integration of CMOS and MEMS, only SOI CMOS MEMS will be introduced in Section 5.3.
Figure 1. Cross-section of CMOS (complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor) and MEMS

Figure 1. Cross-section of CMOS (complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor) and MEMS
Figure 1. Cross-section systems)
micro-electro-mechanical of CMOS (complementary
in the metal-oxide-semiconductor)
recess trench in pre-CMOS integration [12]. and MEMS
micro-electro-mechanical systems) in the recess trench in pre-CMOS integration [12].
micro-electro-mechanical systems) in the recess trench in pre-CMOS integration [12].
Figure 2. Die photo of a 3-axis accelerometer implemented by iMEMS processes [13].

4. Inter-CMOS MEMS
4. Inter-CMOS MEMS
With a dedicated facility, in the early 1990s, Analog Devices, Inc. (ADI), Norwood, MA, USA,
4. Inter-CMOS MEMS
With a dedicated
specifically developedfacility,
a MEMS in thetechnology
early 1990s,based
Analog onDevices,
its BiCMOS Inc. (ADI),
process.Norwood, MA, USA,
This technology,
specifically
With
trademarked developed
a dedicated
as “iMEMS” a and
facility, MEMS technology
inoriginally
the early based
1990s,
dedicated on its Devices,
toAnalog BiCMOSCMOS-MEMS
manufacturing process.
Inc. (ADI), This technology, MA,
Norwood,
accelerometers
USA,trademarked
and
specifically asdeveloped
gyroscopes, “iMEMS” and originally
is an intermediate-CMOS
a MEMS dedicated
MEMS,
technology toormanufacturing
based inter-CMOS
on its BiCMOS CMOS-MEMS
MEMS,process. accelerometers
technology Thisin technology,
which
and
CMOS gyroscopes,
process is an
steps intermediate-CMOS
are intertwined MEMS,
with or
additional inter-CMOS
trademarked as “iMEMS” and originally dedicated to manufacturing CMOS-MEMS accelerometerspolysilicon MEMS,thin technology
film depositionin which
and
CMOS process steps to
micromachining areformintertwined
sensor with additional
structures [14]. Figure polysilicon
3 shows a thin
die film deposition
photo of an integratedand
and gyroscopes, is an intermediate-CMOS MEMS, or inter-CMOS MEMS, technology in which CMOS
micromachining
gyroscope (ADXRS steps to form
series) from sensor
Analog structures
Devices[14].Inc. Figure
[15]. In3 wafer
showsfabrication,
a die photosensorof an polysilicon
integrated
process steps are intertwined with additional polysilicon thin film deposition and micromachining
gyroscope
thin films (ADXRS
deposition series)
and from
release Analog Devices Inc.
are interleaved by[15]. In wafer
contact fabrication,
formation sensor polysilicon
and metallization in the
stepsthin
to form
filmssensor structures
deposition and release [14]. Figure 3 showsby
are interleaved a die photo
contact of an integrated gyroscope in (ADXRS
surrounding CMOS circuits [16]. ADI has also extended thisformation
inter-CMOS andfabrication
metallization to its the
SOI
series) from Analog
surrounding
CMOS MEMS Devices
CMOS circuits
products Inc. [15].
such[16]. In wafer
ADI
as high-g has fabrication,
also sensor
extended[17].
accelerometers polysilicon
thisInfineon,
inter-CMOS another thinmajor
films automobile
fabrication deposition
to its SOI and
release
CMOS are interleaved
sensor MEMS products
provider, alsobymanufactures
contact
such as formation
high-g and metallization
accelerometers
its integrated capacitive in the sensors
[17].pressure
Infineon, surrounding
another usingmajorCMOS
the circuits [16].
automobile
inter-CMOS
ADI sensor
has also extended
provider, also this inter-CMOS
manufactures its fabrication
integrated to its
capacitive SOI CMOS
pressure
approach. The perforated polysilicon electrode membrane is released by wet etching of SiO2 prior MEMS
sensors products
using the such
inter-CMOS as to
high-g
approach.
accelerometers The
completion of perforated
[17].
CMOS Infineon, polysilicon
circuity [18].another electrode membrane
majorofautomobile
This series is released
integrated sensors by wet
sensoris provider, etching
still in volume of SiO
alsoproduction prior
manufactures
2 to
and its
completion
they are
integrated of CMOS
widely
capacitive used circuity
in smart
pressure [18].tire
sensors This seriesthe
pressure
using ofmonitoring
integrated
inter-CMOS sensors
systems is(STPM)
still in The
approach. volume production
andperforated
manifold and
absolute
polysilicon
they are widely
pressure
electrode used
measurement
membrane in
in smart
is released tire pressure
automobiles
by wet [19]. of
etching monitoring
SiO2 priorsystems (STPM) of
to completion andCMOSmanifold
circuityabsolute
[18]. This
pressure measurement in automobiles [19].
series of integrated sensors is still in volume production and they are widely used in smart tire pressure
monitoring systems (STPM) and manifold absolute pressure measurement in automobiles [19].
Figure 3. Die photo of an integrated gyroscope by Analog Devices [15].

Figure 3. Die photo of an integrated gyroscope by Analog Devices [15].
5. Post-CMOS MEMS
5. Post-CMOS MEMSfrom the introduction of pre- and inter-CMOS MEMS that there are some critical
It is obvious
It islimitations
obviousfor fromthese
the two technologies. of
introduction In pre-
addition
andtointer-CMOS
the dimensionMEMS limits ofthat
the polysilicon
there are sensor
some critical
structures and the thermal processing of the polysilicon that may affect the CMOS portion of the
limitations for these two technologies. In addition to the dimension limits of the polysilicon sensor
device, the major concern for the integration is the need for dedicated manufacturing foundries and
structuresthe and
higherthe thermal
cost associatedprocessing
with it. With of the polysilicon that
the standardization may
of the affect
CMOS the CMOS
fabrication portion
process and of the
device, availability
the major concern
of variousfor the integration
foundry services in is the
the need
past for dedicated
decade, post-CMOSmanufacturing
MEMS integration foundries
with and
the higher costmanufacturing
flexible associated with it. With
accessibility and the standardization
cost effectiveness has of the CMOS
proven to be anfabrication process and
attractive option,
especially
availability for thefoundry
of various research community.
services in the past decade, post-CMOS MEMS integration with flexible
In contrast to the previous two, in post-CMOS MEMS, all MEMS process steps are performed
manufacturing accessibility and cost effectiveness has proven to be an attractive option, especially for
after full completion of the CMOS fabrication. Post-CMOS integration can date back to the late 1970s
the research community.
when the first generation of integrated MEMS devices—silicon pressure sensors—were
In contrast
demonstratedto the previous
[20]. two, in
In fabrication of post-CMOS MEMS,
single crystal silicon all MEMSfor
diaphragms process
pressure steps are using
sensing performed
wet after
full completion
etching, theof completed
the CMOScircuit fabrication.
elements Post-CMOS
on the front side integration can date
of the diaphragm areback to the
normally late 1970s
protected by when
the first SiO 2 or, in many
generation cases, by MEMS
of integrated acid-resistant polymers. The
devices—silicon advantages
pressure of post-CMOS
sensors—were MEMS over [20]. In
demonstrated
pre- and inter-CMOS MEMS include flexibility in foundry
fabrication of single crystal silicon diaphragms for pressure sensing using wet etching, selection, and low cost duetheto completed
the
independent processing of the CMOS and MEMS portions of the integrated devices. The flexibility
circuit elements on the front side of the diaphragm are normally protected by SiO2 or, in many cases,
of foundry access makes it possible to take full advantage of both advanced CMOS circuit
by acid-resistant
technologies polymers.
and optimal The advantages
MEMS structuresof post-CMOS
based MEMS
on the available over pre-used
technologies andby inter-CMOS
the foundry. MEMS
include Thisflexibility in foundry selection, and low cost due to the independent processing
is particularly attractive to the research community in exploration of state-of-the-art for MEMS. of the CMOS
and MEMS However,portions of the integrated
in implementation devices.MEMS,
of post-CMOS The flexibility
some CMOS of foundry access
design rules may makes
need toitbepossible
changed
to take full to accommodate
advantage MEMS structure
of both advanced CMOS design circuit in the CMOS and
technologies design stage. MEMS
optimal Meanwhile, structures
based on post-CMOS
the availablemicrofabrication
technologies should
usedbe bycarefully designed,
the foundry. Thisparticularly
is particularlyconsidering
attractivethe to
thermal
the research
budget, so as not to affect the on-chip CMOS electronics.
community in exploration of state-of-the-art for MEMS. However, in implementation of post-CMOS
According to how MEMS structures are formed relative to CMOS circuitry, post-CMOS MEMS
MEMS, technologies
some CMOS falldesign
into tworules may need
categories: additive to and
be changed
subtractive totoaccommodate MEMSpost-CMOS
the CMOS. In additive structure design
in the CMOS design stage. Meanwhile, post-CMOS microfabrication
MEMS, structural materials are deposited on the top of CMOS substrate, whereas in subtractive should be carefully designed,
particularly considering
post-CMOS MEMS,the MEMS thermal budget,
structures so as not
are created to affect the
by selectively on-chip
etching CMOSCMOS electronics.
layers including the
substrate to
According if necessary.
how MEMS Apparently,
structures additive post-CMOS
are formed MEMS
relative methodscircuitry,
to CMOS require more stringent MEMS
post-CMOS
technologies fall into two categories: additive and subtractive to the CMOS. In additive post-CMOS
MEMS, structural materials are deposited on the top of CMOS substrate, whereas in subtractive
post-CMOS MEMS, MEMS structures are created by selectively etching CMOS layers including the
substrate if necessary. Apparently, additive post-CMOS MEMS methods require more stringent
material compatibility with the CMOS technologies used. Thus they are less utilized than subtractive
post-CMOS MEMS.
material compatibility with the CMOS technologies used. Thus they are less utilized than subtractive
post-CMOS
5.1. Additive MEMSMEMS.
Structures on CMOS Substrate
5.1.additive
In Additive MEMS
post-CMOSStructures on CMOS
MEMS, Substrate
metals, dielectrics or polymers are deposited and patterned to
form MEMS structures normally on top of the
In additive post-CMOS MEMS, metals, dielectricsCMOS layers. Some are
or polymers commercial
deposited MEMS products
and patterned to are
fabricated using additive
form MEMS structurespost-CMOS
normally on MEMS approaches.
top of the CMOS layers. In this
Somecategory, theMEMS
commercial best known product
products are is
probably the digital
fabricated mirror device
using additive (DMD),
post-CMOS MEMS theapproaches.
core of theIndigital light processing
this category, (DLP)
the best known technology
product is
probably
developed bythe digital
Texas mirror device
Instruments. In(DMD),
a DMD, thetilting
core ofmirror
the digital lightand
plates processing (DLP) technology
their driving electrodes are
fabricated directly on top of CMOS circuits. Three sputtered aluminum layers are used to formare
developed by Texas Instruments. In a DMD, tilting mirror plates and their driving electrodes the top
mirrorfabricated
plate and directly
the two onparallel-plate
top of CMOS electrodes
circuits. Three sputtered aluminum
for electrostatic layers
actuation, are used to
respectively. form
The driving
the top mirror plate and the two parallel-plate electrodes for electrostatic actuation, respectively.
electrodes are addressed via a CMOS memory cell. To release the mirror plate and top electrodes in the
The driving electrodes are addressed via a CMOS memory cell. To release the mirror plate and top
post-CMOS MEMS fabrication of the mirrors, deep-UV hardened photoresist is used as the sacrificial
electrodes in the post-CMOS MEMS fabrication of the mirrors, deep-UV hardened photoresist is
layer.used
Figure 4 depicts
as the two
sacrificial DMD
layer. pixels
Figure in a DLP
4 depicts two cinema chip.in a DLP cinema chip.
DMD pixels
(a) (b)
Figure 4. Schematic of two digital mirror device (DMD) mirror-pixels in a digital light processing
Figure 4. Schematic of two digital mirror device (DMD) mirror-pixels in a digital light processing (DLP)
(DLP) cinema chip (a) and scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of an array of DMD
cinema chip (a) and scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of an array of DMD micromirrors (b).
micromirrors (b). From www.dlp.com.
From www.dlp.com.
Other materials have also been used in attempting to create MEMS structures, especially
frequency management
Other materials have devices,
also been on top of CMOS
used layers. A good
in attempting reviewMEMS
to create of related devices hasespecially
structures, been
conducted by Uranga et al. [21]. Some representative devices are
frequency management devices, on top of CMOS layers. A good review of related devices further introduced as follows. A has
monolithic integrated nickel resonator was demonstrated by UC Berkeley, in which
been conducted by Uranga et al. [21]. Some representative devices are further introduced as follows. A
low-temperature electrochemically plated nickel serves as structural material for large resonator
monolithic integrated nickel resonator was demonstrated by UC Berkeley, in which low-temperature
arrays and SiO2 as a sacrificial layer in reactive ion etching (RIE) release of the device [22]. Sandia
electrochemically plated nickel
National Laboratory (SNL) has serves as structural
recently material
demonstrated for large
a process forresonator
post-CMOS arrays and SiO
integration of2 as a
sacrificial layer in reactive ion etching (RIE) release of the device [22]. Sandia
aluminum nitride (AlN) atop CMOS substrates. The structural material of AlN is deposited at 350 °C,National Laboratory
(SNL)andhastherefore
recently demonstrated
the integration aisprocess for post-CMOS
compatible integration
with the standard CMOS of aluminum
process [23].nitride
As a(AlN)
atop demonstration
CMOS substrates. of theThe structural
integration, anmaterial of AlN is deposited
AlN high-frequency 350 ˝ C, and
filter withat integrated therefore the
transduction
elements
integration and a resonant
is compatible with accelerometer
the standard have
CMOSbeenprocess
fabricated.
[23].The
Asdemonstrated
a demonstration resonators
of thehave an
integration,
operating frequency range of 500 kHz to approximately 1 GHz, and a multiple-frequency
an AlN high-frequency filter with integrated transduction elements and a resonant accelerometer tuning
have scheme can be implemented. In contrast to most capacitive MEMS resonators, the demonstrated
been fabricated. The demonstrated resonators have an operating frequency range of 500 kHz to
resonators are based on the piezoelectric effect of AlN thanks to its large quality factor. The reported
approximately 1 GHz, and a multiple-frequency tuning scheme can be implemented. In contrast to
resonant accelerometer achieves a noise floor of 565 mg/√Hz for accelerations from 275 to 1100 Hz.
most Other
capacitive MEMS resonators, the demonstrated resonators are based on the piezoelectric effect of
AlN devices have also been attempted using the above technology, including tunable
AlN thanks to
resonators its large
with quality
various factor. [24,25].
bandwidth The reported
In all theresonant
devices, accelerometer
structural AlN isachieves
sputtereda at
noise
350 °C,floor of
‘
565 mg/
whichHz for accelerations from
is CMOS-compatible. Other275 to 1100
metals usedHz.inOther AlN devices
the devices, have
including also been
metals such attempted
as tungsten,using
the above technology,
Ti/TiN/Al including
and insulator SiO2,tunable resonators
are post-CMOS with various
compatible and can bandwidth [24,25].
be deposited and In all the
etched devices,
using
standard CMOS tools. The AlN ˝
structural release is performed by sequential
structural AlN is sputtered at 350 C, which is CMOS-compatible. Other metals used in the devices, dry etches of SiO 2 , AlN
and isotropic
including Si undercut
metals such in SF6 or
as tungsten, XeF2. Despite
Ti/TiN/Al anditsinsulator
demonstrated
SiO2 ,feasibility, targetedcompatible
are post-CMOS wafer level and
can be deposited and etched using standard CMOS tools. The AlN structural release is performed by
sequential dry etches of SiO2 , AlN and isotropic Si undercut in SF6 or XeF2 . Despite its demonstrated
feasibility, targeted wafer level integration of AlN to SNL’s 0.35 µm, 3.3 V SOI CMOS process is still
under way. Similar to the above approach, in another effort by Uranga et al. at Autonomous University
of Barcelona, a nanometer scale bimetallic nitride resonator capable of dual-clock tuning has been
fabricated using a commercial Silterra 0.18 µm technology [26]. In this conception demonstration, in
addition to the CMOS compatible structural implementation that features a small gap for enhanced
coupling, a metal cap for hermetic vacuum packaging of the device is also produced.
Another representative of additive post-CMOS MEMS technology is the polycrystalline SiGe/Ge
CMOS-MEMS technology from the Berkeley Sensors and Actuator Center. In this technology,
polycrystalline SiGe deposited on CMOS is used as an MEMS material. Germanium or SiO2 thin film
are used as sacrificial materials. The deposition and annealing temperatures for SiGe and Ge are below
475 ˝ C, which is safe for the CMOS metallization. Various integrate MEMS devices, including inertial
sensors, resonators and data storage devices, have been fabricated using this technology [27–29]. This
technology has been commercialized by Silicon Clock, which was purchased by Silicon Laboratory in
2010, for manufacturing integrated MEMS oscillators [30].
Although not largely adopted later on, polysilicon was also attempted as an MEMS material for
additive post-CMOS integration. However, when polysilicon was used as the structural material on
top of CMOS, also introduced by BSAC in the early 1990s, the aluminum interconnection in standard
CMOS technology must be replaced with refractory metals such as tungsten, to survive in the high
temperature treatment for polysilicon thin film. An integrated accelerometer was demonstrated
using this technology [31]. In some other circumstances where CMOS protection is well designed,
electroplating can also be used to grow microstructures on top of CMOS electronics. In reference [32],
accelerometer arrays with large proof mass and post-CMOS fabricated using electroplated gold are
described. Copper passive components have also been demonstrated in post-CMOS fabrication of RF
MEMS structures [33].
Some representative additive post-CMOS MEMS processes, along with respective materials used,
are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Representative additive post-CMOS MEMS technologies and devices.
Structural Sacrificial Interconnect

Authors and References Institute Year
Material Material Material
Hornbeck [34] Texas Instruments Al Photoresist Al 1989 (invented in 1987)
Yun et al. [31] UC-Berkeley Polysilicon SiO2 W/TiN 1992
Franke et al. [35] UC-Berkeley Poly-SiGe Ge or SiO2 Al 1999
UC-Berkeley,
Huang et al. [22] University of Nickel SiO2 TiN 2008
Michigan
Sandia National
Wojciechowski et al. [25] AlN Si W/Ti/TiN 2009
Laboratory
Autonomous
Bimetallic
Uranga et al. [26] University of Polymer W 2015
Nitride
Barcelona
Sedky et al. [36] IMEC Poly-SiGe Ge Al 1998
Tokyo Institute of
Yamane et al. [32] Gold Polyimide Al 2013
Technology
Shanghai Institute
Li et al. [33] Copper Photoresist Al 2008
of Microsystems
Severi et al. [29] IMEC, Intel Poly-SiGe SiO2 Doped SiGe 2010
5.2. Subtractive Post-CMOS MEMS

In these devices and technologies, back end of line (BEOL) CMOS thin film stacks including
interconnected metal layers and vias, polysilicon layers, and insulating SiO2 , are made use of in
forming MEMS structures. Alternatively, silicon substrate can also be used as part of MEMS structures.
These materials are patterned and removed partially or completely by wet or dry etching methods
to form the MEMS structures. This section describes the thin-film and bulk CMOS MEMS formed by
such subtractive processes.
5.2.1. Subtractive CMOS MEMS by Wet Etching

The first generation of CMOS MEMS sensors was fabricated using a post-CMOS subtractive
process in which silicon substrate was completely or partially removed using a wet etching method,
leaving behind thin-film or bulk MEMS structures [4]. For thermal sensors in which beams or
membranes consist of dielectric layers, the substrate silicon is normally etched away completely to
obtain thermally isolated structures. For this case, the silicon dioxide membrane can act as an intrinsic
etch stop layer in backside silicon anisotropic wet etching using KOH, ethylene diamine-pyrocatechol
(EDP) or tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAH). A medical tactile sensor array was also reported
in which the aluminum sacrificial layer was etched from the backside of the wafer after the CMOS
substrate was etched through [37].
CMOS silicon substrate can also be included in the MEMS structures using a wet etch process.
The first method is to perform a time-controlled backside etch with a well-calibrated etching rate. A
uniform single crystal silicon membrane with the desired thickness can be created. This method has
been widely used in the industry for fabrication of large volume products such as integrated pressure
sensors. In cases where the silicon membrane thickness is not critical, even mechanical processing
such as grinding can be used to create the backside cavity.
The second method involves the utilization of an automatic etch stop technique to create silicon
membranes or MEMS structures. In this case, an anisotropic etch stops at the electrochemically
biased PN junction formed between the n-well and p-type substrate in CMOS [38]. Although the
electrochemical electrode design and implementation are complicated, this process can be specifically
used in the fabrication of highly sensitive pressure/force and thermal sensors. The anisotropic etch stop
can also occur at highly doped p- regions in the substrate. This method has been used in fabrication of
many suspended structures including neural probes [39]. Note that the p++ doping process may not
be available in a standard CMOS process. In the case where only a small portion of the silicon substrate
needs to be removed to reduce the circuit-substrate coupling, a wet silicon etch can be performed from
the front side. In wet silicon etching, either silicon nitride or additional polymers, or both, can be used
to protect the front CMOS and pads.
CMOS inherent thin films, including multiple metal layers, SiO2 insulating layers, and
interconnect vias, have been employed as radio frequency (RF) switch and resonator materials. Using
wet etching of the thin films, a lot of RF-MEMS components have been produced [40,41]. Figure 5
shows different configurations of capacitively transduced resonators monolithically integrated with
their associated amplifier circuits, spanning frequencies from 500 kHz to 14.5 MHz. In formation of
the tuning capacitors that are formed by CMOS stacks, SiO2 between the microstructures is removed
by wet etchant. The circuitry is protected by passivation layers; and the SiO2 inside the CMOS
beams is protected by the interconnect vias during the device release, i.e., wet removal of SiO2 . In the
integrated absolute pressure sensor in [42], stacked CMOS layers consisting of multiple metal layers,
vias and SiO2 , are used as the movable electrode; the lower metal layer is used as the fixed electrode.
An intermediate CMOS metal layer is used as a sacrificial layer and is removed by H2 SO4 + H2 O2
wet etching. CMOS MEMS resonators and accelerometers fabricated using a similar process have
also been reported [43,44]. Polymers sensitive to analytes can be coated on finished CMOS MEMS
structures for chemical and biological sensing. For example, the first CMOS-MEMS electronic nose
was demonstrated by forming polymer-coated CMOS thin film cantilevers on a CMOS chip [45]. In
this presentation, vapor hydrofluoric acid based release etching is also categorized as a wet release
mechanism. Recently, Baolab Microsystem has commercialized its proprietary NEMS process in an
effort to provide a low-cost, high-yield approach for CMOS MEMS integration [46]. In this processing
technology, a single vapor hydrofluoric acid (vHF) etching step is used to release the MEMS structure
that is consisted of BEOL metal/SiO2 stack. The vHF etching step etches away the silicon oxide in
between the metal layers of the backend. Depending on the design, the MEMS/NEMS can be built
with a combination of stand-alone metal layers and/or stack-ups of metal layers only, and/or metal
layers with oxide in between. Following the etching step for MEMS release, an additional Al sputtering
and patterning step is available for sealing the cavity, so that any standard package can also be used.
An integrated
so that3D
any magnetometer
standard packagehas canbeen
also beproduced using this
used. An integrated integration fabrication
3D magnetometer module.
has been produced
using this integration fabrication module.
Table 2 summarizes some representative devices that were fabricated using wet etching when this
Table 2 summarizes some representative devices that were fabricated using wet etching when
technologythis
was dominant in post-CMOS micromachining. Bibliographies of these efforts can be found
technology was dominant in post-CMOS micromachining. Bibliographies of these efforts can be
in the above citations in this
found in the above section.
citations in this section.
(a) (b)
Figure 5. Illustrative structure and circuits of the radio frequency (RF) switch in [40] (a), and SEM
Illustrative
Figure 5. photograph structure and circuits of the radio frequency (RF) switch in [40] (a), and SEM
of the chip (b).
photograph of the chip (b).
Table 2. Some CMOS MEMS devices enabled by subtractive process wet etching.
2. Some CMOS
Tableand
Authors MEMS
Institutions
devices
Device
enabled by subtractive process
Structural wet etching.
Etching Method Year
References Materials
Backside ethylene
University of Structural
Wise et al. [47]
Authors and References Institutions Pressure sensor
Device Silicon diaphragm diamine-pyrocatechol
Etching Method1979 Year
Michigan Materials
(EDP) etching
University of Nitride/SiO2, poly Backside ethylene
EDP etching,
Wise et al. [39] University of Neuron probe array 1985
Wise et al. [47] Michigan Pressure sensor and Si Silicon diaphragm p++ etching
substrate diamine-pyrocatechol
stop 1979
Michigan
University of CMOS nitride/SiO2, (EDP)
Backside, SiO2 etching
Yoon and Wise [48] Mass flow sensor 1990
Michigan
University of Au/Cr
Nitride/SiO etching stop
2 , poly EDP etching, p++
Wise et al.Baltes
[39] et al. [4] ETH Zurich Neuroncapacitor
Thermal probe array Metal/SiO2, poly Front side etching 1985
Michigan and Si substrate etching stop 1996
Front side etching of
Haberli et al. [49] ETH Zurich Pressure sensor Metal/SiO2,CMOS
poly 1996
University of aluminumBackside,
as sacrificial layer
SiO 2 etching
Yoon and Wise [48] Mass flow sensor nitride/SiO2 , 1990
Michigan Metal/SiO2, poly, PN junction stop
Schneider et al. [50] ETH Zurich Thermal sensor Au/Cr 1997
suspended Si electrochemical etch stop
Baltes et al. [4] ETH Zurichof
University Thermal capacitor
Atomic force Metal/SiO2 , poly Front side etching 1996
CMOS N well electrochemical
Akiyama et al. [51] Neuchatel, microscope Front 2000
Nitride/SiO2, Si etch stopside etching of
Haberli et al. [49] ETH
ETH Zurich
Zurich (AFM) probe
Pressure sensor Metal/SiO2 , poly aluminum as sacrificial 1996
Nitride/SiO2, Al, layer
Schaufelbuhl et al. [52] ETH Zurich Infrared imager Backside KOH 2001
gate poly
PN junction
Autonomous Metal/SiO2 , poly,
Schneider et al. [50] ETH Zurich Thermal sensor
Integrated electrochemical etch 1997
Verd et al. [41] University of suspended Si Front side SiO2 etching
Al layer 2006
Resonator stop
Barcelona
University of
National Tsing Atomic force
Integrated CMOS N well electrochemical
Akiyama etChen et al. [40]
al. [51] Neuchatel, ETH
Hua University microscope
resonator (AFM)
Al/SiO2/Vias Front side SiO2 etching 2011 2000
Nitride/SiO2 , Si etch stop
Zurich probe
Absolute Front side Metal
Narducci et al. [42] IME, Singapore Al/SiO2/Vias 2013
pressure sensor Nitride/SiO2 , Al, and via etching
Schaufelbuhl et al. [52] ETH Zurich Infrared imager Backside KOH 2001
National Tsing gate poly Front side Metal
Li et al. [43] Integrated Resonator Al/SiO2/Vias 2015
Hua University and via etching
Autonomous
Integrated
Verd et al. [41] University of Al layer Front side SiO2 etching 2006
Resonator
5.2.2. Subtractive Post-CMOS
Barcelona MEMS by Dry Etching
National Tsing Hua Integrated
Chen et al. Plasma
[40] enhanced dry etching processes have quickly become
Al/SiO2prevalent
/Vias in Front
microfabrication for
side SiO2 etching 2011
University resonator
both MEMS research and industry. Particularly, the deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) technology,
Absolute pressure Front side Metal and via
Narducci et al. [42] IME, Singapore Al/SiO2 /Vias 2013
sensor etching
National Tsing Hua Integrated Front side Metal and via
Li et al. [43] Al/SiO2 /Vias 2015
University Resonator etching
5.2.2. Subtractive Post-CMOS MEMS by Dry Etching

Plasma enhanced dry etching processes have quickly become prevalent in microfabrication for
both MEMS research and industry. Particularly, the deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) technology,
or Bosch process, patented by Robert Bosch GmbH, has revolutionized subtractive post-CMOS
microfabrication [53]. This section describes thin-film and bulk CMOS MEMS devices fabricated
using a dry etching processes.
Micromachines
Most 2016, 7, 14
dry etching processes are based on plasma processes, such as reactive-ion etch 9 of(RIE)
20 and
DRIE. An etching process employing etchants in vapor phase can also be considered a “dry” one. For
or Bosch process, patented by Robert Bosch GmbH, has revolutionized subtractive post-CMOS
example, vapor XeF2 provides
microfabrication good isotropic
[53]. This section etching and
describes thin-film of silicon, which
bulk CMOS has been
MEMS used
devices for releasing
fabricated
CMOS thin
usingfilm
a dryMEMS
etching structures
processes. [54]. The combination of RIE and DRIE, performed from the front
Most
or back side, dry etching
or both sides,processes are based
has allowed on plasma processes,
for fabrication such
of a large as reactive-ion
spectrum etch (RIE) anddevices.
of CMOS-MEMS
Depending on the structural materials and etching methods employed, subtractive apost-CMOS
DRIE. An etching process employing etchants in vapor phase can also be considered “dry” one. can be
For example, vapor XeF2 provides good isotropic etching of silicon, which has been used for
divided into two types: thin-film processes and bulk processes.
releasing CMOS thin film MEMS structures [54]. The combination of RIE and DRIE, performed from
the front or back side, or both sides, has allowed for fabrication of a large spectrum of CMOS-MEMS
Thin-Film Post-CMOS MEMS Dry Processes
devices. Depending on the structural materials and etching methods employed, subtractive
In post-CMOS can be divided
thin-film processes, into two materials
structural types: thin-film
are processes
composed andofbulk processes.
inherent CMOS thin films. A very
wide spectrum of MEMS devices developed and commercialized recently falls into this category.
Thin-Film Post-CMOS MEMS Dry Processes
In this review, the post-CMOS MEMS process originally developed at Carnegie Mellon University
(CMU) is the In thin-film
main focus. processes,
Figurestructural materials
6 depicts are composedprocess
a characteristic of inherent
flowCMOS thin films.
of CMU’s A very
post-CMOS thin
wide spectrum of MEMS devices developed and commercialized recently falls into this category.
film process [55]. Sequenced processes consisting of an isotropic SiO2 etching, a silicon DRIE and an
In this review, the post-CMOS MEMS process originally developed at Carnegie Mellon University
isotropic Si RIEis undercut
(CMU) expose,
the main focus. define
Figure and release
6 depicts the MEMS
a characteristic structure,
process respectively.
flow of CMU’s post-CMOS In these
thin process
steps, the
film process [55]. Sequenced processes consisting of an isotropic SiO2 etching, a silicon DRIE and ancircuitry,
top metal layer acts as a mask to form the MEMS structures and to protect the CMOS
as seen in FigureSi6a,b.
isotropic RIE undercut expose,
Anisotropic anddefine and release
isotropic siliconthe MEMScomplete
etching structure, the
respectively.
process flow,In theseas seen in
process steps, the top metal layer acts as a mask to form the MEMS structures
Figure 6c,d. Various inertial sensors have been fabricated using this thin film technology [56–58]. and to protect the In all
CMOS circuitry, as seen in Figure 6a,b. Anisotropic and isotropic silicon etching complete the
these inertial sensors, mechanical springs and proof masses are formed by the multiple-layer CMOS
process flow, as seen in Figure 6c,d. Various inertial sensors have been fabricated using this thin film
stacks consisting of SiO and metals. The sensing capacitance is formed from sidewall capacitance
technology [56–58]. 2In all these inertial sensors, mechanical springs and proof masses are formed by
betweenthe comb
multiple-layerThe
fingers. CMOSmultiple CMOS metal
stacks consisting layers
of SiO 2 and inside
metals. the
Thecomb fingers
sensing and other
capacitance mechanical
is formed
structures
from allow verycapacitance
sidewall flexible electrical wiring,
between comb facilitating
fingers. different
The multiple CMOS sensing schemes
metal layers insideincluding
the comb vertical
fingerssensing.
comb-drive and other Variations
mechanical structures allow very
of the sensing flexible electrical
structures have been wiring,
usedfacilitating
for other different
sensors and
sensing
actuators schemes
[59–64]. Using including vertical comb-drive
its proprietary sensing. Variations
copper “Damascene” of thein
technology sensing
whichstructures have
both polysilicon and
been used for other sensors and actuators [59–64]. Using its proprietary copper “Damascene”
polymers are used as sacrificial layers and removed by RIE etching, IBM has produced a number of RF
technology in which both polysilicon and polymers are used as sacrificial layers and removed by
MEMS passive components
RIE etching, with stacked
IBM has produced CMOS
a number layers
of RF MEMS in its 0.18 µm
passive copper CMOS
components technology
with stacked CMOS [65,66].
In industry products, Akustica Inc., now a subsidiary of Bosch GmbH (Gerlingen,
layers in its 0.18 μm copper CMOS technology [65,66]. In industry products, Akustica Inc., now a Germany), has
commercialized
subsidiarydigital
of Bosch microphones usingGermany),
GmbH (Gerlingen, a modified hasversion of the process
commercialized in Figure 6 [67].
digital microphones using MEMSIC
a
modified
(Andover, MA, version
USA), an of the process
inertial in Figure
sensors 6 [67]. MEMSIC
provider, (Andover,
has utilized MA, USA), anstacks
CMOS-MEMS inertialand
sensors
silicon RIE
provider, has utilized CMOS-MEMS stacks and silicon RIE in manufacturing its series convective
in manufacturing its series convective MEMS accelerometer. Figure 7 shows a photograph and SEM
MEMS accelerometer. Figure 7 shows a photograph and SEM image of a die of convective
image of a die of convective accelerometer from MEMSIC [68].
accelerometer from MEMSIC [68].
CMOS region MEMS region

SiO2
Si substrate Polysilicon
(a) (c)
MEMS structures
Metal 4
Metal 3
Metal 2
Metal 1
(b) (d)
Figure 6. Dry-etching-based post-CMOS fabrication process for MEMS structures made of CMOS
Figure 6. Dry-etching-based post-CMOS fabrication process for MEMS structures made of CMOS
thin films [57]. (a) CMOS wafer or die; (b) SiO2 etching; (c) Silicon deep reactive ion etching (DRIE);
thin films
(d) [57].
Silicon(a) CMOS
reactive ionwafer
etchingor(RIE)
die;with
(b) SiO 2 etching;
lateral undercut.(c) Silicon deep reactive ion etching (DRIE);
(d) Silicon reactive ion etching (RIE) with lateral undercut.
Figure
Figure 7.
7. Die
Die photo
photo and
and SEM
SEM image
image of
of an
an integrated
integrated convective
convective accelerometer
accelerometer from
from MEMSIC
MEMSIC [68].
[68].
Despite the excellent CMOS compatibility, flexible foundry accessibility of the above thin film
Despite the excellent CMOS compatibility, flexible foundry accessibility of the above thin film
post-CMOS dry etching processes, a major issue exists. For some structures where dimension
post-CMOS dry etching processes, a major issue exists. For some structures where dimension variations
variations are critical, the large vertical curling and lateral buckling of the suspended MEMS
are critical, the large vertical curling and lateral buckling of the suspended MEMS structures that
structures that are caused by the residual stress in the stacked thin-film CMOS layers pose a
are caused by the residual stress in the stacked thin-film CMOS layers pose a challenge for device
challenge for device performance. Although structural curling can be tolerated for some small
performance. Although structural curling can be tolerated for some small devices such as RF MEMS
devices such as RF MEMS and thermal sensors, for devices such as inertial sensors that need
and thermal sensors, for devices such as inertial sensors that need relatively large size, the impact of
relatively large size, the impact of structural curling can be severe, and compensation may be
structural curling can be severe, and compensation may be mandatory [69]. Moreover, the need for
mandatory [69]. Moreover, the need for etching access holes in fabrication limits the size and mass of
etching access holes in fabrication limits the size and mass of the devices.
the devices.
Bulk CMOS-MEMS Dry Process
Bulk CMOS-MEMS Dry Process
In order to overcome the structural curling and to increase the mass, flatness and robustness
In order
of MEMS to overcome
structures, single thecrystal
structural curling
silicon (SCS)and may tobeincrease
included the underneath
mass, flatness theand
CMOSrobustness
thin-filmof
MEMS structures,
stacks. The single
SCS silicon crystal are
structures silicon (SCS)
formed may be
directly from included
the siliconunderneath
substrate the using CMOS
DRIE.thin-film
Figure 8
stacks. The SCS silicon structures are formed directly from the silicon
illustrates the process flow, in which a 4-metal-layer CMOS technology is used as an example substrate using DRIE. Figure 8
[70].
illustrates
The process the process
starts withflow, in whichsilicon
the backside a 4-metal-layer
DRIE to define CMOS thetechnology
MEMS structure is used as an example
thickness by leaving[70].a
The process starts with the backside silicon DRIE to define the MEMS
10–100 µm-thick SCS membrane (Figure 8a). Next, the same anisotropic SiO2 etch as in the thin film structure thickness by leaving
aprocess
10–100isμm-thick
performed SCSonmembrane
the front side(Figure 8a). (chip)
of wafer Next, the same anisotropic
to expose the SCS to be SiO 2 etch as in the thin film
removed (Figure 8b). The
process is performed on the front side of wafer (chip) to expose the SCS
following step differs from the thin film process in that an anisotropic DRIE, instead of isotropic to be removed (Figure etch,
8b).
The following step differs from the thin film process in that an anisotropic
finalizes the structure release by etching through the remaining SCS diaphragm, as shown in Figure 8c. DRIE, instead of isotropic
etch, finalizes
With the the structure
SCS underneath therelease
CMOS by etching through
interconnect the remaining
layers included, large andSCSflat
diaphragm, as shown in
MEMS microstructures
Figure 8c. With the
can be obtained. SCS underneath
If necessary, an optional the time-controlled
CMOS interconnect layers
isotropic included,
silicon etch can large and flatThis
be added. MEMSstep
microstructures can be obtained. If necessary, an optional time-controlled
will undercut the SCS underneath the designed narrow CMOS stacks to create thin film structures isotropic silicon etch can
be added.
(Figure 8d).This
Thisstep
stepwill undercut the
is particularly SCS in
useful underneath
fabricationthe of designed
capacitivenarrow
inertialCMOS
sensors.stacks
It cantobecreate
used
thin film structures (Figure 8d). This step is particularly useful in
to form the electrical isolation structures between sensing electrodes and silicon substrate. fabrication of capacitive inertial
sensors.
The ItDRIE
can CMOS-MEMS
be used to form the electrical
technology isolation
has shown greatstructures
advantages between
in the sensing
fabrication electrodes and
of relatively
silicon substrate.
large MEMS devices such as micromirrors [71]. Large flat mirror can be obtained by including portion
of siliconDRIE
The CMOS-MEMS
substrate underneathtechnology
the aluminum has shown
mirrorgreat
surface, advantages
as shownininthe fabrication
Figure of relatively
9. A CMOS-MEMS
large
gyroscope with a low noise floor permitted by the SCS proof mass has also been produced including
MEMS devices such as micromirrors [71]. Large flat mirror can be obtained by using this
portion of silicon substrate underneath the aluminum mirror surface,
technology [72]. More recently, a couple of z-axis accelerometers with large proof mass have been as shown in Figure 9. A
CMOS-MEMS gyroscope with
fabricated using this technology [73,74]. a low noise floor permitted by the SCS proof mass has also been
produced using this
By attaching SCStechnology
underneath[72]. More stack
the CMOS recently,
comb a fingers,
couple of thez-axis
sensing accelerometers
capacitance ofwith large
capacitive
proof mass have been fabricated using this technology [73,74].
sensors can be considerably increased for a higher signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Although CMOS thin
filmsByareattaching
still used in SCS
some underneath
microstructuresthe CMOS stack comb
for electrical isolation,fingers, the sensing
the length capacitance
of the thin-film portionof
capacitive sensors can be considerably increased for a higher signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Although
CMOS thin films are still used in some microstructures for electrical isolation, the length of the
thin-film portion is minimal to reduce the temperature effect. Compared to the thin film dry
CMOS-MEMS process,
thin-film portion is aminimal
backside tosilicon
reduceDRIE step is added
the temperature to define
effect. the thickness
Compared of film
to the thin the silicon
dry to
is
beminimal
included. to This
reduce the temperature
requires effect. Compared to the thin film dry CMOS-MEMS process, a
CMOS-MEMS process, aan additional
backside siliconbackside
DRIE steplithography step
is added to define to
thedefine theofregion
thickness for
the silicon MEMS
to
backside
structures.silicon DRIE
The maximum
be included.
step
This requires
is added
thickness to define the
of thebackside
an additional
thickness
MEMS lithography of
structures isthe silicon
limited
step
to be included.
by the
to define the region This
aspectfor
ratio requires
MEMSthat the
an additional
silicon DRIE can
structures. backside
achieve.
The lithography step to define the region for MEMS structures.
maximum thickness of the MEMS structures is limited by the aspect ratio that the The maximum
thickness ofDRIE
silicon the MEMS structures is limited by the aspect ratio that the silicon DRIE can achieve.
can achieve.
Figure 8. DRIE bulk CMOS-MEMS process flow for 4-metal-layer CMOS [70]. (a) Backside silicon
Figure
Figure 8. 8. DRIE
DRIE bulk
bulk CMOS-MEMS
CMOS-MEMS processprocess flow
flow for
for 4-metal-layer
4-metal-layer CMOS
CMOS [70].
[70]. (a)
(a) Backside
Backside silicon
silicon
DRIE to define MEMS areas; (b) Front SiO2 etching; (c) Front-side silicon DRIE; (d). Front-side RIE
DRIE to
DRIEwithto define
define MEMS
MEMS areas;
areas;(b) Front
(b) SiO
Front 2 etching;
SiO (c) Front-side silicon DRIE; (d) Front-side RIE with
2 etching; (c) Front-side silicon DRIE; (d). Front-side RIE
lateral undercut.
lateral undercut.
with lateral undercut.
Figure 9. SEM images and structure illustration of an electro-thermal micromirror by bulk

post-CMOS microfabrication [71]. (a) Micrographs of the mirror and microstructures; (b) Illustrative
composition of the mirror structures.
Figure 9. SEM images and structure illustration of an electro-thermal micromirror by bulk
Figure 9. SEM Bulk
An Improved images and structure
CMOS MEMS illustration of an electro-thermal micromirror by bulk post-CMOS
post-CMOS microfabrication [71]. Process
(a) Micrographs of the mirror and microstructures; (b) Illustrative
microfabrication [71]. (a) Micrographs of the mirror and microstructures; (b) Illustrative composition
composition ofCMOS
the mirror structures.
of theThe bulk
mirror structures.MEMS process depicted in Figure 8 is useful in fabrication of many devices
where SCS structures are desired to improve both mechanical and electrical performance of the
An Improved Bulk CMOS
devices. However, MEMS
for some Process
devices, very fine structures are formed in step (c) in Figure 8, so the
An Improved Bulk CMOS MEMS Process
damage caused by the step (d) to these fine structures may be severe. This is particularly true for the
The bulk CMOS
fabrication
MEMS
of capacitive
process
inertial
depicted
sensors
in Figure 8 issensing
whereinnarrow-gap
useful in fabrication of many For devices
The bulk CMOS MEMS process depicted Figure 8 is usefulcomb fingers areofneeded.
in fabrication many devices
where SCS structures are desired to improve both mechanical and electrical performance of the
whereinstance, in performing
SCS structures the isotropic
are desired siliconboth
to improve undercut to formand
mechanical the narrow
electricalCMOS beams forof
performance electrical
the devices.
devices. However,
isolation for someconnection,
and mechanical devices, very fineinstructures
the SCS are formed
the comb fingers is also in step (c)The
undercut. in Figure
sensing 8, so the
gap
However, for some devices, very fine structures are formed in step (c) in Figure 8, so the damage
damage caused by the step (d) to these fine structures may be severe. This is particularly true for the
caused by the step (d) to these fine structures may be severe. This is particularly true for the fabrication
fabrication of capacitive inertial sensors where narrow-gap sensing comb fingers are needed. For
of capacitive inertial sensors where narrow-gap sensing comb fingers are needed. For instance, in
instance, in performing the isotropic silicon undercut to form the narrow CMOS beams for electrical
performing the isotropic silicon undercut to form the narrow CMOS beams for electrical isolation
isolation and mechanical connection, the SCS in the comb fingers is also undercut. The sensing gap
and mechanical connection, the SCS in the comb fingers is also undercut. The sensing gap increases
Micromachines
Micromachines 2016, 7, 14 12 of
12 of 21
20
increases due to the undesired undercut, and consequently, the sensing capacitance reduces
due to the undesired
sensitivity undercut, and
and signal-to-noise ratioconsequently,
(SNR) of thethesensor sensing capacitance
degrade. If the reduces
undercutsensitivity
occursand in
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the sensor degrade. If the undercut
mechanical structures such as suspension springs, the dynamic characteristics of the device will also occurs in mechanical structures
such
be as suspension
severely affected.springs,
Anotherthe dynamic
issue characteristics
is related to the thermal of theeffect
device in will also be severely
the plasma etch for affected.
the SCS
Another issue is related to the thermal effect in the plasma etch
undercut. Upon completion of the silicon undercut, the greatly reduced thermal conductance for the SCS undercut. Upon completion
from
of the
the siliconstructure
isolated undercut, to the
the greatly
substrate reduced
can cause thermal conductance
a temperature rise from
on the the isolatedstructures.
released structure Slight
to the
substrate can
over-etch cause necessary
is often a temperature rise on the released
to accommodate processstructures. Slight
variations, butover-etch
this will is often
generatenecessary
a large to
accommodate process variations, but this will generate a large
temperature increase in the suspended structures which in turn dramatically increases the SCS temperature increase in the suspended
structures
etching which
rate, in turn
resulting dramatically increases
in uncontrollable the SCSresults.
and damaging etching rate, resulting in uncontrollable and
damaging results.
A modified dry bulk CMOS MEMS process has been demonstrated to effectively address the
issuesAcaused
modified bydry the bulk CMOSSCS
undesired MEMS process[75].
undercut has In
been thedemonstrated
refined process to effectively
illustratedaddress
in Figure the10,
issues
the
caused by
etching of the
theundesired SCS undercut [75]. In
CMOS isolation/connection the refined
beams process illustrated
is performed separatelyinfrom Figure the10,etching
the etching
of theof
the CMOS isolation/connection beams is performed separately
microstructures where SCS is needed. The top metal layer is purposely used to define the from the etching of the microstructures
where SCS is needed.beams.
isolation/connection The topAftermetal layer
their is purposely
formation, the used to define
top metal layerthe isolation/connection
is removed using a plasma beams.or
After their formation, the top metal layer is removed using a
a wet etch. Then other microstructures are exposed after a SiO2 etch. The direct etch-through of theplasma or a wet etch. Then other
microstructures
remaining siliconare onexposed after a SiO2 etch.
the microstructures The direct
will complete theetch-through
release process. of the Toremaining
reduce thesilicon
thermal on
the microstructures
effect described above, willacomplete the release
thick photoresist process.
layer To reduce
is patterned onthethethermal
backside effect described
of the cavity. above,
In the
a thick photoresist layer is patterned on the backside of the cavity.
release step, the applied photoresist provides a thermal path that reduces the temperature rise on the In the release step, the applied
photoresist provides
etched-through a thermal
structures. Thepath that reduces
removal of the the temperature
photoresist usingriseOon the etched-through
2 plasma etching completes structures.
the
The removal
entire of the photoresist
microfabrication process.using
Owing O2 plasma etching completes
to the monolithic integrationthe entire
and large microfabrication process.
proof mass enabled
Owing
by to the monolithic
the inclusion of SCS, integration
bulk CMOSand MEMS largeinertial
proof mass sensorsenabled
haveby the inclusion better
demonstrated of SCS,performance
bulk CMOS
MEMS
than inertial
their thin-filmsensors have demonstrated
counterparts [76]. Figure better performance
11 shows a 3-axisthan their thin-film
accelerometer counterparts
fabricated using [76].
the
Figure 11 shows a 3-axis accelerometer fabricated
improved bulk CMOS MEMS process that is pictured in Figure 10. using the improved bulk CMOS MEMS process that
is pictured
Recently, in Figure 10. the etching deterioration caused by the thermal effect first reported in [75],
to address
someRecently,
new approaches,to address the etching
including deterioration
multiple step etchingcaused by the
[77,78], and thermal
backside effect first reported
coating of a metalinlayer
[75],
some new approaches, including multiple step etching [77,78],
to provide thermal dissipation path [79,80]. A CMOS MEMS accelerometer, gyroscope and and backside coating of a metal layer to
provide thermal dissipation path [79,80]. A CMOS MEMS
micromirror with large mirror plate have been fabricated using the further improved accelerometer, gyroscope and micromirror
with largerespectively.
methods, mirror plate have been fabricated using the further improved methods, respectively.
Figure 10. Modified

Figure 10. ModifiedbulkbulkCMOS
CMOS MEMS
MEMS process
process for for separate
separate etching
etching of CMOS
of CMOS beamsbeams and crystal
and single single
crystal siliconmicrostructures
silicon (SCS) (SCS) microstructures [75]. (a) Backside
[75]. (a) Backside silicon
silicon DRIE; (b) DRIE;
Thermal (b)protection
Thermal using
protection using
photoresist
photoresist (PR); (c) Front-side SiO 2 etching; (d) Front-side silicon DRIE for beams; (e) Front-side
(PR); (c) Front-side SiO2 etching; (d) Front-side silicon DRIE for beams; (e) Front-side silicon DRIE for
silicon DRIE for
comb drives; (f) comb drives;
Removal (f) Removal
of thermal of thermal
protection protection PR layer.
PR layer.
Figure
Figure 11.
11. Die
Die photo
photo (a)
(a) and
and SEM
SEM micrograph of microstructures
micrograph of microstructures in
in the
the sensor
sensor (b)
(b) reported
reported in
in [76].
[76].
5.2.3. Combined Wet/Dry Processes

5.2.3. Combined Wet/Dry Processes
In addition to the integration methods described above, efforts have been continuously made to
In addition to the integration methods described above, efforts have been continuously made
integrate CMOS with MEMS using the combination of different microfabrication technologies.
to integrate CMOS with MEMS using the combination of different microfabrication technologies. By
By combing silicon anisotropic wet etch with DRIE, some sophisticated surface and bulk MEMS
combing silicon anisotropic wet etch with DRIE, some sophisticated surface and bulk MEMS structures
structures such as bridges and cantilever arrays can be created. A multi-sensor system was produced
such as bridges and cantilever arrays can be created. A multi-sensor system was produced using a
using a combined etch process [81]. In the accelerometers reported in [82], isotropic wet etching is
combined etch process [81]. In the accelerometers reported in [82], isotropic wet etching is used to
used to remove metal layers in CMOS thin stacks to create parallel plate-like vertical capacitors for
remove metal layers in CMOS thin stacks to create parallel plate-like vertical capacitors for gap-closing
gap-closing sensing. A silicon RIE follows to release the MEMS devices and break the coupling
sensing. A silicon RIE follows to release the MEMS devices and break the coupling between the sensing
between the sensing thin films and the substrate. Compared to conventional in-plane comb-finger
thin films and the substrate. Compared to conventional in-plane comb-finger sensing, the sensor
sensing, the sensor features improved sensitivity that is attributed to vertical gap-closing sensing
features improved sensitivity that is attributed to vertical gap-closing sensing enabled by the new
enabled by the new fabrication approach. In another effort, combination of SiO2 wet etching and
fabrication approach. In another effort, combination of SiO2 wet etching and XeF2 isotropic silicon
XeF2 isotropic silicon etch is responsible for implementation of symmetric structures leading to
etch is responsible for implementation of symmetric structures leading to accelerometer performance
accelerometer performance improvement [83]. In the absolute pressure sensor reported in [84], a
improvement [83]. In the absolute pressure sensor reported in [84], a micro vacuum chamber is
micro vacuum chamber is created by sealing the etching access holes using a LPCVD parylene thin
created by sealing the etching access holes using a LPCVD parylene thin film upon completion of wet
film upon completion of wet metal etching for sensing diaphragm formation. The parylene film is
metal etching for sensing diaphragm formation. The parylene film is then patterned and removed by
then patterned and removed by dry etching.
dry etching.
A high Q CMOS MEMS variable capacitor for RF application has been implemented by
A high Q CMOS MEMS variable capacitor for RF application has been implemented by
combination of multiple dry and etching steps [85]. Stacked CMOS layers of a commercial 0.35 μm
combination of multiple dry and etching steps [85]. Stacked CMOS layers of a commercial 0.35 µm
technology were used as electrode material. A total of 3 dry etching steps and 4 wet etching process
technology were used as electrode material. A total of 3 dry etching steps and 4 wet etching process
were conducted in SiO2, metal and silicon substrate etching, respectively.
were conducted in SiO2 , metal and silicon substrate etching, respectively.
In demonstration of the integrated gyroscope in [78], the authors employed TMAH backside
In demonstration of the integrated gyroscope in [78], the authors employed TMAH backside
anisotropic silicon etching to mitigate the undercut on SCS in the comb drives resulting from the
anisotropic silicon etching to mitigate the undercut on SCS in the comb drives resulting from the
footing effect in front side DRIE. A SiO2 layer by wet oxidation was coated in the trenches formed by
footing effect in front side DRIE. A SiO2 layer by wet oxidation was coated in the trenches formed by
front DRIE etching. It serves as protection and etch stop layer during the backside SCS wet etch. The
front DRIE etching. It serves as protection and etch stop layer during the backside SCS wet etch. The
MEMS structure was released after the SiO2 was removed by buffered oxide etch (BOE).
MEMS structure was released after the SiO2 was removed by buffered oxide etch (BOE).
Using combined dry/wet etching approaches, integration of structures with nanometer
Using combined dry/wet etching approaches, integration of structures with nanometer
dimensions with conventional CMOS structures have also been vigorously explored. An excellent
dimensions with conventional CMOS structures have also been vigorously explored. An excellent
recent review on relevant devices by Uranga et al. has summarized the efforts in this exciting
recent review on relevant devices by Uranga et al. has summarized the efforts in this exciting area [21].
area [21]. In [86,87], arrays of single crystal silicon oscillators integrated with closed-loop control
In [86,87], arrays of single crystal silicon oscillators integrated with closed-loop control scheme have
scheme have been fabricated. The implementation of such arrays not only improves the sensitivities
been fabricated. The implementation of such arrays not only improves the sensitivities of oscillator
of oscillator elements thus overall detection efficiency, but also paves the way for new applications
of integrated NEMS that require large detection cross section and individual addressing, such as
in spectroscopy.
elements thus overall detection efficiency, but also paves the way for new applications of integrated
NEMS that require large detection cross section and individual addressing, such as in spectroscopy.
5.3. Silicon-on-Insulators (SOI) CMOS MEMS Technologies and Devices

Enabled by smart-cut and other technologies, silicon-on-insulator (SOI) wafers have been made
largely commercially available for CMOS and MEMS community. In addition to its great advantages
in manufacturing high performance CMOS circuits thanks to its excellent electrical isolation, SOI has
been demonstrated as an excellent option for MEMS fabrication as well. SOI-CMOS MEMS integration
has been aggressively explored ever since the material became available [88–91]. In SOI MEMS, the top
single crystal silicon layer with thickness ranging from a few microns to tens of micrometers has been
adopted. When used as a structural layer, compared with those in the bulk CMOS MEMS structures,
the SOI MEMS has a better dimensional control in DRIE-based structure release. Despite some physical
effects involved in the DRIE process of the SOI layer, such as footing effect that slightly undercuts the
bottom of the SOI trench at the buried SiO2 layer, the thickness of the SOI MEMS can normally be
retained as its well-defined thickness in material preparation [92]. Some special designs have been
demonstrated to compensate for the footing effect in SOI MEMS processes [93]. Overall, the process for
MEMS portion of SOI CMOS MEMS is advantageous over the widely used double side DRIE processes
in which less accurate timing control is responsible for structure thickness determination, as described
earlier. Therefore, SOI CMOS MEMS provides a unique approach in integration of high performance
CMOS or BiCMOS circuitry with single crystal silicon MEMS structure, featuring good dimensional
control. Representative products include Analog Devices’ ADXL001 (Analog Devices Inc., Norwood,
MA, USA) integrated accelerometer and ADXRS453 integrated gyroscope (Analog Devices Inc.) which
can be operated at a high temperature of 130 ˝ C [94].
In SOI CMOS MEMS, interconnects between MEMS and CMOS portion should be carefully
arranged. In Analog Devices’ SOI CMOS MEMS accelerometers [17], polysilicon plugs are employed
for interconnection and isolation between movable MEMS structure and CMOS circuitry. In [95], a
“micro bridge” on which additional aluminum was patterned serves as connection between the CMOS
and MEMS. The demonstrated accelerometers were fabricated using an in-house SOI CMOS process.
A unique below IC integration of SOI MEMS has been employed with an NXP/Philips semiconductor
(NPX Semiconductors, Eindhoven, The Netherlands) as an approach to fabricate various devices [96].
In contrast to most methods in which top silicon layer is used for MEMS structure, in this approach,
bulk substrate is thinned down as thick MEMS structure and is connected to CMOS circuits located in
thin top Si layer through polysilicon plug in thin SOI layer.
In addition to the devices described in the above technological literatures, a large variety of other
SOI CMOS MEMS devices have been demonstrated. Authors in reference [97] reported a MEMS
micro hotplate enabled by tungsten film with SOI CMOS technology. The hotplate can be used as
a platform for design of some gas sensors. Imaging sensors and micromirror arrays have also been
reported [98–100].
With new integration technologies such as silicon vias (TSV) being matured, SOI CMOS
MEMS will play a significant role in implementation of system-on-chip (SOC) and other complex
microsystems [101,102].
For the research community, in choosing a CMOS-MEMS monolithic integration approach, the
following general considerations should be followed: (1) Performance requirements of the designed
device and system. For instance, for inertial sensors, bulk CMOS-MEMS and SOI CMOS-MEMS can
provide proof mass normally thicker than thin-film counterparts for improved resolutions. However,
the performance balance between the CMOS circuitry and MEMS devices should be highly sought
after. (2) Availability of foundry services and critical design rule requirements from particular CMOS
foundries. In many of the CMOS MEMS devices fabricated using the process derived from the
CMU approach, a large array of vias is placed as vertical electrodes when vertical capacitors are
needed. Due to the CMOS design rules on the vias, the electrodes are actually non-continuous. (3)
Intrinsic effects of CMOS materials on MEMS structures. Since CMOS technologies and materials
by nature are not optimized for MEMS devices, physical effects such as residual stress, material
texture, discrepancies in thermal expansion coefficients, etc., should be well elaborated in MEMS
design and fabrication. More and more CMOS MEMS foundries are starting to provide general
guidance and process data for MEMS design, yet consistency of post CMOS-fabrication results still
need improvement. (4) Fabrication capability of in-house facility. When post CMOS fabrication is
performed in-house, equipment capability should be well calibrated and associated data should be
used as part of MEMS design rules. (5) Balance between cost and device performance. Although
most research projects are technology- and performance-driven, cost, process scalability should also be
considered, especially when there is a possibility of commercialization of the technology and system
under development.
6. Summary and Future Trends for System-On-Chip (SOC)

CMOS-MEMS technologies have been placed in pre-CMOS, intra-CMOS and post-CMOS
categories. Both pre-CMOS and intra-CMOS have issues such as dedicated foundries with suboptimal
and less cost-effective processes. Post-CMOS provides excellent CMOS compatibility, foundry
accessibility and design flexibility, and the overall cost is reduced. SOI-CMOS MEMS have also
been aggressively explored. The technologies involved in this new integration approach, such as
TSV and wafer bonding, have allowed 3D integration and wafer level packaging of CMOS circuitry
and MEMS, to form complex microsystems such as system-on-a-chip (SOC), a term borrowed from
stacked ICs [103,104]. The new integrations has blurred the boundary between pre- and post-CMOS
MEMS integrations.
In MEMS industry, on one hand, individual fabrication processes and integrations have been
tremendously improved by enabling technological breakthroughs and equipment. For instance, major
MEMS suppliers, including STMicroelectronics and InvenSense, have adopted wafer-to-wafer or
chip-to-wafer bonding CMOS MEMS integration. On the other hand, technological trends have been
shifted to creation of common platforms for both CMOS and MEMS. A number of CMOS foundries,
including Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company, X-Fab and Global Foundries, etc., have
begun to offer CMOS MEMS services for research and product development. According to the
international roadmap for the semiconductor industry, one of the current challenges of CMOS-MEMS
integration technology is the modification and standardization of CMOS technology to accommodate
MEMS technology [105]. It can be anticipated that another wave of innovations in CMOS MEMS
integration will quickly push the microelectronic industry to a new era of “more than Moore”.
Acknowledgments: The author would like to thank the Michigan University Commercialization Initiative (MUCI)
for partial support of the research work involved in this publication.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.
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micromachines

Abstract: This paper reviews CMOS (complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor) MEMS

Keywords: CMOS (complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor); MEMS (micro-electro-mechanical

Micromachines 2016, 7, 14; doi:10.3390/mi7010014 www.mdpi.com/journal/micromachines

2. Classification of CMOS MEMS Technologies

Figure 1. Cross-section of CMOS (complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor) and MEMS

Figure 2. Die photo of a 3-axis accelerometer implemented by iMEMS processes [13].

Figure 3. Die photo of an integrated gyroscope by Analog Devices [15].

Table 1. Representative additive post-CMOS MEMS technologies and devices.

Structural Sacrificial Interconnect

5.2. Subtractive Post-CMOS MEMS

5.2.1. Subtractive CMOS MEMS by Wet Etching

5.2.2. Subtractive Post-CMOS MEMS by Dry Etching

CMOS region MEMS region

Figure 9. SEM images and structure illustration of an electro-thermal micromirror by bulk

Figure 10. Modified

5.2.3. Combined Wet/Dry Processes

5.3. Silicon-on-Insulators (SOI) CMOS MEMS Technologies and Devices

6. Summary and Future Trends for System-On-Chip (SOC)

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