C - IT-303-N Notes

Argument: An argument is a set of statements (called premises) that are intended to support another
statement (called the conclusion). The premises of an argument are the reasons given in support of the
conclusion.
Premises and Conclusions: A premise is a statement that is used to support a conclusion. A conclusion is
a statement that is supported by the premises.
Deduction and Induction: Deduction is a form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn from a set of
premises. Induction is a form of reasoning in which a general conclusion is drawn from a set of specific
observations.
Validity: Validity is a measure of how well an argument supports its conclusion. An argument is valid if its
premises logically guarantee its conclusion.
Truth: Truth is a measure of how accurately an argument reflects reality. An argument is true if its
premises accurately reflect the facts.
Soundness: Soundness is a measure of how well an argument supports its conclusion and accurately
reflects reality. An argument is sound if it is both valid and true.
Strength: Strength is a measure of how strongly an argument supports its conclusion. An argument is
strong if its premises provide strong support for its conclusion.
Cogency: Cogency is a measure of how well an argument supports its conclusion and is free from logical
flaws. An argument is cogent if it is both strong and valid.
Categorical Propositions: Categorical propositions are statements that are either true or false and are
composed of two terms. The two terms are the subject and the predicate. The subject is the thing being
talked about and the predicate is the attribute being attributed to the subject.
Components of Categorical Propositions: The components of categorical propositions are the quality,
quantity, and distribution. Quality is the truth value of the proposition, either true or false. Quantity is
the scope of the proposition, either universal or particular. Distribution is the range of the proposition,
either affirmative or negative.
Quality, Quantity, and Distribution: Quality is the truth value of the proposition, either true or false.
Quantity is the scope of the proposition, either universal or particular. Distribution is the range of the
proposition, either affirmative or negative.
Venn Diagrams and the Modern Square of Opposition: Venn diagrams are diagrams that use circles to
represent the components of a categorical proposition. The modern square of opposition is a diagram
that uses four squares to represent the components of a categorical proposition.
Conversion, Obversion and Contraposition: Conversion is the process of changing the subject and
predicate of a proposition. Obversion is the process of changing the quality of a proposition.
Contraposition is the process of changing the quantity and distribution of a proposition.
Traditional Square of Opposition: The traditional square of opposition is a diagram that uses four
squares to represent the components of a categorical proposition. It is similar to the modern square of
opposition but it is used to represent the components of a traditional categorical proposition.
Venn Diagrams and the Traditional Standpoint: Venn diagrams are diagrams that use circles to represent
the components of a categorical proposition. The traditional standpoint is the view that the components
of a categorical proposition can be represented by a Venn diagram.
PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC
6.1 Symbols and Translation:
Propositional logic is a type of logic that uses symbols to represent logical statements. These symbols
can be used to represent the truth or falsity of a statement. The symbols used in propositional logic are:
• P, Q, R, S, etc. for propositions
• ¬ (negation) for “not”
• ∧ (conjunction) for “and”
• ∨ (disjunction) for “or”
• → (implication) for “if… then…”
• ↔ (biconditional) for “if and only if”
6.2 Truth Function:
A truth function is a function that takes one or more propositions as inputs and produces a single
proposition as an output. The output of the truth function is either true or false depending on the truth
values of the input propositions.
6.3 Truth Table for Propositions:
A truth table is a table that shows the truth values of a proposition for all possible combinations of its
variables. A truth table for a single proposition consists of two columns: one for the proposition and one
for its truth value. The truth value of the proposition is determined by evaluating the truth values of its
variables.
6.4 Truth Tables for Arguments:
A truth table for an argument consists of three columns: one for the premises, one for the conclusion,
and one for the truth value of the argument. The truth value of the argument is determined by
evaluating the truth values of its premises and conclusion.
6.5 Indirect Truth Tables:
An indirect truth table is a truth table that shows the truth values of a proposition for all possible
combinations of its variables, but without explicitly showing the truth values of the variables. The truth
value of the proposition is determined by evaluating the truth values of its variables in the context of the
given premises.
Logic and Circuit
Electric Circuit: An electric circuit is a closed loop of conductive material that allows electricity to flow
through it. It consists of components such as resistors, capacitors, and transistors connected in a specific
way to control the flow of electricity.
Logic Gates: Logic gates are electronic components used to perform logical operations. They are used to
create digital circuits that can process and store information. They are the building blocks of digital
systems. The most common logic gates are the AND, OR, and NOT gates.
OR Gate: The OR gate is a logic gate that outputs a 1 (high) if one or more of its inputs are 1 (high). It is a
type of digital logic gate that performs a logical operation on two or more inputs.
AND Gate: The AND gate is a logic gate that outputs a 1 (high) only if all of its inputs are 1 (high). It is a
type of digital logic gate that performs a logical operation on two or more inputs.
NOT Gate: The NOT gate is a logic gate that outputs a 0 (low) if its input is 1 (high) and a 1 (high) if its
input is 0 (low). It is a type of digital logic gate that performs a logical operation on one input.
Combining Logic Gates: Combining logic gates allows us to create more complex logic circuits. By
combining multiple logic gates, we can create circuits that can perform more complex operations.
Mechanical Reasoning: Mechanical reasoning is the ability to understand and apply mechanical
principles to solve problems. It involves understanding how machines work and how to use them to
solve problems.
Tuning Machine: A tuning machine is a device used to adjust the frequency of a signal. It is used to tune
musical instruments and other electronic devices.
Computer Reasoning: Computer reasoning is the ability to use computers to solve problems. It involves
understanding how computers work and how to use them to solve problems.

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Argument: An argument is a set of statements (called premises) that are intended to support another

6.1 Symbols and Translation:

• P, Q, R, S, etc. for propositions

• ¬ (negation) for “not”

• ∧ (conjunction) for “and”

• ∨ (disjunction) for “or”

• → (implication) for “if… then…”

• ↔ (biconditional) for “if and only if”

6.2 Truth Function:

6.3 Truth Table for Propositions:

6.4 Truth Tables for Arguments:

6.5 Indirect Truth Tables:

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