AI 4

Q. What is knowledge and knowledge agent.
Write it significance and

characteristics.
Knowledge can be defined as the understanding, awareness, or familiarity gained through
experience or education. It encompasses facts, information, skills, and insights that
individuals acquire over time. Knowledge can be categorized into different types, such as:
1. Explicit Knowledge: This is knowledge that can be easily articulated, documented,
and shared. Examples include textbooks, manuals, and databases.
2. Tacit Knowledge: This is personal knowledge that is difficult to express or transfer. It
includes insights, intuitions, and experiences that individuals accumulate over time.
What is a Knowledge Agent?
A Knowledge Agent is an intelligent system or software that can gather, process, and utilize
knowledge to perform specific tasks or make decisions. Knowledge agents are often used in
fields such as artificial intelligence, data analysis, and information management. They can
operate autonomously or assist users by providing relevant information and insights based on
the knowledge they possess.
Significance of Knowledge Agents
1. Efficiency: Knowledge agents can process large volumes of information quickly,
helping to streamline decision-making processes.
2. Improved Decision-Making: By providing relevant insights and data, knowledge
agents enhance the quality of decisions made by individuals or organizations.
3. Personalization: They can tailor information and recommendations based on user
preferences and past behaviors, leading to a more personalized experience.
4. Learning and Adaptation: Knowledge agents can learn from new information and
experiences, allowing them to improve their performance over time.
5. Collaboration: They facilitate collaboration among teams by sharing knowledge and
insights, thereby enhancing teamwork and productivity.
Characteristics of Knowledge Agents
1. Autonomy: Knowledge agents can operate independently, making decisions based on
the information they have without needing constant human intervention.
2. Adaptability: They can adjust their behaviour and responses based on new
information or changing environments.
3. Interactivity: Knowledge agents can engage with users, allowing for a two-way
exchange of information and feedback.
4. Reasoning Ability: They can analyse information, draw conclusions, and make
inferences based on the knowledge they possess.
5. Knowledge Representation: Knowledge agents have a structured way of organizing
and representing knowledge, making it easier to retrieve and use.
Q. Explain different inference rule for First Order predicate logic.
In first-order logic (FOL), inference rules are used to derive new statements (conclusions)
from existing statements (premises). These rules are essential for reasoning and proving the
validity of arguments. Below is some common inference rules used in first-order logic,
explained in an easy-to-understand manner.
1. Universal Generalization (UG)
Definition: If you can show that a statement is true for an arbitrary member of the domain,
then it is true for all members of that domain.
Example:
• Premise: P(a) is true for any arbitrary a.
• Conclusion: ∀x (P(x)) (Therefore, P is true for all x)
2. Universal Instantiation (UI)
Definition: If something is true for all members of a domain, it is true for any specific
member of that domain.
Example:
• Premise: ∀x (P(x)) (For all x, P(x) is true)
• Conclusion: P(a) (Therefore, P is true for a specific instance a)
3. Existential Generalization (EG)
Definition: If a statement is true for a specific member of a domain, then there exists at least
one member in that domain for which the statement is true.
Example:
• Premise: P(a) (P is true for a specific instance a)
• Conclusion: ∃x (P(x)) (Therefore, there exists some x such that P(x) is true)
4. Existential Instantiation (EI)
Definition: If there exists an element in the domain for which a statement is true, you can
introduce a specific constant for that element.
Example:
• Premise: ∃x (P(x)) (There exists some x such that P(x) is true)
• Conclusion: P(a) (Introduce a specific instance a for which P is true)
5. Modus Ponens (MP)
Definition: If you have a conditional statement and the antecedent is true, then the
consequent must also be true.
Example:
• Premise 1: P → Q (If P is true, then Q is true)
• Premise 2: P (P is true)
• Conclusion: Q (Therefore, Q is true)
6. Modus Tollens (MT)
Definition: If you have a conditional statement and the consequent is false, then the
antecedent must also be false.
Example:
• Premise 1: P → Q (If P is true, then Q is true)
• Premise 2: ¬Q (Q is false)
• Conclusion: ¬P (Therefore, P must be false)
Q. Propositional Logic vs Predicate Logic.

Feature Propositional Logic Predicate Logic
Propositions (statements that are Predicates (functions that return true or false)
Basic Unit either true or false) and quantifiers
Less expressive; cannot express More expressive; can express relationships

Expressiveness relationships between objects and properties of objects
Simple structure; consists of

propositional variables and logical More complex; consists of predicates, terms,
Structure connectives quantifiers, and logical connectives
Uses quantifiers such as Universal (∀) and

Quantifiers Does not use quantifiers Existential (∃)
Example ∀x (P(x) → Q(x)) (For all x, if P of x is true,

Statement P ∧ Q (P and Q) then Q of x is true)
Domain of Has a domain of discourse where variables

Discourse Does not have a domain of discourse can take values
Simpler inference rules (e.g., Modus More complex inference rules due to
Inference Rules Ponens, Modus Tollens) quantifiers and predicates
Feature Propositional Logic Predicate Logic
Used in mathematics, computer science,

Used in circuit design, basic logical artificial intelligence, and knowledge
Applications reasoning representation
Each proposition has a definite truth Truth values depend on the interpretation of
Truth Values value predicates and the domain
Q. Forward Chaining vs Backward Chaining.

Feature Forward Chaining Backward Chaining
Approach Data-driven Goal-driven
Begins with the goal or hypothesis to

Starting Point Begins with known facts prove
Applies rules to infer new facts from Works backward from the goal to find
Process existing facts supporting facts
Direction of Moves from conclusions back to

Reasoning Moves from premises to conclusions premises
Can be more efficient when many facts are Can be more efficient when the goal is
Efficiency known specific
Suitable for scenarios where all facts are Suitable for scenarios where specific
Use Cases available goals are pursued
Example Inferring multiple conclusions from a set Proving a specific conclusion by

Scenario of rules and facts checking necessary conditions
May generate many conclusions, Focuses on relevant conditions,

Complexity potentially leading to more computation potentially reducing computation
Typical Expert systems, rule-based systems, and PROLOG programming, theorem

Applications automated reasoning proving, and diagnostic systems
Q. Illustrate forward chaining and backward chaining in propositional
logic with example
Q. Explain the steps involved in converting the propositional logic

statement into CNF with suitable example
Q. Consider the following statements.

(a) Prakash likes all kind of food.
(b) Mango and Fish are food.
(c) Anything anyone eats and is not killed is food.
(d) Jay eats peanuts and still alive.
(e) Meena eats everything that Jay eats.
Prove that Prakash likes Peanuts using Resolution.
Q. Consider the following axioms All people who are graduating are happy.
All happy people smile. Someone is graduating. Prove that “Is someone
Smiling?” using resolution technique. Draw resolution tree.
Q. "As per the law, it is a crime for an American to sell weapons to hostile
nations. Country A, an enemy of America, has some missiles, and all the
missiles were sold to it by Robert, who is an American citizen." Prove that
"Robert is criminal." Using forward and backward Chaining.
Q. "As per the law, it is a crime for an American to sell weapons to hostile
nations. Country A, an enemy of America, has some missiles, and all the
missiles were sold to it by Robert, who is an American citizen." Prove that
"Robert is criminal." Using forward and backward Chaining.
Q. Write a PROLOG program for Fibonacci of given number
Q. Write a program in PROLOG to create a family tree.
Q. Write a PROLOG program for factorial of given number.

Q. Write short note on knowledge acquisition.
Q. Procedural Knowledge vs Declaration Knowledge
Q. What are semantic networks and its classification.
Q. Explain various methods of knowledge representation techniques.

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Q. What is knowledge and knowledge agent.

Write it significance and

Q. Propositional Logic vs Predicate Logic.

Less expressive; cannot express More expressive; can express relationships

Simple structure; consists of

Uses quantifiers such as Universal (∀) and

Example ∀x (P(x) → Q(x)) (For all x, if P of x is true,

Domain of Has a domain of discourse where variables

Used in mathematics, computer science,

Q. Forward Chaining vs Backward Chaining.

Approach Data-driven Goal-driven

Begins with the goal or hypothesis to

Direction of Moves from conclusions back to

Example Inferring multiple conclusions from a set Proving a specific conclusion by

May generate many conclusions, Focuses on relevant conditions,

Typical Expert systems, rule-based systems, and PROLOG programming, theorem

Q. Explain the steps involved in converting the propositional logic

Q. Consider the following statements.

Q. Write a PROLOG program for Fibonacci of given number

Q. Write a program in PROLOG to create a family tree.

Q. Write a PROLOG program for factorial of given number.

Q. Procedural Knowledge vs Declaration Knowledge

Q. What are semantic networks and its classification.

Q. Explain various methods of knowledge representation techniques.

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