Review of Related Literature: Impact of Sex in Policy-Making

Review of Related Literature
This part of the research paper gathered previous studies about the levels of political
participation of women and the significant impacts of having female representation in local
government decision-making. It will also present the synthesis of existing literature on the
differences between men and women in their policy choices as well as the theoretical framework
that will be used for the study.
A. Gender & Policy
Impact of Sex in Policy-Making
Growing up, society has unconsciously ingrained in our minds that there are specific
rules that will only apply to boys and those that can only be to girls. May it be in the way one
dress or the way toys are labeled or what colors can only be favorable to one sex, either way,
these are the norms that an individual just grows up to see the world. Eventually, these norms
mature as stereotypes that gravely affected how society sees women while it greatly benefitted
how men were treated overall and corresponded to be identified as a sexist mindset. Sexism can
be defined in simpler terms as a way of thinking that one sex is superior to the other, more
commonly than not that women are victims of this prejudice as a result of societal norms.
Feminist Activist and Author, Hooks (2000) elucidated that the deep-rooted problem is systemic
institutionalized sexism and that men are the enemy because their resistance must be affirmed for
actual reforms. So, how did it evolve into an institutionalized system? To expound in the
foregoing statement, as individuals grew up to think of themselves as apart from the collective
society it promoted that their differences are merely a product of what was naturally given to
them rather than an effect of early teachings.

In 15th Century France, a woman named Christine de Pizan, who was a poet and court writer,
was recorded as the first to protest in writing about the slanderous literature against womanhood
(Gabriel, 1955). As a mother and one of the few women that were privileged to receive a formal
education, she wrote poems addressed to her son about opposed primary instructions on the
dignity and value of women in society. Due to her Christian background and job in the royal
courts of King Charles V, she abided by the heteronormative roles to which women are expected
but she made groundbreaking actions during a time when women had no legal rights and were
considered as a man’s property (Lloyd, 2006). Even though it wasn’t until the early 20th Century
that a clear-cut movement, namely the feminist movement, was organized, De Pizan’s influence
exceeded her time and has proven that sexism must be taken down as an integrated society. One
of the modern processes this can be eliminated is through political reform or policy-making.
As stated in the study done by Pande (1999) on the effects of minority representation in policy
choices, the researcher came to the conclusion that the identity of the legislator has a direct
correlation to the policy outcomes after they are elected. However, the study also explained how
the small number of said minority representatives can affect its performance and remain isolated
in its policy choices (Pande, 1999). Similar to the topic of gender reform policies, this can be the
common hurdle in enacting laws for the advancement of equity between the two sexes especially
since the majority of political landscapes are dominated by men. While there has been much
groundwork on the essentiality of women in politics, specifically in the legislative branch, few
researchers have considered exploring whether there is a dissimilarity in policy choices and
performance between male and female legislators in the local governments.

Policy Differences between Male and Female Legislators
Many critics disagree with the idea of decentralization because it is deemed as
counterproductive when it comes to achieving genuine reforms, however, the explanation by
Atienza (2006), that with the transfer of other governmental functions to the local government
enables the inclusion of more political interests as the local government has the capacity to
transfer other duties to private entities. With the privilege of decentralization in the Philippines, it
gave the masses a sense of belongingness through involvement in choosing the local political
leaders that they believe will most likely encompass their ideals and can advance their well-
being. A randomized natural experiment done in India (Beaman, et.al, 2012) exhibited results
that, through the effects of the 1993 Women’s Reservation Bill which allows leadership positions
for women from village councils, adolescent girls were influenced to achieve higher educational
attainment and career aspirations by seeing female political leaders. Be that as it may, the study
by Beaman, et. al (2012) later showed that there were still no apparent changes in the labor
market demands for women. From the results of studies like these, this study can explore deeper
the substantial effects on women when they are elected.
As reported by Chattopadhyay and Duflo (2004) in their study about the influences of women in
the area of policy-making, it discussed the political stages a legislator must go through before a
bill is passed into law. The researchers of this study utilized the “Citizen Candidate” model by
Osborne et.al (1997) wherein it explicated that the process of implementing a policy goes back to
even before a politician is elected into office (Chattopadhyay, et.al, 2004).

While everyone is eligible to run for political office under a democratic and constitutional state,
the Citizen Candidate model (Osborne, et.al, 1997) views politics with three stages. The first is
when a citizen decides whether to run or not, which is then followed by the second stage at the
voting precincts that will produce the last stage wherein a policy will be made after the candidate
gets the vote of the majority. Chattopadhyay, et.al (2004) illustrates through this model that the
costs of political campaigning are much greater for women as compared to men as an effect of
gender norms coming into play as women are conventional to be seen inside homes rather than in
political spaces.
Consequently, as gender norms are seeping their way into politics, this will then lead to
producing gendered political action or technically identified as institutional dynamics (Goodwin
and Schofield, 2005). Even if women are elected into office and are given the chance to create
pro-women policies, they still have to see it through debates together with their fellow legislators
which will cause them another hurdle. Goodwin and Schofield (2015) did a study on gender
politics and advancing gender equality that meticulously categorized the results and answers
from their interview to account for each dimension in policy-making and then compares the
viewpoints between men and women. Evidently, the differences between the two sexes in the
field of legislation go far beyond implemented rules and opportunities to create policies. In view
of the fact that institutional dynamics are at play, despite the pro-women policies set in place or
the number of women occupying seats in legislation, knowing whether a bill promotes gender
equity seems to be on the last of the checklist.

B. Women in the Context of Socio-Political Systems
History of Women’s Political Participation
As this paper continues to explore the significance of women in legislation, it is only
appropriate to understand and acknowledge the progress of women in the field of global politics.
Simone de Beauvoir (2015) investigated the various definitions of femininity and being a woman
in her book; “The Second Sex” to which she concluded that these definitions were used to
oppress women. Femininity in the early ages directly represented “constructions” that made
women inferior to men and treated as objects. This attitude was evident in the way laws were
crafted before the feminist revolution, gender consideration was categorized as a separate issue
when designing policies (Goodwin, et. al, 2005). Women's participation in matters concerning
government and leadership weren't taken seriously as women were set aside for housemaking.
{Use this as a reasoning for the first wave of feminist uprising that resulted to voting rights of
women} {lead to the track record of filipina politicians}

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Review of Related Literature

that will be used for the study.

A. Gender & Policy

Impact of Sex in Policy-Making

them rather than an effect of early teachings.

performance between male and female legislators in the local governments.

Many critics disagree with the idea of decentralization because it is deemed as

counterproductive when it comes to achieving genuine reforms, however, the explanation by

the substantial effects on women when they are elected.

even before a politician is elected into office (Chattopadhyay, et.al, 2004).

producing gendered political action or technically identified as institutional dynamics (Goodwin

equity seems to be on the last of the checklist.

History of Women’s Political Participation

As this paper continues to explore the significance of women in legislation, it is only

women} {lead to the track record of filipina politicians}

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