Executive Summary

1. Trends in World Drug Markets

1.1 Overview Most of the world’s cocaine comes from coca leaf culti-
vated in Colombia, Peru and Bolivia. The global area
Evolution of the world drug problem under coca cultivation fell by 29 per cent to some
156,900 hectares between 2000-2006, largely due to
The world’s drug problem is being contained. In reductions of coca cultivation in Colombia. The areas
2005/06, the global markets for the main illicit drugs – under coca cultivation in Peru and Bolivia increased
the opiates, cocaine, cannabis, and amphetamine-type over this period but remained significantly below the
stimulants – remained largely stable. Particularly levels reported a decade earlier.
notable is the stabilisation seen in the cannabis market, As discussed in last year’s World Drug Report, it is impos-
which had been expanding rapidly for some time. In sible to accurately estimate the location and total
line with a long-term trend, the share of total drug pro- number of hectares under cannabis, because it is grown
duction that is seized by law enforcement has also in at least 172 countries, often in small plots by the users
increased – some 42 per cent of global cocaine produc- themselves. The one country where reliable estimates are
tion and 26 per cent of global heroin production never available is Morocco, the source of about 70 per cent of
made it to consumers. the hashish consumed in Europe. UNODC and the
Of course, within this aggregated picture, there remains Government of Morocco have been monitoring large-
considerable variation. Most notably, heroin production scale hashish production since 2003. Based on these sur-
continued to expand in the conflict-ridden provinces of veys, cannabis cultivation in Morocco has declined in
southern Afghanistan. While global heroin consump- recent years, from a peak of 134,000 hectares in 2003
tion does not appear to be growing, the impact of this to just 76,400 hectares in 2005. Outside Morocco, there
surge in supply needs to be monitored carefully. have been few national or regional studies of the extent
of cannabis cultivation.
How is drug production changing? There is an important distinction between the extent of
drug crop cultivation and the extent of drug produc-
Most of the world’s drug markets start with the farmer. tion, however. Crop yields can be affected by weather
Unlike other crops, however, the cultivation of opium conditions and changes in production technology,
poppy, coca leaf and cannabis take place under threat of among other things. As a result, long-term declines in
eradication, and so the location and the number of cultivated area do not necessarily translate into declines
hectares tilled vary substantially from year to year. in total production. Opium production in Afghanistan
UNODC, in cooperation with the relevant national rose almost 50 per cent in 2006, bringing gobal heroin
authorities, conducts drug crop monitoring surveys in production to a new record high of 606 mt in 2006,
all of the world’s major opium poppy and coca produc- exceeding the previous high (576 mt in 1999) by 5 per
ing countries. Changes in the number and location of cent. Similarly, the success in the reduction of coca cul-
hectares under cultivation, as well as crop yields, can tivation from 2000 to 2006 has not led to a commen-
thus be tracked with some precision. surate decline in cocaine production, apparently due to
improvements in coca cultivation and cocaine produc-
Around 92 per cent of the world’s heroin comes from
tion technology. Cocaine production has remained
poppies grown in Afghanistan. Despite a massive
largely stable over the last few years, estimated at 984 mt
increase in opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan in
in 2006.
2006, the global area under poppy was actually 10 per
cent lower than in 2000. This decline was mainly due to Amphetamine-type stimulants are manufactured illicitly
sustained success in reducing cultivation in South-East using legally-produced precursors, and thus global pro-
Asia. Poppy cultivation in the Golden Triangle has fallen duction can only be estimated indirectly. This produc-
by some 80 per cent since 2000. tion appears to be stable, however, at about 480 mt in

7
World Drug Report 2007

2005. At the same time, seizures of ATS labs and pre- World cocaine seizures, 1995-2005
cursors declined dramatically, likely a result of improved
precursor control and significant reductions in domes- 800

tic production operations in key markets such as the 700

USA. 600

Metric tons
500
How is drug interdiction changing? 400
300
An increasingly large share of the world’s drug supply is 200
being seized by law enforcement agencies each year. In 100
2005, 42 per cent of global cocaine production and 26 0
per cent of global heroin production was intercepted by 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

the authorities. With regard to heroin, this means that

the amount available to the consumer in 2005 was actu-
Global opiate seizures, expressed in
ally 5 per cent lower than in 2000 and 8 per cent lower
heroin equivalents, by substance, 1985-2005
than a decade before. Cocaine seizures have increased
even more markedly, up from just 24 per cent of pro- 140.0
duction in 2000. Improved cooperation among law
Metric ton equivalents
120.0
enforcement bodies has led to improved seizures close to
100.0
the source. In fact, 58 per cent of global cocaine seizures
took place in South America, the Caribbean and Cen- 80.0
tral America in 2005. 60.0
In the last decade, the most significant seizure trend has 40.0
been the increase in the number of seizures of amphet- 20.0
amine-type stimulants (ATS). These seizures peaked in
0.0
2000 at 49 mt, before dropping over the following four
1985

1987

1989

1991

1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

2005
years. In 2005, they began to rise again, to 43 mt.
Opium Morphine Heroin

Global drug seizures, excluding cannabis, 2004-2005

Coca leaf 3,209

1,207
752.3
Cocaine
579.4
342.2
Opium
211.7
97.5
Khat 106.9
58.6
Heroin 60.2
32.0
Morphine 39.2
17.2
Methamphetamine 10.9
12.9
Amphetamine 5.9
5.3
Ecstasy 7.9
1.4
Depressants 2.1
0.6
Methaqualone 4.8

0 200 400 600 800 1,000

2004 2005 Metric tons equivalents

8
 Executive Summary

Illegal drug use at the global level (2005/2006)

Total world population:

6,475 million people

World population age 15-64:

4,177 million people (100%*)

Non-drug using population

age 15-64:
3,977 million people (95.2%*)

Annual prevalence of drug use:

200 million people (4.8%*)

Monthly prevalence of drug use:

110 million people (2.6%*)

Problem drug use:

age 15-64:
25 million people (0.6%*)

* in per cent of population age 15-64

Herbal cannabis seizures, in contrast, were down in How is drug use changing?
2005, a trend seen across continents. The reasons for
this decline are due to increased eradication and are While a large share of the world’s population uses illicit
occurring in the context of stabilised demand and may drugs each year (about 5 per cent of the population
be related to decreased transnational trafficking due to between the ages of 15 and 64), only a small share of
a growing reliance on domestic cultivation. Cannabis these can be considered “problem drug users” (0.6%).
resin seizures were also down, but this can be directly About 200 million people use drugs each year globally.
tied to the decline in hashish production in Morocco. Unsurprisingly, the main problem drugs at the global
level continue to be the opiates (notably heroin), fol-
lowed by cocaine. For most of Europe and Asia, opiates
continued to be the main problem drug; in South-
America, drug related treatment demand continued to
be mainly linked to the abuse of cocaine; and in Africa,
the bulk of all treatment demand is linked to cannabis.

Extent of drug use (annual prevalence*) estimates 2005/6 (or latest year available)

Amphetamine-type
stimulants of which
Cannabis Cocaine Opiates
heroin
Amphetamines Ecstasy

(million people) 158.8 24.9 8.6 14.3 15.6 11.1

in % of global
3.8% 0.6% 0.2% 0.3% 0.4% 0.3%
population age 15-64

* Annual prevalence is a measure of the number/percentage of people who have consumed an illicit drug at least once in the 12 month-
period preceding the assessment.

9
World Drug Report 2007

Main problem drugs (as reflected in treatment demand), 2005 (or latest year available)

1.2 Opium/Heroin Market

At least in the short-term, conditions in the world’s Global opium poppy cultivation (hectares),
heroin markets will be determined by what happens in 1990-2006
southern Afghanistan, as the country was responsible for
300,000
92 per cent of global opium production in 2006. For no
other drug is production so concentrated in a single
250,000
area. This concentration went hand in hand with a
remarkable long-term progress in eliminating other
Hectares

200,000
sources of supply, principally in South-East Asia. Poppy
cultivation in South-East Asia is down by more than 85 150,000
per cent over the last decade. Between 2005 and 2006
alone, poppy cultivation in South East Asia declined 100,000
from 35,000 hectares to 24,000 hectares.
50,000
The significance of the contraction in opium cultivation
in Myanmar and Laos cannot be overstated. Although 0
opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan increased mas-
1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

sively in 2006, the global area under illicit poppy culti-

vation was still 10 per cent lower in 2006 than in 2000, Afghanistan Myanmar
due to reduction in South-East Asia. But despite the Lao PDR Rest of the World
reduction in the area under cultivation, potential heroin
production is up, because Afghan fields are more pro-
ductive than fields in South-East Asia. In 2006, global Under these conditions, with a surge in supply and
opium production soared to a new record high of 6,610 stable demand, a price decline would be expected near
mt, a 43 per cent increase over 2005. the source, but opiate prices are not easy to predict,

10
 Executive Summary

because the global dynamics of this market are not well In recent years, the world heroin market has been
understood. Despite the 49 per cent increase in pro- divided into three regional submarkets. Afghan opiates
duction in Afghanistan in 2006, opium prices actually have supplied the markets of neighbouring countries,
fell by just 17 per cent in the country. This could sug- Europe, the Near and Middle East, and Africa. Opiates
gest that there is substantial stockpiling, but there is produced in South-East Asia have supplied the markets
little evidence as to where and how it is occurring. of China and other South-East Asian countries, as well
as Oceania. Opiates produced in Latin America sup-
plied the North American market. However, it appears
Global opium production, 1990-2006 that cross-regional trafficking is gaining in importance.
For example, there are indications that a small but
7,000
increasing proportion of opiates from Afghanistan are
being trafficked to North America, either via eastern
6,000 and western Africa, or via Europe.
Metric tons

5,000 Overall, the consumer market has remained encourag-

ingly stable, despite important increases in the countries
4,000
along major trafficking routes. Countries experiencing
3,000 an increase in heroin usage include those surrounding
2,000
Afghanistan (Pakistan, Iran and Central Asia), as well as
Russia, India and parts of Africa. Many of these areas
1,000 have high levels of poverty and HIV, leaving them vul-
0
nerable to the worst effects of this drug. It is important
that these trends are carefully monitored over the
1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

coming years.
Afghanistan Myanmar
Lao PDR Rest of the World

Trafficking in heroin and morphine seizures, 2005 (countries reporting seizures* of more than 10 kg)

11
World Drug Report 2007

Changes in the use of heroin and other opiates, 2005 (or latest year available)

1.3 Coca/Cocaine Market

The global cocaine market is largely stable in terms of have led to an increase in seizures in and around the pro-
both supply and demand. Supply stability has been ducer countries. In fact, 58 per cent of global cocaine
achieved only through intensive eradication efforts, seizures took place in South America, the Caribbean
especially in Colombia. The area under coca cultivation and Central America in 2005. North America and
fell by 29 per cent between 2000-2006, including a 52 Western/Central Europe, the two main cocaine con-
per cent reduction in the area under coca cultivation in sumption regions, also continued to seize large amounts
Colombia. The areas under coca cultivation in Peru and of the drug (28 per cent and 14 per cent of global
Bolivia increased over this period but remained signifi- seizures respectively). The world’s largest cocaine
cantly below the levels reported a decade earlier, reflect- seizures in 2005 were, once again, made by Colombia,
ing long-term supply reduction. followed by the USA, Venezuela, Spain, Ecuador and
Mexico.
Though contained, there are indications that the supply
side of this market remains adaptive. The success in the Cocaine is frequently trafficked to Europe via the
reduction of coca cultivation from 2000 to 2006 did not Caribbean region and, increasingly, via Africa. Over the
lead to a decline in cocaine production. In recent years, 2000-2005 period, the largest increases in cocaine
the use of fertilizers and pesticides, and better produc- seizures were reported by countries in Africa and West-
tion technology, have improved coca yields, leaving ern/Central Europe. In Africa, seizures rose sixfold, and
cocaine production largely stable over the last few years in West and Central Europe they rose fourfold. The
(1,008 mt in 2004, 980 mt in 2005, 984 mt in 2006). largest cocaine seizures in Europe in 2005 were made by
With production largely stable, there are encouraging Spain, followed by Portugal and the Netherlands,
signs that progress is being made at reducing supply reflecting both strong national law enforcement activi-
through growing rates of interdiction. Overall, the ties and the increase in trafficking towards these coun-
interception rate rose from 24 per cent in 2000 to 42 tries – which contain vibrant consumer markets and
per cent in 2006. Improved cooperation among law which are the main entry points of cocaine into the
enforcement bodies in and across countries appears to European Union.

12
 Executive Summary

Similarly, rising levels of seizures in Africa reflect the fact significantly in Europe, doubling or tripling in several
that this continent, notably countries along the Gulf of countries over the last decade. In Africa, notably in the
Guinea and off the coast of Cape Verde, is increasingly countries of western Africa, cocaine use has also
being used as a transhipment point for cocaine from increased. Overall cocaine consumption levels in Europe
South America to markets in western Europe. are still significantly lower than in North America.
However, Spain recently reported that, for the first time,
While the consumer market in North America has cocaine annual prevalence levels exceeded those of the
ceased to expand, cocaine is making worrying inroads USA in 2005. High and rising levels of cocaine use have
into new and growing markets. Consumption increased also been reported from the UK and Italy.

Global coca cultivation, 1990-2006 Global cocaine production*, 1990-2006

225,000 1,200

200,000
1,000
175,000

150,000 800
Hectares

Metric tons
125,000
600
100,000

75,000 400

50,000
200
25,000

0 0
1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006
Colombia Peru Bolivia Colombia Peru Bolivia
* revised data

Changes in the use of cocaine, 2005 (or latest year available)

13
 World Drug Report 2007

1.4 Cannabis Market

Cannabis is the largest illicit drug market by far, includ- herb production, trafficking and consumption. How-
ing roughly 160 million annual consumers. The wide- ever, in 2005, cannabis herb seizures declined substan-
spread nature of production and consumption make it tially to the levels reported back in 2000. The decline
very difficult to define and quantify. Reports received by was reported across all continents. Eradication played a
UNODC suggest that cannabis production is taking role but other factors are not yet fully known. Sustained
place in at least 172 countries and territories.1 Indica- declines could also indicate a growing reliance on
tions of an overall stabilisation in the market in 2005 are domestically produced cannabis.
extremely encouraging but it remains to be seen whether Global cannabis resin seizures also declined in 2005
this will emerge as a long-term trend. due to lower production of cannabis resin in Morocco.
The production of cannabis resin (also known as The world’s largest cannabis resin seizures continued to
hashish) is concentrated in North Africa (Morocco) and be reported by Spain (52% of global hashish seizures
in the South-West Asia/Middle East region, particularly in 2005), followed by Pakistan (7%) and Morocco
in Afghanistan and Pakistan. UNODC surveys con- (7%).
ducted in collaboration with the Moroccan authorities
The consumer markets in North America appear to
revealed a fall in the area of cannabis resin cultivation in
have contracted somewhat. A decline of cannabis use
that country in recent years, from a peak of 134,000 ha
was also found in the Oceania region, which has the
in 2003 to 76,400 ha in 2005. Resin production
world’s highest levels of prevalence rates for cannabis.
declined even more strongly, from 3,070 mt in 2003 to
But there has been a reported increase of cannabis use
1,070 mt by 2005. Most of this production is consumed
in Africa and in most countries of South America. The
in Europe.
situation in Europe and Asia is mixed. The number of
Cannabis herb seizures continue to be mainly concen- all countries reporting increases in cannabis use fell from
trated in North America (66% of global seizures in 58 per cent of all countries reporting in 2000 to 45 per
2005), followed by Africa (16%). Global seizures of cent in 2005, while the number of countries reporting
cannabis herb showed a strong increase over the 2000- declines increased from 7 per cent in 2000 to 21 per
2004 period, a probable reflection of rising cannabis cent in 2005.

Estimates of global cannabis herb production, 1988-2005

50,000
45000
42100 42000
40,000
33100 32100
Metric tons

30,000
26200
21700
20,000

10,000

0
1988/89 1992 1999 2001/02 2003 2004 2005

1
A total of 82 countries explicitly reported the illicit cultivation of cannabis on their territory over the 1995-2005 period. In addition, Member
States identified 134 source countries for the production of cannabis. Moreover, 146 countries reported seizing cannabis plants over the 1995-
2005 period, which is an indirect indicator for the existence of cannabis plant production in a country, as cannabis plants are usually not trafficked
across borders (only the end-products are). Combining these data suggests that cannabis production is taking place in at least 172 countries and
territories.

14
 Executive Summary

Trafficking in cannabis resin, 2005 (countries reporting seizures of more than 10 kg)

Trafficking in cannabis herb, 2005 (countries reporting seizures of more than 100 kg)

15
World Drug Report 2007

Changes in the use of cannabis, 2005 (or latest year available)

1.5 Amphetamine-type Stimulants Market

There has been an overall stabilisation of the ATS Amphetamine production continues to be primarily
market. The alarming increases in the production of located in Europe, notably in the Netherlands and
ATS throughout the 1990s seem to have levelled off Poland, followed by the Baltic region and Belgium.
over the last few years. This is likely a result of recent Amphetamine production also takes place in North
efforts to monitor and improve precursor control. America (notably in the USA) and in South-East Asia.
The largest production areas for methamphetamine Ecstasy production also continues to be largely concen-
continue to be in South-East Asia (including Myanmar, trated in Europe, though the expansion of ecstasy pro-
China and the Philippines) and in North America. Tra- duction, in recent years, has mainly taken place outside
ditionally, the majority of methamphetamine in the Europe, notably in North America and in East and
USA was produced domestically, with the precursor South-East Asia.
chemicals smuggled into this country via Canada or
Mexico. Improved controls in Canada and further tight- Global seizures of ATS continue to be dominated by
ening of controls in the USA have led to a decline in the seizures of methamphetamine. Over the 2000-2005
number of clandestine laboratories operating within the period, 49 per cent of ATS seizures were in the form of
USA and a shift of production across the border to methamphetamine, 15 per cent in the form of amphet-
Mexico. However, Mexico has now also improved its amine, and 14 per cent in the form of ecstasy. The trend
precursor control regime, prompting drug trafficking in recent years, however, has been towards rising pro-
organizations to exploit other areas, such as Central portions of amphetamine and falling proportions of
America and possibly Africa. methamphetamine, reflecting improved control over the
two main methamphetamine precursors, ephedrine and
In South Africa, where methamphetamine is produced
pseudo-ephedrine.
for the domestic market, both production and con-
sumption have increased. The Oceania region, notably Global demand for amphetamines (methamphetamine
Australia and New Zealand, continue to be important and amphetamine), which increased strongly in most
producers and consumers of methamphetamine, but parts of the world in the 1990s, is now showing signs of
there are no indications that these drugs are exported overall stabilisation. At close to 25 million people, the
from there. global amphetamines consumer market is larger than

16
 Executive Summary

Trafficking in amphetamines, 2005 (countries reporting seizures* of more than 1 kg)

Canada East Europe

0.06 0.1
5.9
West & Central Europe Southeast Europe
United States of America
1.4 Republic of Korea
China
5.3 0.02 0.1
0.1 9.5
Japan
Jordan Pakistan Hong Kong SAR, China
0.7
Egypt 0.1 0.008
1.4 Myanmar 0.3
Mexico 3.3 United Arab Taiwan
Emirates Lao PDR 2.9 (Prov. of China)
0.9 0.4
Burkina Niger Saudi Arabia 0.06
Central America Faso 0.9 Viet Nam
0.002 0.003
0.1 0.001
Yemen Thailand 0.02 Philippines
Cambodia 0.1
2.3
Colombia Malaysia
0.004 0.04

0.4
Indonesia
Seizures in 2005

1 Volume in
metric tons
0.3
Trends (2004 - 2005) 1.1 Australia
South Africa
Increase (>10%)
0.02
New Zealand
Stable (+/- 10%) Main trafficking routes
Other trafficking routes

Decrease (>10%) Stimulants seizures

reported to UNODC (2001-2005)

No stimulants seizures
reported to UNODC (2001-2005)

* Seizures as reported (street purity); units converted into weight equivalents (30mg per unit)

the markets for cocaine or heroin. Between 15-16 mil- market throughout the 1990’s, there have been consis-
lion of these users are thought to consume metham- tent signs of slow down and stabilisation over the last
phetamine. Following the expansion of the consumer few years, particularly in North America.

Trafficking in ecstasy, 2005 (countries reporting seizures* of more than 1 kg)

17
World Drug Report 2007

Changes in the use of “amphetamines” (methamphetamine, amphetamine and related substances), 2005
(or latest year available)

Changes in the use of ecstasy (MDMA, MDA, MDEA), 2005 (or latest year available)

18
 Executive Summary

2. Invisible empire or invisible hand?

Organized crime and transnational drug trafficking

Is transnational drug trafficking in the hands of large and complexity of trafficking on the high seas, this fact
and organized criminal groups or is it mainly conducted alone suggests high levels of organization.
by smaller and looser associations of smugglers? The
The largest cocaine seizures, as reflected in the
answer to this question has implications for the way
UNODC Individual Drug Seizure database, involve
drug interdiction is approached. This question might be
multiple tons of the drug and are worth tens or even
answered through existing indicators, particularly
hundreds of millions of dollars. Such shipments are
seizure figures, price data and drug use trends. In order
clearly beyond the scope of small networks of individ-
to assess the potential of this approach, these indicators
ual traffickers. The share of large seizures in national
are explored in two of the world’s largest value drug
seizure totals highlight the fact that, while smaller scale
flows: the transhipment of cocaine via Central America
trafficking does take place, the backbone of the market
to the USA and the trafficking of heroin through Cen-
remains in the hands of more sophisticated operators.
tral Asia to the Russian Federation.
For example, in 2004, more than 25 per cent of the
Cocaine via Central America to the USA cocaine seized in Honduras came from just one mar-
itime seizure, while 42 per cent of that seized in
This drug flow has surely become less centralised than Nicaragua came from two major seizures on the Atlantic
it was during the days of the Cali and Medellin cartels, Coast.
which dominated the cocaine market at all levels. But
The presence of large loads can be inferred from the
the size of the seizures made in this region, as well as low
volatility of national seizure totals even where individ-
levels of drug use in the transit zone countries, suggest
ual seizure details are not available. For example, El Sal-
that cocaine trafficking remains highly organized and
vador seized 32 kg in 2001 before increasing seizure
dominated by some very large organizations.
totals to two or three tons annually between 2002 and
The USA remains the world’s largest cocaine consumer, 2004. In 2005, the country seized only 32 kg. It is
and some 88 per cent of the cocaine destined for the unlikely that either the real flows of cocaine through the
USA transits the Central America/Mexico corridor, country or the enforcement efforts made to interdict
about 50 per cent along the Pacific and 38 per cent drugs varied so greatly from year to year, so seizure totals
along the Caribbean coast of Central America. Most of likely reflect the presence or absence of a small number
the cocaine flow today is maritime and given the cost of large seizures.

Trafficking in cocaine, 2005

(countries reporting seizures*
of more than 10 kg)

19
 World Drug Report 2007

Tons of cocaine seized in Central American countries (rounded)

40.0

30.0 11.8
18.3
11.3 9.5
Metric Tons

7.1
4.8 1.1
20.0 2.8 1.8 5.6 3.7
2.2 7.0
8.7 3.1 2.7 3.9
5.1 9.2 0.8 7.4
0.7 2.7 0.5
0.2 2.6 9.2
10.0 0.4 1.0 0.7 4.5 5.1
7.2 3.3 0.0 1.2 2.2
4.1 0.1 0.1
7.9 10.0 1.5 2.9 2.7
0.4 0.0 2.0
1.5 4.0 7.4 1.8
0.4 2.1 7.0
1.0 0.1 5.9 4.3 4.6
0.1
1.2 1.9 2.7 0.0 3.9 3.0
0.8 0.7 1.2 2.0 0.7
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2
1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005
Belize Costa Rica El Salvador Guatemala Honduras Nicaragua Panama

Since drug trafficking organizations would ideally like to drug producers controlled the entire supply chain, it
deliver all the drugs produced to their highest value des- demonstrates that the drugs are not simply percolating
tinations, “spillage” of cocaine into the lower value mar- northward, exchanging hands multiple times. Arrest
kets of transit countries represents a kind of inefficiency, figures suggest that there is very little involvement
often associated with diffuse networks of body couriers within the USA of transit country (Central American)
who are paid in kind rather than cash. Relatively low nationals.
drug use levels among transit countries suggest that drug
flows through this region remain highly organized. Heroin via Central Asia to the Russian Federation

In contrast, trafficking through Central Asia appears to

Share of adults using cocaine in the last year be relatively disorganized. Estimates suggest a small
(age 15-64)
share of heroin bound for Russia is seized (perhaps
3.0
10%), leaving open the possibility that large shipments
2.8
are occurring under cover of corruption. Most of the
2.5 seizures that are made, however, are very small with 95
per cent totalling less than six kg. This amount can be
2.0
purchased in Afghanistan for about US$10,000, well
Per cent

1.5
within the reach of smaller syndicates.
1.2 1.2
1.0 0.9 1.0
0.8
Breakdown of quantities of heroin seized in 1870
0.35 0.4 0.4 0.5 large (100 g+) seizures in the Russian Federation,
0.5
2004-2005
0.0
Honduras

United States
Mexico

El Salvador
Global average

Colombia

Panama
Costa Rica

Nicaragua

Guatemala

1 kg-6 kg
500 gm-1 kg 18%
25%
More than 6 kg
5%

Finally, federal arrest figures in the USA show that the

cocaine trafficking is dominated by syndicates of two
200-499 g
nationalities: Mexican and Colombian. While this indi- 100-199 g
21%
cates less centralisation than would be the case if the 31%

20
 Executive Summary

It would appear that Afghans are involved in bringing Afghanistan to Russia. It appears that the two regions
the drug out of Afghanistan. From there, the heroin are vaguely converging, however - cocaine trafficking
may change hands to Kyrgyz or Kazakh nationals until has become less organized since the days of the Medellin
reaching Kazakhstan, and thereafter Kazakh or Russian and Cali Cartels, and the heroin trade in Afghanistan, is
groups transport it to Russia. It would appear that growing increasingly and is getting more organized.
Kyrgyz and Kazakh nationals are reliant on the Tajik
and Uzbek groups to provide the drugs for further traf-
ficking. In general, transport through the transit zone
often appears to be controlled by the nationals of the
transit zone, with border crossings involving groups of
both states.
Few Tajik nationals are arrested in Kazakhstan for drug
trafficking but a large share of major seizures in Russia
involve Tajik nationals. Of 954 heroin seizures of over
100 grams reported to the UNODC between 1999 and
2004 in which the nationalities of the traffickers were
specified, 252 involved Tajik nationals (26%), operating
either alone or in concert with traffickers of other
nationalities. However, while Tajik groups are important
in both cross-border operations with Afghanistan and
trafficking within Russia, the small numbers arrested in
Kazakhstan leave open the possibility that they do not
control the heroin during the intermediate trafficking
period.

Non-Russian involvement in large Russian heroin

seizures, 1999-2004

Other
Kazakh 4%
Uzbek 2%
3% Exclusively Russian
62%
Kyrgyz
3%

Tajik
26%

Finally, drug use rates have been growing rapidly in

Central Asia, suggesting that the smuggling is indeed
being conducted by a large number of small couriers,
with the possibility that the heroin is sold-on multiple
times before reaching its final destination.
The two examples discussed above highlight two
extremes of a spectrum: on the one hand, the highly
organized groups active in shipping multi-million dollar
consignments of cocaine from Colombia to the USA;
on the other, the many, uncoordinated players who,
responding to market incentives, move heroin from

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