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G.NARAYANAMMA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE

[AUTONOMOUS]
Accredited by NBA & NAAC, Affiliated to JNTUH,
Shaikpet, Hyderabad-104

YEAR : I-B.Tech I & II-SEM A.Y: 2022-2023

BASIC ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING LAB MANUAL

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LIST OF EXPERIMENTS:

PART-A ( Compulsory)
1) Verification of KCL & KVL.

2) Verification of Superposition Theorem with DC Excitation.

3) Verification of Thevenin’s & Norton’s Theorem with DC Excitation.

4) Direct Load Test on Single Phase Transformer.

5) OCC Test on DC Shunt Generator.

6) Torque-Speed characteristics of a 3-Ø Induction Motor by conducting Load

Test.

7) V-I characteristics of PN Junction Diode and Zener Diode.

8) V-I characteristics of SCR.

PART-B (Any two Experiments)

9) Study of different types of Batteries.

10) Determination of Resonant frequency & Bandwidth for a series RLC resonance circuit
11) Output waveforms of Half wave and Full wave bridge Rectifiers.
12) Static input and output characteristics of BJT.

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S.No Date Title of Experiment Page Grade Signature

No
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Additional
Experiment

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EXPERIMENT NO: DATE:

VERIFICATION OF KCL & KVL

AIM:
To verify the Kirchhoff’s laws namely KVL and KCL by conducting suitable experiment
using Resistors on bread board.

APPARATUS :

Equipment Range Quantity

RPS 0-30V 1

Resistor 1 KΩ Required

Ammeter 0-200ma 3

Voltmeter 0-50V 4

BLOCK DIAGRAM :

1KΩ 1KΩ
A
A A

10V
1KΩ 1KΩ

A A
1KΩ
B 1KΩ

Figure 1: Circuit Diagram for KCL

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1KΩ A 1KΩ
B
V1

1KΩ V4 1KΩ
V2
10V V3
D C
1KΩ

1KΩ V7 V5 1KΩ
V6

E F
1KΩ

Figure 2 : Circuit diagram for KVL

THEORY:

Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits. However, when it is coupled with
Kirchhoff’s two laws, we have a sufficient, powerful set of tools for analyzing a large variety of
electric circuits . Kirchhoff’s laws were first introduced in 1847 by the German physicist Gustav
Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887).These laws are formally known as Kirchhoff’s current law
(KCL) and Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).
Kirchhoff’s first law is based on the law of conservation of charge, which requires that the algebraic
sum of charges within a system cannot change.

Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a
node (or a closed boundary) is zero.

Mathematically, KCL implies that

∑𝑁
𝑛=1 𝑖𝑛 = 0
here N is the number of branches connected to the node and is the nth current entering (or leaving) the
node.By this law, currents entering a node may be regarded as positive, while currents leaving the node
may be taken as negative or vice versa.

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Consider the node shown in figure. Applying KCL gives

𝒊𝟏 − 𝒊𝟐 + 𝒊𝟑 + 𝒊𝟒 − 𝒊𝟓 = 𝟎
since currents , and are entering the node, while currents and are leaving it. By rearranging the terms, we
get
𝒊𝟏 + 𝒊𝟑 + 𝒊𝟒 = 𝒊 𝟐 + 𝒊𝟓

The Equation is an alternative form of KCL:

The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the
node.

Kirchhoff’s second law is based on the principle of conservation of energy:

Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a
closed path (or loop) is zero.

Expressed mathematically, KVL states that

where M is the number of voltages in the loop (or the number of branches in the loop) and 𝑉𝑚 is the mth
voltage. To illustrate KVL, consider the circuit shown in figure. The sign on each voltage is the polarity
of the terminal encountered first as we travel around the loop. We can start with any branch and go
around the loop either clockwise or counter clockwise. Suppose we start with the voltage source and go
clockwise around the loop as shown; then voltages would be

−𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 − 𝑽𝟒 + 𝑽𝟓 = 𝟎 Or 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟒 = 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 + 𝑽𝟓

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Which may be interpreted as

Sum of the Voltage Rise = Sum of the Voltage drops.

PROCEDURE:

a) Verification of KCL
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram 1.
2. Measure the currents at nodes A and B using the ammeters provided.
3. Note down and tabulate the readings of ammeter currents at two nodes.
4. At any instant of time the sum of incoming currents should be equal to outgoing currents.

Input Voltage Currents at Node A (ma) Currents at Node B (ma)

(V)
𝐼1 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 𝐼3 𝐼4 + 𝐼5

10

15

b) Verification of KVL
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram 2.
2. Measure the voltages across the closed loop ABCDA and DCFED with the help of voltmeters.
3. Tabulate the readings

Input Voltage drops in loop Voltage drops in loop

Voltage ABCDA DCFED
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3 𝑉4 𝑉3 𝑉5 𝑉6 𝑉7

10

15

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THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS:

RESULT :

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EXPERIMENT NO: DATE:

VERIFICATION OF SUPERPOSITION THEOREM WITH DC EXCITATION

AIM: Experimental Verification of Superposition Theorem with DC Excitation.

APPARATUS:

S.No Equipment Range Quantity

1 Regulated Power Supply(RPS) 0-30V 1

2 Resistors 2.2KΩ 2

3 Resistors 1KΩ 3

4 Ammeter 0-200 mill amperes 1

5 Connecting Wires ------ Required

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

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CASE 1: When only 10V is Active and 20 V is Short-circuited

CASE 2: When 20V is Active and 10V is Short-circuited.

CASE 3: When both 10V and 20V is active.

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THEORY:
Statement : “The superposition theorem for electrical circuits states that for a linear system
the response (voltage or current) in any branch of a bilateral linear circuit having more than
one independent source equals the algebraic sum of the responses caused by each independent
source acting alone, where all the other independent sources are replaced by their
internal impedances”.
To ascertain the contribution of each individual source, all of the other sources first must be
"turned off" (set to zero) by:

 Replacing all other independent voltage sources with a short circuit (thereby eliminating
difference of potential i.e. V=0; internal impedance of ideal voltage source is zero (short
circuit)).
 Replacing all other independent current sources with an open circuit (thereby eliminating
current i.e. I=0; internal impedance of ideal current source is infinite (open circuit)).
This procedure is followed for each source in turn, and then the resultant responses are added
to determine the true operation of the circuit. The resultant circuit operation is the
superposition of the various voltage and current sources.
The superposition theorem is very important in circuit analysis. It is used in converting any
circuit into its Norton equivalent or Thevenin equivalent.
The theorem is applicable to linear networks (time varying or time invariant) consisting of
independent sources, linear dependent sources, linear passive elements
(resistors, inductors, capacitors) and linear transformers.
Superposition works for voltage and current but not power. In other words, the sum of the
powers of each source with the other sources turned off is not the real consumed power. To
calculate power we first use superposition to find both current and voltage of each linear
element and then calculate the sum of the multiplied voltages and currents.

PROCEDURE:
1) Make the connections as per the circuit diagram given in Case 1.
2) Set the voltage V1=10volts and V2=0 volts or short-circuited it and note down the
reading of ammeter and mark it as I1.
3) Now apply the voltage on secondary side say V2=20V and short-circuit the other
side as shown in Case 2 and note down the reading of ammeter and call it as I2.
4) Apply the voltage on both sides as shown in Case 3 and note down the ammeter
reading as I.
5) The current measured in Case 3 that is I= I1 + I2 then the superposition theorem is
verified experimentally.

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TABULAR COULMN:

Voltage (V1) Voltage (V2) Current (I1) Current (I2) Current (I)

10 0 ----------- ---------

0 20 ------------- ---------

10 20 ------------- -------------

THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS:

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PRECAUTIONS:
1) Before Switch on the power supply of RPS make sure that Voltage knob of RPS is
in minimum position.
2) Avoid any loose connections on breadboard.

RESULT:
The Experimental Verification of Superposition Theorem is carried out and the
corresponding tabulated readings are compared with Theoretical calculations to validate it.

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EXPERIMENT NO: 3 DATE:

VERFICATION OF THEVENINS & NORTONS THEOREMS WITH DC

EXCITATION
AIM: Experimental Verification of Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem Equivalent circuits
with a suitable Circuit diagram.

APPARATUS:

S.No Equipment Range Quantity

1 Regulated Power Supply(RPS) 0-30V 1

2 Resistors 2.2KΩ 3

3 Resistors 1KΩ 2

4 Load Resistance 470Ω 1

5 Ammeter 0-200 mill amperes 1

6 Connecting Wires ------ Required

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

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THEVENIN’S THEOREM:

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THEORY:
Statement: “Any linear electric network with voltage and current sources and resistances only
can be replaced at by an equivalent voltage source Vth in series connection with an equivalent
resistance Rth “.

1. The equivalent voltage Vth is the voltage obtained at terminals T1 & T2 of the network
with terminals T1 & T2 open circuited.
2. The equivalent resistance Rth is the resistance that an open circuit replaced the circuit
between terminals T1 & T2 would have if a short circuit replaced all ideal voltage
sources in the circuit and all ideal current sources are open circuited.

Thevenin’s theorem can be used as another type of circuit analysis method and is
particularly useful in the analysis of complicated circuits consisting of one or more voltage or
current source and resistors that are arranged in the usual parallel and series connections.

PROCEDURE:

1) Make the connections as shown in circuit diagram to determine Rth..Here Rth

remains the same independent of input voltage.
2) Now apply a particular voltage for Vth circuit, determine Open circuit voltage or
Thevenin voltage, and tabulate the results as shown below.
3) After determining Vth & Rth for a particular voltage value form an Thevenin’s
Equivalent circuit and measure the current Il.
4) Determine the current in main circuit diagram and name it as Il
5) If the current measured in Il & Il are found equal then Thevenin’s theorem is
verified experimentally.
6) Repeat the steps 2,3,4 & 5 for different values of input voltage.

TABULAR COLUMN:

Input Voltage Open circuit Thevenin’s Equivalent Main circuit

voltage (Vth) Resistance (Rth) circuit current current

5V

10V --------------------

15V --------------------

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THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS:

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NORTONS THEOREM:

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THEORY:
Statement: “Any linear electric network with voltage and current sources and resistances only
can be replaced at by an equivalent current source IN in parallel connection with an equivalent
resistance RN“.

3. The equivalent short circuit current Isc is the current obtained at terminals T1 & T2 of
the network with terminals T1 & T2 short-circuited.
4. The equivalent resistance RN is the resistance that an open circuit replaced the circuit
between terminals T1 & T2 would have if a short circuit replaced all ideal voltage
sources in the circuit and all ideal current sources are open circuited.

Norton’s theorem can be used as another type of circuit analysis method and is particularly
useful in the analysis of complicated circuits consisting of one or more current source and
resistors that are arranged in the usual parallel and series connections.

PROCEDURE:

7) Make the connections as shown in circuit diagram to determine RN..Here RN

remains the same independent of input voltage.
8) Now apply a particular voltage for Isc circuit, determine Short circuit current or
Norton’s current, and tabulate the results as shown below.
9) After determining Isc & RN for a particular voltage value form an Norton’s
Equivalent circuit and measure the current Il.
10) Determine the current in main circuit diagram and name it as Il
11) If the current measured in Il & Il are found equal then Norton’s theorem is verified
experimentally.
12) Repeat the steps 2,3,4 & 5 for different values of input voltage.

TABULAR COLUMN:

Input Voltage Short circuit Norton’s Equivalent Main circuit

current (Isc) Resistance (RN) circuit current current

5V

10V --------------------

15V --------------------

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THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS:

RESULT: The experimental verification of Thevenins & Nortons theorem for DC excitation
is done by comparing the Practical values with Theoretical calculations by validating it with
tabular column.

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EXPERIMENT NO: DATE:

DIRECT LOAD TEST ON 1-Ø TRANSFORMER

AIM :
To conduct the load test on given single phase transformer for finding the Efficiency and its
Regulation.
APPARATUS:

S.No Equipment Type Range Quantity

1 Ammeters MI (0-10A) 1
(0-20A) 1
2 Voltmeters MI (0-150V) 1
(0-300V) 1
3 Wattmeter’s UPF 150V,20A 1
300V,10A 1
4 Auto 1-Ø 0-270V 1
Transformer
5 Load bank Resistive 0-15A 1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Figure 1: Direct Load Test on 1-Ø Transformer

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THEORY:

A transformer is a static piece of equipment used either for raising or lowering the voltage of an
a.c. supply with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. It essentially consists of two
windings, the primary and secondary, wound on a common laminated magnetic core . The winding
connected to the a.c. source is called primary winding (or primary) and the one connected to load is
called secondary winding (or secondary). The alternating voltage V1 whose magnitude is to be
changed is applied to the primary. Depending upon the number of turns of the primary (N1) and
secondary (N2), an alternating e.m.f. E2 is induced in the secondary. This induced e.m.f. E2 in the
secondary causes a secondary current I2. Consequently, terminal voltage V2 will appear across the
load. If V2 > V1, it is called a step up-transformer. On the other hand, if V2 < V1, it is called a step-
down transformer.

1. Efficiency:
The efficiency of transformer calculates from the input power from 𝑊1 and output power from 𝑊2 .

Input power to the transformer = 𝑊1 = 𝑉1 𝐼1 .

Output power to the transformer = 𝑊2 = 𝑉2 𝐼2 .
For the lamp load, we will assume the power factor is one.
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Therefore Efficiency of Transformer ƞ = 𝑋 100
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑊
Ƞ = 𝑊2 𝑋 100
1

2. Voltage Regulation
No load secondary voltage = 𝐸2
Secondary voltage at a particular load = 𝑉2

𝑬𝟐 −𝑽𝟐
Therefore, Voltage Regulation = 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑬𝟐

𝑬𝟐 −𝑽𝟐
% V.R = 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎 %
𝑬𝟐

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PROCEDURE:

1. First of all, set up all measuring instrument as shown in circuit diagram.

2. Apply a rated voltage of 115V to the primary of the transformer with the help of variac.
3. For first reading, keep the secondary side of the transformer under no load condition.
4. Increase the load with the step of 25%, 50%, 75%,and 100% till the load current reaches to
the full load value.
5. At each step, note the value of V1, I2 and W1 from primary side and V2, I2, and W2
from secondary side and tabulate them.
6. Bring the entire system to initial conditions and switch off the supply.

TABULAR COLUMN:

S.NO 𝑽𝟏 𝑰𝟏 𝑾𝟏 𝑽𝟐 𝑰𝟐 𝑾𝟐 %ƞ = % Reg =
𝑾𝟐 𝑬𝟐 −𝑽𝟐
𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑾𝟏 𝑬𝟐

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MODEL GRAPH :
.

Load vs efficiency of single phase transformer

RESULT : T h e l o a d t e s t o n s i n g l e p h a s e t r a n s f o r m e r i s d o n e a n d i t s
p er fo r ma nce g r ap hs are p lo t t ed .

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EXPERIMENT NO: DATE:

OCC TEST ON DC SHUNT GENERATOR

AIM:
To determine the magnetization (open circuit) characteristics of DC shunt generator, the
critical field resistance and critical speed.
APPARATUS:

S.No Equipment Range Quantity

1 Ammeter (0-2A) MC 1

2 Voltmeter (0-300V) MC 1

3 Rheostat 290 Ω/2.8A, 2

145Ω/2.8A
4 Tachometer 0-3000 rpm 1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Figure 1: Open Circuit Characteristics of DC Shunt Generator

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THEORY:

Magnetization characteristic of DC shunt generator is defined as “The flux vs field current” graph at
constant speed. Since, the induced emf in DC generator is directly proportional to the flux, at constant
speed, induced emf vs field current can be treated as magnetization characteristic. In this experiment
the characteristic is drawn by separately exciting the field circuit. The magnetization characteristic
can be divided in to the following sections as shown in figure2.

ab: When the field current is zero there will be a small amount of flux due to residual magnetism.
Due to this residual flux a small voltage is induced and that is given as ‘oa’ on the graph. As the
field current is increased the flux increases in direct proportion to it.. In the section ab, the flux
produced and hence the induced voltage increases in proportion to the field current and therefore the
characteristic is a straight line.

bc: At b called the knee point, the core of the field starts getting saturated and the increase in flux or
induced voltage is not in proportion to the current thereafter .At the point c, the core is almost
saturated and any further increase in field current does not produce a change in the flux or EMF.
Hence the characteristic is almost horizontal line beyond ‘c’.

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Critical field resistance: - This is specified for self-excited D.C. Generator ie. D.C shunt generator.
The critical resistance of the field winding is defined as the maximum resistance of the field circuit
above which the generator fails to self-excite at a given speed. This is obtained by drawing a
tangent to the magnetization or open circuit characteristic of the machine (o.c.c) as shown in figure.

Find out the resistance of field winding and draw a straight line “oe” that represents the value of the
field resistance. Let it cut the open circuit characteristic at ‘d’. With this resistance the generator
builds up a max. voltage given by “df’. Increase of this resistance increases the slope and the point
“d” goes lower and finally “od” becomes a tangent. This corresponds to the tangent to the
magnetization characteristic. Thus, the resistance of the field corresponding to the tangent gives the
critical resistance.

For a given resistance of the shunt field corresponding to “od”, suppose the speed of the machine is
decreased. Evidently all the points in the magnetization characteristic move lower and for a
particular speed, “od” becomes a tangent to it. This speed is called the critical speed of the
generator.

PROCEDURE:

1. Choose the proper ranges of meters after noting the name plate details of the given machine
and make the connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Keep the motor field rheostat in the minimum resistance position.
3. Keep the generator field rheostat in the maximum resistance position
4. Observe the speed of the generator using a tachometer and adjust to the rated value (1500
rpm) by varying the motor field rheostat. Keep the same speed throughout the experiment.
5. Note down the terminal voltage of the generator. This is the e.m.f. due to residual magnetism.
6. Increase the generator field current If (ammeter) by gradually moving the rheostat for every
value and note down the corresponding voltmeter reading. Increase the field current till induced
e.m.f is about 120% of rated value or up to saturation.
7. Draw the characteristics of generated emf (Eg) versus field current (If) and Field resistance
line.

8. Draw a tangent to the initial portion of O.C.C from the origin. The slope of this straight line
gives the critical field resistance and also calculates critical speed.

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TABULAR COLUMN:

S.NO Field Current (𝑰𝒇 ) Generated Voltage

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

MODEL GRAPH:

RESULT:
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EXPERIMENT NO: DATE :

TORQUE – SPEED CHARACTERISTICS OF 3-Ø INDUCTION MOTOR

AIM:

To obtain the performance characteristics of a 3 - phase squirrel cage induction motor

by conducting brake test.

APPARATUS:

1. 3-Ø AC SQIM with Mechanical Loading Arrangement.

2. Control Panel with required accessories.
3. Tachometer.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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THEORY:
The load test on 3-phase induction motor is performed to obtain its various characteristics
including efficiency. A belt and brake drum arrangement as shown in the circuit diagram can
load the motor. If S1 and S2 are the tensions provided at the two sides of the belt, then the
load torque is given by

T = (S1 - S2) * 9.81 * R N-m.

Where R is the radius of the brake drum in metre. The mechanical output of the motor is
given by
Pm = 2 * 3.14 * N * T Watt
60
Where N is the speed of the motor in RPM.
The power input to the motor Pi = VL ILwatt
The efficiency of the motor is given by Efficiency = Pm/ Pi.

PROCEDURE :

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OBSERVATION TABLE:

VL W1 W2 Out Power In Put

S. T W % %
I N(rpm) Put Factor power
No (Volts) L (watts) (watts) (Nm) rad/s slip Efficienc
(Amp) powe (cos.)
ey
r

MODEL GRAPHS:

Fig -Performance characteristics curves of 3- Induction Motor

RESULT:
The Performance characteristics of 3-Ø Induction motor are determined by direct loading
method.

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EXPERIMENT NO: DATE:

V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION & ZENER DIODE

AIM:
1. To plot Volt-Ampere Characteristics of Silicon P-N Junction & Zener Diode.
2. To find cut-in Voltage for Silicon P-N Junction diode

APPARATUS:

S.No Equipment Range Quantity

1 DC Regulated Power 0-30V 1

Supply(RPS)
2 Diode IN4007 Si, Zener Diode 2

3 Resistors 1KΩ,10 KΩ 2

4 Digital Voltmeter 0-50V 1

5 Digital Ammeter 0-200 mA 1

6 Bread board 1

7 Connecting Wires ------ Required

SPECIFICATIONS OF SILICON DIODE 1N 4007:

Max Forward Current : 1A

Max Reverse Current : 30µA
Max forward Voltage : 0.8V
Max Reverse Voltage : 1000V
Max Power dissipation : 30mw
Temperature : -65 to 200̊ C

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Forward Bias Condition:

R (0 – 200 mA)

1K


1N4007 (0-20V)

Vin
(0-15V)

Fig (1) – PN Junction forward Bias Condition

Reverse Bias Condition

(0-200A)

10K

1N4007 (0-20V)

Vin
(0-15V)

Fig (2) – PN Junction Reverse Bias Condition

1K(0 – 200 mA) 1 KΩ (0-200mA)

Vin
(0-15V) (0-15V)

Fig (3) – Zener Diode Forward bias condition Fig (4) – Zener Diode Reverse bias condition

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THEORY:
Donor impurities (pentavalent) are introduced into one-side and acceptor impurities into
the other side of a single crystal of an intrinsic semiconductor to form a p-n diode with a junction
called depletion region (this region is depleted off the charge carriers). This region gives rise to a
potential barrier 𝑽𝜸 called Cut- in Voltage. This is the voltage across the diode at which it starts
conducting. The P-N junction can conduct beyond this Potential.
The P-N junction supports uni-directional current flow. If +ve
terminal of the input supply is connected to anode (P-side) and –ve terminal of the input supply is
connected to cathode (N- side) then diode is said to be forward biased. In this condition the height of
the potential barrier at the junction is lowered by an amount equal to given forward biasing voltage.
Both the holes from p-side and electrons from n-side cross the junction simultaneously and constitute
a forward current (injected minority current – due to holes crossing the junction and entering N-side
of the diode, due to electrons crossing the junction and entering P-side of the diode). Assuming
current flowing through the diode to be very large, the diode can be approximated as short-circuited
switch.
If –ve terminal of the input supply is connected to anode (p- side) and +ve terminal of the
input supply is connected to cathode (n-side) then the diode is said to be reverse biased. In this
condition an amount equal to reverse biasing voltage increases the height of the potential barrier at
the junction. Both the holes on p-side and electrons on n-side tend to move away from the junction
thereby increasing the depleted region. However the process cannot continue indefinitely, thus a
small current called reverse saturation current continues to flow in the diode. This small current is
due to thermally generated carriers. Assuming current flowing through the diode to be negligible, the
diode can be approximated as an open circuited switch.

The volt-ampere characteristics of a diode explained by following equation

I =I0 (ev/(ƞvT) _ 1)
Where, I=current flowing in the diode
I0=reverse saturation current
V=voltage applied to the diode
VT=volt-equivalent of temperature=kT/q=T/11,600=26mV(@ room temp).
ƞ=1 (for Ge) and 2 (for Si)
It is observed that Ge diode has smaller cut-in-voltage when compared to Si diode. The reverse
saturation current in Ge diode is larger in magnitude when compared to silicon diode.

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Zener diode is a silicon semiconductor device that permits current to flow in either a forward or
reverse direction. The diode consists of a special, heavily doped p-n junction, designed to conduct
in the reverse direction when a certain specified voltage is reached.
An ideal P-N Junction diode does not conduct in reverse biased condition. A Zener diode
Conducts excellently even in reverse biased condition. These diodes operate at a precise Value of
voltagecalled break down voltage. A Zener diode when forward biased behaves like an ordinary
P-N junction diode. A Zener diode when reverse biased can either undergo avalanche break down
or zener break down.
Avalanche break down:-
If both p-side and n-side of the diode are lightly doped, depletion region at the junction widens.
Application of a very large electric field at the junction may rupture covalent bonding between
electrons. Such rupture leads to the generation of a large number of charge carriers resulting in
avalanche multiplication.
Zener breaks down:-
If both p-side and n-side of the diode are heavily doped, depletion region at the junction reduces.
Application of even a small voltage at the junction ruptures covalent bonding and generates large
number of charge carriers. Such sudden increase in the number of charge carriers results in Zener
mechanism.
Forward bias Condition
The P-N junction supports uni-directional current flow. If +ve terminal of the input supply is
connected to anode ( P-side) and –ve terminal of the input supply is connected the cathode. Then
diode is said to be forward biased.
Reverse bias condition:
If negative terminal of the input supply is connected to anode (p-side) and –ve terminal of the
input supply is connected to cathode (n-side) then the diode is said to be reverse biased.
Cut in voltage of a diode:
It permits current to flow in the forward direction as normal, but will also allow it to flow in
the reverse direction when the voltage is above a certain value the breakdown voltage
known as the Zener voltage. The Zener diode specially made to have a reverse voltage
breakdown at a specific voltage.
If the output waveform tries to exceed the 7.5V limit, the zener diode will “clip-off” the excess
voltage from the input producing a waveform with a flat top still keeping the outputconstant at
+7.5V. Note that in the forward bias condition a zener diode is still a diode and when theAC
waveform output goes negative

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PROCEDURE:
Forward Biased Condition:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig (1) using silicon PN Junction diode.
2. Vary Vf gradually and note down the corresponding readings of If .
3. Step Size is not fixed because of non linear curve and vary the X-axis variable
(i.e. if output variation is more, decrease input step size and vice versa).
4. Tabulate different forward currents obtained for different forward voltages.
Reverse Biased Condition:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig (2) using silicon PN Junction diode.
2. Vary Vr gradually and note down the corresponding readings of Ir .
3. Step Size is not fixed because of non linear curve and vary the X-axis variable
(i.e. if output variation is more, decrease input step size and vice versa).
4. Tabulate different reverse currents obtained for different reverse voltages.

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TABULAR COLUMN:
1. Forward & Reverse bias Condition ( PN Junction Diode)

Supply Forward Forward Supply Reverse Reverse

Voltage ( 𝑽𝒊𝒏 ) Voltage Current Voltage (𝑽𝒊𝒏 ) Voltage Current
across diode through diode across diode through
(𝑽𝒇 ) (𝑰𝒇 ) (𝑽𝒓 ) diode (𝑰𝒓 )

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2. Forward & Reverse Bias Condition (Zener Diode)

Supply Forward Forward Supply Reverse Reverse

Voltage ( 𝑽𝒊𝒏 ) Voltage Current Voltage (𝑽𝒊𝒏 ) Voltage Current
across diode through diode across diode through
(𝑽𝒇 ) (𝑰𝒇 ) (𝑽𝒓 ) diode (𝑰𝒓 )

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MODEL GRAPHS:

Figure: V I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode

Figure : V I Characteristics of Zener Diode

RESULT:

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EXPERIMENT NO: DATE:

V-- I CHARACTERISTICS OF SCR

AIM :
To plot the V-I characteristics of SCR and determine latching , holding current.
APPARATUS:

S.No Equipment Range Quantity

1 SCR Kit 1
2
3
4

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:

The V-I Characteristic of SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier) is the voltage current characteristics.
The current through the SCR varies as the Anode to Cathode terminal voltage and Gate to
Cathode terminal voltage is varied. The graphical representation of current through the SCR and
voltage across the anode to cathode terminal is known as V-I Characteristics of SCR.

To obtain V-I characteristics of SCR, its anode and cathode are connected to the source
through the load. The Gate and cathode are fed through a separate source which is meant to

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provide positive gate current from gate to cathode. The elementary circuit diagram for obtaining

V-I characteristics of SCR is shown above. In the above diagram, Anode and Cathode
terminals A & K are connected to variable voltage source E through Load and Gate terminal G is
connected to the source Es to provide positive gate current through G to K when switch S is
closed. Va and Ia represents the voltage across the anode to cathode terminals and current through
the SCR. A plot between Va and Ia is drawn by varying the source voltage E and noting the
corresponding current through SCR. This plot gives the V-I characteristics of SCR.

PROCEDURE:

MODEL GRAPH:

RESULT:

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EXPERIMENT NO: DATE:

STUDY OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF BATTERIES

AIM :
To study different types of batteries and their applications in electrical applicances.

THEORY:

Battery:
A Battery is a chemical device that stores electrical energy in the form of chemicals and by
means of electrochemical reaction, it converts the stored chemical energy into direct current (DC)
electric energy. Alessandro Volta, an Italian Physicist, invented the first battery in 1800.

Different Types of Batteries

Basically, all the electrochemical cells and batteries are classified into two types:
1. Primary (non-rechargeable)
2. Secondary (rechargeable)
Even though there are several other classifications within these two types of batteries, these
two are the basic types. Simply speaking, Primary Batteries are non-rechargeable batteries
i.e., they cannot be recharged electrically while the Secondary Batteries are rechargeable
batteries i.e., they can be recharged electrically.
Primary Batteries
A Primary Battery is one of the simple and convenient sources of power for several portable
electronic and electrical devices like lights, cameras, watches, toys, radios etc. As they cannot be
recharged electrically, they are of “use it and when discharged, discard it” type.Usually, primary
batteries are inexpensive, light ,weight, small and very convenient to use with relatively no or less
maintenance. Majority of the primary batteries that are used in domestic applications are single cell
type and usually come in cylindrical configuration (although, it is very easy to produce them in
different shapes and sizes).
Common Primary Battery Types

 Most significant development in the battery technology took place during the 1970 – 1990
period. It is during this time, the famous Zinc / Alkaline Manganese Dioxide batteries were
developed and they slowly replaced the older Zinc – Carbon types as the main primary
battery.

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 Zinc – Mercuric Oxide and Cadmium – Mercuric Oxide batteries were also used during this
period but due to the environmental concerns with respect to the usage of Mercury, these
battery types slowly phased out.
 It is during this period, where the development of batteries with Lithium as active anode
material has been started and is considered a major accomplishment due to the high specific
energy and longer shelf life of Lithium batteries over traditional Zinc batteries .
 Lithium batteries are manufactured as button and coin cell for a specific range of
applications (like watches, memory backup, etc.) while larger cylindrical type batteries are
also available.

Secondary Batteries

A Secondary Battery is also called as Rechargeable Battery as they can be electrically recharged
after discharge. The chemical status of the electrochemical cells can be “recharged” to their original
status by passing a current through the cells in the opposite direction of their discharge.
Basically, secondary batteries can be used in two ways:
 In the first category of applications, the secondary batteries are essentially used as energy
storage devices where they are electrically connected to a main energy source and also
charged by it and also supplying energy when required. Examples of such applications are
Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV), Uninterrupted Power Supplies (UPS), etc.
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 The second category of applications of secondary batteries are those applications where the battery
is used and discharged as a primary battery. Once it is completely discharged (or almost completely
discharged), instead of discarding it, the battery is recharged with an appropriate charging
mechanism. Examples of such applications are all the modern portable electronics like mobiles,
laptops, electric vehicles, etc.
Energy Density of secondary batteries are relatively lower than that of primary batteries but have
other good characteristics like high power density, flat discharge curves, high discharge rate, low
temperature performance.Two of the oldest batteries are in fact secondary batteries called the Lead
– Acid Batteries, which were developed in late 1850’s and Nickel – Cadmium Batteries, which
were developed in early 1900’s. Until recent times, there are only two types of secondary batteries.

The first and the most commonly used rechargeable batteries are called Lead – Acid Batteries.
They are based on the Lead – Lead Dioxide (Pb – PbO2) electrochemical couple. The electrolyte
used in these types of batteries is the very common Sulfuric Acid.The second type of the
rechargeable batteries are called Nickel – Cadmium Batteries. They are based on Nickel
Oxyhydroxide (Nickel Oxide) as the positive electrode and Cadmium metal based negative
electrode. Coming to the electrolyte, an alkaline solution of Potassium Hydroxide is used.In the
recent decades, two new types of rechargeable batteries have emerged. They are the Nickel – Metal
Hydride Battery and the Lithium – Ion Battery. Of these two, the lithium – ion battery came out to
be a game changer and became commercially superior with its high specific energy and energy.

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Lead – Acid Batteries

The lead-acid batteries are by far the most popular and most used rechargeable batteries. They have
been a successful product for more than a century. Lead-acid batteries are available in several
different configurations like small sealed cells with capacity of 1 Ah to large cells with capacity of
12,000 Ah.
One of the major applications od lead-acid batteries are in the automotive industry as they are
primarily used as SLI Batteries (Starting, Lighting and Ignition).Other applications of lead-acid
batteries include energy storage, emergency power, electric vehicles (even hybrid vehicles),
communication systems, emergency lighting systems, etc.
The wide range of applications of lead-acid batteries are a result of its wide voltage ranges,
different shapes and sizes, low cost and relatively easy maintenance. When compared to other
secondary battery technologies, lead-acid batteries are the least expensive option for any application
and provide very good performance. Electrical efficiency of lead-acid batteries is between 75 to
80%. This efficiency value them suitable for energy storage (Uninterrupted Power Supplies – UPS)
and electric vehicles.
Lithium – Ion Batteries
 The emergence of lithium-ion batteries in the last couple of decades has been quite phenomenal.
More than 50% of the consumer market has adopted the use of lithium-ion batteries.
Particularly, laptops, mobile phones, cameras, etc. are the largest applications of lithium-ion
batteries.
 Lithium-ion batteries have significantly high energy density, high specific energy and longer
cycle life. Other main advantages of lithium-ion batteries are slow self-discharge rate and wide
range of operating temperatures.

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EXPERIMENT NO: DATE:

SERIES RESONANCE
AIM : Determination of Resonant frequency, Bandwidth and Quality factor for a Series
Resonance circuit.
APPARATUS:

S.No Equipment Range Quantity

1 Series Resonance Kit 1
2 Function Generator 2 MHz 1
3 CRO 30Mhz 1
4 CRO Probes 2

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
Series Resonance circuits are one of the most important circuits used electrical and electronic
circuits. They can be found in various forms such as in AC mains filters, noise filters and also
in radio and television tuning circuits producing a very selective tuning circuit for the receiving
of the different frequency channels.
In a series RLC circuit there becomes a frequency point were the inductive reactance of the
inductor becomes equal in value to the capacitive reactance of the capacitor. In other
words, XL = XC. The point at which this occurs is called the Resonant Frequency point, ( ƒr )
of the circuit, and as we are analysing a series RLC circuit this resonance frequency produces
a Series Resonance.

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Series Resonance Frequency

where: ƒr is in Hertz, L is in Henries and C is in Farads.

Electrical resonance occurs in an AC circuit when the two reactances which are opposite and
equal cancel each other out as XL = XC and the point on the graph at which this happens is were
the two reactance curves cross each other. In a series resonant circuit, the resonant
frequency, ƒr point can be calculated as follows.

We can see then that at resonance, the two reactances cancel each other out thereby making a
series LC combination act as a short circuit with the only opposition to current flow in a series
resonance circuit being the resistance, R. In complex form, the resonant frequency is the
frequency at which the total impedance of a series RLC circuit becomes purely “real”, that is
no imaginary impedance’s exist. This is because at resonance they are cancelled out. So the
total impedance of the series circuit becomes just the value of the resistance and
therefore: Z = R.

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Then at resonance the impedance of the series circuit is at its minimum value and equal only
to the resistance, R of the circuit. The circuit impedance at resonance is called the “dynamic
impedance” of the circuit and depending upon the frequency, XC (typically at high frequencies)
or XL (typically at low frequencies) will dominate either side of resonance as shown below.

Impedance and Current in a Series Resonance Circuit

PROCEDURE:
1. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram. Apply 5V input sinewave from
the Function generator
2. Check the applied voltage value by connecting the probes to the channel 1 of the
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.
3. Determine the Resonant frequency(fr) for the given values of L & C.
4. Observe the output voltage waveform in the channel 2 of CRO by fine tuning
arrangement.
5. Enter the values in a tabular column as given below.
THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS:
1
1) Resonant frequency(Fr) =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

𝑋𝐿
2) Quality factor = .
𝑅

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦(𝐹𝑟)
3) Bandwidth(B.W) =
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
NOTE: The Practical Calculations have to be calculated from the graph paper and these
calculations have to be matched with theoretical calculations.

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TABULAR COLUMN:
Given Input Voltage Vi = 5 Volts

S.No Frequency(Hz) Output Voltage(Vo) 𝑽𝟎

Current (Io = )
𝑹

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RESULT : The behaviour of Series RLC circuit is studied with a suitable example and its
corresponding characteristics are determined.

Theoretical Values Practical Values

Resonant Frequency

Quality factor

Bandwidth

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EXPERIMENT NO: DATE:

HALFWAVE AND FULL WAVE RECTIFIER CIRCUITS

AIM : To Study the Half – wave & Full wave Rectifier circuits and determine its

1. Efficiency

2. Ripple factor

3. Percentage of Regulation

APPARATUS:

S.No Equipment Range Quantity

1 Rectifier Circuit Kit 1
2 Digital Voltmeter 0-50V 1
3 Digital Ammeter 0-200mA 1
4 Connecting Probes Required

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Figure 1 :Half wave circuit without filter

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Figure 2 : Full wave circuit without filter

THEORY:

The conversion of AC into DC is called Rectification. Electronic devices can convert AC power
into DC power with high efficiency

Half wave Rectifier:

Consider the given circuit. Assume the diode to be ideal i.e Vf = 0, Rr = ∞, Rs = 0. During the
positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased and it conducts and hence a current flows through the
load resistor. During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and it is equivalent to an
open circuit, hence the current through the load resistance is zero. Thus the diode conducts only for
one half cycle and results in a half wave rectified output.
Average Value of DC Current:

𝐕𝐦
Similarly 𝐕𝐝𝐜 =
𝛑

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𝐈𝐦 𝐕𝐦
Rms Value of Current: 𝐈𝐫𝐦𝐬 = , 𝐕𝐫𝐦𝐬 =
𝟐 𝟐

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PROCEDURE:

1. Make Connections as per the circuit Diagram.

2. Observe the voltage across the secondary of the transformer.
3. Note down the AC and DC Voltages and currents with No load and full load for
with out filter.
4. Observe the voltage across the secondary of the transformer.
TABULAR COLUMN:

Voltage across the secondary of the transformer 𝐕𝐫𝐦𝐬 = --------------.

Half Wave Rectifier Full Wave Rectifier

Condition
𝑽𝒂𝒄 𝑽𝒅𝒄 𝑰𝒂𝒄 𝑰𝒅𝒄 𝑽𝒂𝒄 𝑽𝒅𝒄 𝑰𝒂𝒄 𝑰𝒅𝒄

No load

Full Load

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THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS:

RESULT:

Parameters Half wave Rectifier Full wave Rectifier

Ripple Factor

Efficiency

Percentage of
Regulation

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EXPERIMENT NO: DATE:

STATIC INPUT AND OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF BJT

AIM : To study the input and output characteristics of transistor in CE configuration.

APPARATUS:

S.No Equipment Range Quantity

1 Rectifier Circuit Kit 1
2 Digital Voltmeter 0-50V 2
3 Digital Ammeter 0-20mA/ 0 - 2
200µA
4 Connecting Probes Required

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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THEORY:

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PROCEDURE:

Input Characteristics

Output Characteristics

MODEL GRAPHS:

Input Characteristics Output Characteristics

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TABULAR COULMN:

VCE = 0V VCE = 5V IB = 20μA IB = 40μA

IB (μA) VBE (V) IB (μA) VBE (V) VCE (V) Ic (mA) VCE (V) Ic (mA)

RESULT:

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