CELLS AND BATTERIES

An electrical battery is one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored

chemical energy into electrical energy. Since the invention of the first battery (or
"voltaic pile") in 1800 by Alessandro Volta, batteries have become a common power
source for many household and industrial applications.

There are two types of batteries: primary batteries (disposable batteries), which

are designed to be used once and discarded, and secondary batteries (rechargeable

batteries), which are designed to be recharged and used multiple times.

The symbol for a battery in a circuit diagram is shown in the diagram above. It

originated as a schematic drawing of the earliest type of battery, a voltaic pile.

Strictly, a battery is a collection of multiple electrochemical cells (or cells, for

short), but in popular usage battery often refers to a single cell.

Primary cell

Primary batteries irreversibly (within limits of practicality) transform chemical

energy to electrical energy. When the initial supply of reactants is exhausted,
energy cannot be readily restored to the battery by electrical means. Primary
batteries can produce current immediately on assembly. Disposable batteries are
intended to be used once and discarded. These are most commonly used in portable
devices that have low current drain, are only used intermittently, or are used well
away from an alternative power source, such as in alarm and communication circuits
where other electric power is only intermittently available. Disposable primary cells
cannot be reliably recharged, since the chemical reactions are not easily reversible
and active materials may not return to their original forms.

Types of primary cells

There are two types of primary cells (i) wet cell and (ii) dry cell

Wet cell

A wet cell battery has a liquid electrolyte. Wet cells were a precursor to dry cells and are
commonly used as a learning tool for electrochemistry.

Electrochemical cell

Dry cell

A dry cell has the electrolyte immobilized as a paste, with only enough moisture in
the paste to allow current to flow. As opposed to a wet cell, the battery can be
operated in any random position, and will not spill its electrolyte if inverted. An
inverted wet cell would leak, while a dry cell would not.
Dry Cell .

Line art drawing of a dry cell

1. brass cap, 2. plastic seal, 3. expansion space, 4. porous cardboard, 5. zinc can, 6.
carbon rod, 7. chemical mixture.

The makeup of a standard dry cell is a zinc anode (negative pole), usually in the
form of a cylindrical pot, with a carbon cathode (positive pole) in the form of a
central rod. The electrolyte is ammonium chloride in the form of a paste next to
the zinc anode. The remaining space between the electrolyte and carbon cathode is
taken up by a second paste consisting of ammonium chloride and manganese dioxide,
the latter acting as a depolariser.

A common dry cell battery is the zinc-carbon battery, using a cell sometimes called
the dry Leclanché cell, with a nominal voltage of 1.5 volts, the same nominal voltage
as the alkaline battery (since both use the same zinc-manganese dioxide
combination).
 SECONDARY CELLS

SECONDARY CELLS

The makeup of a lead-acid battery is shown in the figure below. The container

houses the separate cells. Most containers are hard rubber, plastic, or some other

material that is resistant to the electrolyte and mechanical shock and will

withstand extreme temperatures. The container (battery case) is vented through

vent plugs to allow the gases that form within the cells to escape. The plates in the

battery are the cathodes and anodes that were discussed earlier. The terminals of

the individual cells are connected together by link connectors as shown in figure.

The cells are connected in series in the battery and the positive terminal of one

end cell becomes the positive terminal of the battery. The negative terminal of the

opposite end cell becomes the negative terminal of the battery.

Figure of - Lead-acid battery construction.
Figure of. - Nickel-cadmium cell.

The construction of secondary cell batteries is so similar, that it is difficult to

distinguish the type of battery by simply looking at it. The type of battery must be

known to properly check or recharge the battery. Each battery should have a

nameplate that gives a description of its type.

BATTERY TESTING EQUIPMENT

Battery Testing can be done in more than one way. The most accurate method is

measurement of specific gravity and battery voltage. To measure specific gravity

hydrometer is used, to measure voltage a digital D.C. Voltmeter is used.

The state of charge of a storage battery depends upon the condition of its active

materials, primarily the plates. However, the state of charge of a battery is

indicated by the density of the electrolyte and is checked by a hydrometer, an

instrument which measures the specific gravity (weight as compared with water) of

liquids.

Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a certain amount of a given substance

compared to the weight of the same amount of pure water. The specific gravity of

pure water is 1.0. Any substance that floats has a specific gravity less than 1.0.

Any substance that sinks has a specific gravity greater than 1.0. The active

ingredient in electrolyte (sulfuric acid, potassium hydroxide, etc.) is heavier than

water. Therefore, the electrolyte has a specific gravity greater than 1.0. The

acceptable range of specific gravity for a given battery is provided by the

battery's manufacturer. To measure a battery's specific gravity, use an

instrument called a HYDROMETER

The Hydrometer

A hydrometer, shown in the figure below, is a glass syringe with a float inside it.

The float is a hollow glass tube sealed at both ends and weighted at the bottom

end, with a scale calibrated in specific gravity marked on its side. To test an

electrolyte, draw it into the hydrometer using the suction bulb. Draw enough

electrolyte into the hydrometer to make the float rise. Do not draw in so much

electrolyte that the float rises into the suction bulb. The float will rise to a point

determined by the specific gravity of the electrolyte. If the electrolyte contains a

large amount of active ingredient, its specific gravity will be relatively high. The
float will rise higher than it would if the electrolyte contained only a small amount

of active ingredient.

Figure for. - Hydrometer.

To read the hydrometer, hold it in a vertical position and read the scale at the

point that surface of the electrolyte touches the float

The more dense the electrolyte, the higher the hydrometer will float; therefore,

the highest number on the scale (1.300) is at the lower end of the hydrometer

scale. Hydrometer readings should always be taken before adding distilled water,

never after. This is necessary to allow time for the water to mix thoroughly with

the electrolyte and to avoid drawing up into the hydrometer syringe a sample which

does not represent the true strength of the solution.

Extreme care should be exercised when making the hydrometer test of a lead-acid

cell. The electrolyte should be handled carefully, for sulfuric acid will burn clothing

and skin. If the acid does contact the skin the area should be washed thoroughly

with water and then bicarbonate of soda applied.

State of Charge Specific Gravity Voltage

12V 6V

100% 1.28 12.7 6.3

*75% 1.25 12.4 6.2

50% 1.22 12.2 6.1

25% 1.19 12.0 6.0

Discharged 1.13 11.9 6.0

However it should be remembered that for nickel iron cell the state of charge of

Nickel Iron cell cannot be determined by the specific gravity of the electrolyte

since the electrolyte does not undergo any change in specific gravity during charge

or discharge. Instead, a voltmeter is employed to ascertain whether the cell is

charged up to its rated voltmeter.

BATTERY CAPACITY RATING

The Capacity of a cell is the quantity of electricity which it can give out during

single discharge until its terminal voltage falls to 1.8 volts. There are two ways of

expressing the capacity of a cell the following are two methods of a storage

battery;

1. Ampere hour-is the product of current in amperes and time in hours i.e
 Capacity of a cell= Id x Td ampere-hours (or Ah)

Where Id=Steady discharging current in amperes

Td= Time in hours for which the cell can supply current

2. Watt Hour- is the amount of energy that can be given out during a

single discharge

i.e Watt hour=Vd x Id x Td

Where Vd=Steady discharging voltage in volts

Id= Staedy discharging current in amperes

Td= Time in hours for which the cell can supply energy

The capacity of the cell depends upon the following factors:

(i) Rate of discharge-Higher rate of discharge, less the capacity

(ii) Temperature-Increases with temperature

(iii) Area of plates-Increases with plate area

(iv) Sp. Gravity of electrolyte-Increases with Sp. Gravity

Example

A lead acid cell maintains a constant current of 1.5A for 20 hours before its

terminal voltage falls to 1.8 volts. What is capacity of the cell?

Capacity of Cell= Id x Td=Id x Td=1.5 x 20=30Ah

 Efficiency

There are two ways of expressing the efficiency of a secondary cell viz. (i)

ampere hour efficiency (ii) watt-hour efficiency

1.Ampere-hour efficiency

ηAh= Ampere-hour provided on discharge x 100

Ampere-hour of charge

= Id x Td x 100

Ic x Tc

The ampere-hour efficiency of lead acid cell is about 90%.

2. Watt-hour efficiency,

ηWh= Energy given on discharge x 100

Energy input of charge

= Vd x Id x Td x 100

Vc x Ic x Tc

=Id x Td x 100 x Vd

Ic x Tc Vc

= ηAh x Vd

Vc

The watt-hour efficiency of lead acid cell is about 75%.

Basic Charging Methods

Constant Voltage A constant voltage charger is basically a DC power supply

which in its simplest form may consist of a step down transformer from the

mains with a rectifier to provide the DC voltage to charge the battery. Such

simple designs are often found in cheap car battery chargers. The lead-acid

cells used for cars and backup power systems typically use constant voltage

chargers.

Constant Current Constant current chargers vary the voltage they apply to

the battery to maintain a constant current flow, switching off when the

voltage reaches the level of a full charge. This design is usually used for

nickel-cadmium cells or batteries.

Trickle charge Trickle charging is designed to compensate for the self

discharge of the battery. Continuous charge. Long term constant current

charging for standby use. The charge rate varies according to the frequency

of discharge. Not suitable for some battery chemistries, e.g. NiMH and

Lithium, which are susceptible to damage from overcharging

Float charge. The battery and the load are permanently connected in

parallel across the DC charging source and held at a constant voltage below

the battery's upper voltage limit. Used for emergency power back up

systems. Mainly used with lead acid batteries.

Equalizing Charge
Each cell in a battery is an individual; each has a slight difference in uniformity in

construction and content. The slight differences cause some cells to take less

charge then the other cells in the battery. Over a period of time, the state of

charge of some cells will require more charge then the other cells. To correct this

condition, an equalize charge is given as it extends the charge cycle beyond the

normal 8 hour charge period. This is typically for an additional 3 hours, at a very

low rate. This allows the weaker cells that drift back in capacity and will limit the

battery from delivering its full capacity potential. To bring all the cells back to an

equal state of charge, the battery must be given an equalizing charge. An equalizing

charge should be given at the end of each workweek. This will allow the battery to

become fully charged and provide ample cool down time before the beginning of the

next week.

Charging of Lead Acid batteries

In order to ensure normal life for a battery, it should be maintained in the

charged condition. While charging a battery the following points may be kept in

view:

(i) The charging source must be dc. If ac is available it must be

converted to dc before being applied to the battery.

(ii) Ensure that the polarity is correct the positive terminal of dc

charging source is connected to the positive terminal of the battery

and negative terminal of the charge to the negative terminal of the

battery.

(iii) Charging current should be set at a proper level.

 Indications of a fully charged Cell

During the charging process, it is essential that battery is taken out from the

charging unit as soon as it is fully charged. Overcharging as well as under charging

is undesirable and should always be avoided. The indications of fully charged cell

are;

(i) Voltage- During charging, the terminal voltage of a cell increases and

provides an indication to its state of charge.

(ii) Specific gravity-During the charging process the specific gravity of the

electrolyte (H2So2) increases and provides an important indication to

the state of charge of the cell. The specific gravity of a lead acid cell is

about 1.28.

(iii) Gassing

When a battery is charging, the electrolytic break down of the water in the

electrolyte produces oxygen on the positive plates and hydrogen on the negative

plates. This is normal. However, if a high charging rate is continued after the

battery has been brought to its gassing voltage, the gassing becomes excessive,

and abnormally larger amounts of hydrogen and oxygen gases are produced. The

best indication of excessive gassing is a very noticeable “bubbling” action of the

electrolyte and high electrolyte temperature.

Hydrogen is a highly combustible gas and will explode on ignition when concetration

in air reaches any level between 4 percent and 74 percent. (Below 4% the

concentration is too weak; above 74% there is not enough oxygen left in the air to
support combustion.) If you have reason to suspect excessive gassing, troubleshoot

the battery and charging equipment. An unusually high usage of water indicates

that excessive gassing is occurring.

Colour of Plates- The visual examination of colour of plates of a led acid cell

provides yet another important indication to the state of charge. When the cell is

fully charged the positive plate gets converted into PbO2 (Chocolate brown) and

the negative plate is spongy lead (grey).

Battery Maintenance

    The routine maintenance of a battery is very simple. Terminals should be

checked periodically for cleanliness and good electrical connection. The battery

case should be inspected for cleanliness and evidence of damage. The level of

electrolyte should be checked and if the electrolyte is low, distilled water

should be added to bring the electrolyte to the proper level.

Calculations

When a battery is being charged, its e.m.f acts in opposition to the applied

voltage. The applied voltage V sends a charging current I against the back e.m.f

Eb of the battery.

Charging current, I = V - Eb

R+r

Where R= resistance of rheostat in the circuit

 r= Internal resistance of the battery

Exercise

(i) A 6-cell, 12-V battery is to be charged at a constant rate of 5A from

a 24 V supply. If the e.m.f of each cell at the beginning of charge and

at the end of charge is 1.5V and 2.0V, what should be the maximum

and minimum resistance to be connected in series with the battery?

Resistance of the battery is negligible.

(ii) Calculate the supply voltage necessary for charging a battery of 110

Cells at 30A. (i) at the beginning of charge and (ii) at the end of

charge, if each cell posses p.d of 2.1V at the beginning of charge and

3.7 at the end of charge. The internal resistance of the battery is

0.06Ω. [5]

BATTERY CHARGING EQUIPMENT

The primary duty of all cells and batteries is discharging. Secondary cells require

re-charging generally at a rate which exceeds the discharge rate by 10%. The

normal charging rate is chosen so as to restore a fully discharged battery to full

charge in ten hours.

A charging equipment is a device that restores a fully discharged battery to a

state of full charge. There are three types of charging sources.

1. Motor-generator set

This method consists of a dc generator driven by either a dc or A.C motor.

The output voltage is chosen for the charging duty intended. These sets are

often found in garages. The plant may have an associated switchboard and
 voltage out puts so that different voltages can be charged at different

rates. The board comprises ammeters, voltmeters and resistor adjustments.

2. RECTIFIER

By far the most popular and common method of charging is by rectifier

which operates from ac mains gives a dc output. Rectifiers are obtainable

with a wide range of output voltages and currents. However two points must

be observed when using a rectifier battery charger. First, it must not be

overloaded; second care must be taken to see that the highest voltage from

the cells or batteries in their fully charged condition does not exceed the

rectifier output voltage.

3. D.C Mains

When charging cells from dc mains supply, it is possible to contact a large

number of cells to the charging source provided that the cells require the

same charging current. The voltage of a dc source can be reduced by

inserting a series resistor variable resistance.

Battery Maintenance

The average life of a lead-acid battery is two to four yerss depending upon

its quality and the kind of care exercised in its use. This type of cell

requires considerable attention.

(i) Keep the top of the battery clean and dry. To prevent corrosion

and leakage current keep top of the battery clean and dry at all times.

(ii) Keep the electrolyte at the proper level. The electrolyte must also

be maintained at the correct level and specific gravity. The

 electrolyte is topped with the distilled water if the level of the

electrolyte falls too low to expose the plates, air will attack the plates

causing hydration.

(iii) Do not leave the battery in a discharged condition for a long

period. If left in a discharged condition for a long period, a coating of

hard lead sulphate may form on the plates. The sulphate coating

cannot be converted to active materials and the battery is

permanently damaged. The action is commonly known as sulphation and

may also be caused due to excessive heat and too much concentration

of sulphuric acid in the electrolyte.

(iv) Do not short-circuit the battery: since the internal resistance of a

lead acid battery is very small (typical value being 0.01Ω) a short

circuit will give a damaging current of several hundred amperes. This

may cause the plates to buckle, thus ruining the battery.