Lecture notes on Anatomy & Physiology

Collage of health science

Plasma university
CHAPTER FIVE
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Introduction:

Nervous system, are group of cells specialized for the conduction of electrochemical
stimuli from sensory receptors through a network to the site at which a response occurs.

Nervous system is a complex network of a nerve and cells that carry messages to and
from the brain and spinal cord to various parts of a body.

The nervous system detects and responds to changes inside and outside the body.
Together, with the endocrine system, it controls many vital aspects of body function and
maintains homeostasis.

As a fetus in the womb, neurons develop at the rate of 250,000 per minute. We have
about 100 billion nerve cells in our brain by adulthood, yet we typically use around 4%
at any given time. Neurons are our largest cells.

Types of nervous system

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Lecture notes on Anatomy & Physiology
Collage of health science
Plasma university
A neuron is a cell that carries electrical impulses. Neurons are the basic units of the
nervous system and its most important part is the brain. Every neuron is made of a cell
body (also called a soma), dendrites and an axon.

Structure of nerve cell

 Axon
 Cell body
 Dendrites

Types of nerve cells

1. Nerve cell: regulation and transmission of nerve impulses

2. Neuroglia cell: protection and support

Classification of nerve cells according to:

a. Structure b. Function

 Unipolar  sensory neuron

 Bipolar  motor neuron
 Multipolar  inter neuron

Reflex arch

1. Receptor
2. Sensory neuron
3. Interneuron
4. Motor neuron
5. Effector organ

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Lecture notes on Anatomy & Physiology
Collage of health science
Plasma university
Structure of nerve cell

The cell body: also called the soma, is the spherical part of the neuron that contains
the nucleus. The cell body connects to the dendrites, which bring information to the
neuron, and the axon, which sends information to other neurons.

Neurons have specialized projections called dendrites and axons. Dendrites bring
information to the cell body and axons take information away from the cell body.
Information from one neuron flows to another neuron across a synapse.

The nerve impulse (action potential)

The cell membrane separates the inside of a cell (all cells, not just neurons) from the
outside, and all chemicals that get into and out of the cell must go through it. As in all
cells, the cell membrane of a neuron is polarized. This means that there is an electrical
difference across the cell membrane.

When an electrical stimulus is given to a nerve fiber, an action potential is generated.

The membrane becomes permeable to sodium ions than to potassium ions. This results
into positive charge inside and negative charge outside the nerve fiber.

Synapse or neuro junction

A junction between two nerve cells, consisting of a minute gap across which impulses
pass by diffusion of a neurotransmitter.

When a nerve impulse reaches the synapse at the end of a neuron, it cannot pass directly
to the next one. Instead, it triggers the neuron to release a chemical neurotransmitter.

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Lecture notes on Anatomy & Physiology
Collage of health science
Plasma university
Some Neurotransmitters

1. THE HUMAN BRAIN

The brain is a delicate nervous organ which is enclosed in bony structure called skull or
cranium. It’s enveloped by a system of protective membranes called meninges.

The brain receives about 15% of the cardiac output, approximately 750ml of blood per
minute.

The meninges consist of:

a.

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Lecture notes on Anatomy & Physiology
Collage of health science
Plasma university
The human brain is divided into three major regions:

1. forebrain (frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe and temporal lobe),
2. midbrain and
3. Hindbrain. Each of these regions consist of various parts
I. The fore brain.

The fore brain consist of:

a. cerebrum,
b. the thalamus,
c. hypothalamus and
d. The pituitary gland.
 The cerebrum is a highly developed part consisting of left and right cerebral
hemispheres. It is important for integration of sensory impulses such as vision, hearing
and test. It controls voluntary body movements e.g. limbs, lips and neck. This part of
the brain also controls learning, memory and human individuality.
 The thalamus is an important relay Centre. It contains receptors for pain and
pleasure.
 The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus.
It has receptors for hemostatic functions such as thermoregulation and
osmoregulation. It also controls appetite and sleep.
 Pituitary gland is attached to the hypothalamus and projects downwards from it.
It is the master of endocrine glands controlling the rest of endocrine glands and
weighting about 500mg in the forebrain

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Lecture notes on Anatomy & Physiology
Collage of health science
Plasma university
The pituitary gland is divided into two:

1. Anterior pituitary gland and

 75%
 Originated from Adenohypophysis
 Epithelial cell
 Upward extension
 Production of hormone responsible

Anterior pituitary gland produce six peptide hormones

 GH-growth hormone
 Prolactin milk hormone responsible
 TSH thyroid stimulating hormone
 FSH Follicle stimulating hormone
 LH luteinizing hormone
 ACTH adreno corticotrophin hormone

Cells of anterior pituitary gland

 Somatotropin cells (growth hormone)

 Lacto tropic cells ( prolactin)
 Thyrotrophic cells (TSH)
 Gonadotropic cells (FSH & LH)
 Corticotrophin cells (ACTH)

The cells are divided into two main:

1. Chromophobic (colour hate 50%)

2. Chromophilic (colour loving 50%)

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 Lecture notes on Anatomy & Physiology
Collage of health science
Plasma university
a. Acidophilic (red 10%)
b. Basophilic (blue 40%)
2. Posterior pituitary gland
 25%
 Originated from neuro hypothesis
 Neuron/nerve cell
 Down ward extension
 Storage of hormones responsible

Posterior pituitary gland storage are:-

1. Oxytocin
2. ADH
II. The mid brain.

The midbrain it is the connecting stalk between the forebrain and the hindbrain. It relays
impulse between nerves from the spinal cord and the forebrain.

III. The hind brain

The major parts of the hind brain are:

 Cerebellum and
 Medulla oblongata.

The cerebellum’s main function is maintenance of body balance and posture.

The medulla oblongata controls involuntary body activities such as breathing,

swallowing, salivation and vomiting. It also controls the dilation and constriction of blood
vessels.

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 Lecture notes on Anatomy & Physiology
Collage of health science
Plasma university
CRANIAL NERVES

There are 12 in number and they include:-

 Sensory neuron
 Motor neuron
 Mixed neuron

On occasion our trust truck acts funny very good vehicle any how

Figure: Cranial nerves

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 Lecture notes on Anatomy & Physiology
Collage of health science
Plasma university
THE 12 CRANIAL NERVES

I. Olfactory nerves (Sensory): there are the nerves of the sense of smell, their
sensory receptor originate in the upper part of the mucus membrane of the nasal
cavity.
II. Optic nerves (Sensory): these are the nerves of the sense of sight. The fibers
originate in the retinae of the eyes and they continue to form the optic nerves.
III. Oculomotor nerves (motor): these nerves arises from nuclei near the cerebral
aqueduct and they supply:
 Four of the six extrinsic muscles which move the eyeball i.e. superior, medial and
inferior recti and the inferior oblique (see table 8.1, p. 198)
 The intrinsic (intraocular) muscles:
-ciliary muscles which alter the shape of the lens, changing its refractive power.
- Circular muscles of the iris, which contract the pupil.
IV. Trochlear nerves (motor): these nerves arise from nuclei near the cerebral
aqueduct. They supply the superior oblique muscles, of the eyes.
V. Trigeminal nerves (mixed): these nerves contain motor and sensory fibers and are
among the largest of the cranial nerves. They are the chief sensory nerves for the
face and head (including the oral and nasal cavities and teeth), receiving impulses of
pain, temperature and touch. The motor fibers stimulate the muscles of mastication.
As the name suggests, there are three main branches of the trigeminal
nerves.
 The ophthalmic nerves are sensory only and supply the lacrimal glands, conjunctiva
of the eyes, forehead, eyelids, and anterior aspectu9

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Lecture notes on Anatomy & Physiology
Collage of health science
Plasma university
THE SPINAL CORD

The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular structure made up of nervous tissue that extends
from the medulla oblongata in the brainstem to the lumbar region of the vertebral column.
It encloses the central canal of the spinal cord that contains cerebrospinal fluid.

Structure of Vertebra

The vertebral column is a series of approximately 33 bones called vertebrae, which

are separated by intervertebral discs. The column can be divided into five different
regions, with each region characterized by a different vertebral structure.

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Lecture notes on Anatomy & Physiology
Collage of health science
Plasma university

Function of spinal cord

Spinal cord does three types of functions:

 It carries sensory signals from body parts to your brain. It also returns message signals
of motion from your brain to your body parts.
 It performs reflexive actions. Reflex is a quick, automatic response to a stimulus

– Sneezing and blinking

– Allows your body to respond to danger immediately without thinking

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Lecture notes on Anatomy & Physiology
Collage of health science
Plasma university
Reflex ach

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Lecture notes on Anatomy & Physiology
Collage of health science
Plasma university

Nerve Plexus

The spinal nerves exit the spinal cord and pass through the intervertebral foramen, then
divides into four branches, or networks, called plexuses of mixed nerves.

 Cervical Plexus: the cervical plexus supply the neck and shoulders
 Brachial Plexus: the brachial plexus supplies the arm and upper back
 Lumbar Plexus: lumbar plexus supplies the abdomen and leg muscles
 Sacral Plexus: the sacral plexus provides nerves to the back of the thigh, most
of the lower leg, the entire foot in part of the pelvis.

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Lecture notes on Anatomy & Physiology
Collage of health science
Plasma university
The peripheral nervous system

The peripheral nervous system consists of all the nerves and associated cells that are not
part of the brain or spinal cord.

Cranial nerves go through openings in the skull and stimulate regions of the head and
neck. Spinal nerves stimulate the rest of the body.

The peripheral nervous system consists of two major divisions, the sensory division
and the motor division.

The Sensory Division

The sensory division of the peripheral nervous system sends impulses from sense organs
(fingers, eyes) to the central nervous system (spinal cord and brain)

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Lecture notes on Anatomy & Physiology
Collage of health science
Plasma university
Sensory receptors are cells that send information about changes in the internal and
external environment. These changes are called stimuli.

Sensory receptors are categorized by the type of stimuli to which they respond.

When stimulated, sensory receptors send impulses to sensory neurons.

SENOSRY = Receptors → Neurons → CNS

The Motor Division

The motor division of the peripheral nervous system transmits impulses from the central
nervous system to muscles or glands.

MOTOR= CNS → Neurons → Muscles or Glands

These messages are relayed through one of two divisions, the somatic nervous system
or the autonomic nervous system.

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Lecture notes on Anatomy & Physiology
Collage of health science
Plasma university
Somatic Nervous System

The somatic nervous system regulates body activities that are under conscious
control, such as the movement of skeletal muscles.

Most of the time you have control over skeletal muscle movement, but when your body
is in danger the central nervous system may take over.

Voluntary Control

Voluntary movement uses motor neurons of the somatic nervous system.

Impulses originating in the brain are carried through the spinal cord, where they synapse
with the dendrites of motor neurons. The axons from these motor neurons extend from
the spinal cord carrying impulses directly to muscles, causing the contractions that
produce voluntary movements

Reflex Arcs

Although the somatic nervous system is generally considered to be under conscious

control, some actions of the system occur automatically.

For example, if you accidentally step on a tack with your bare foot, your leg may recoil
before you are even aware of the pain.

Is this voluntary or involuntary?

This rapid response (a reflex) is caused by impulses that travel a pathway known as a
reflex arc.

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Lecture notes on Anatomy & Physiology
Collage of health science
Plasma university
Reflex arch process

1. Sensory receptors react to the sensation of the tack and send an impulse to sensory
neurons.
2. Sensory neurons relay the information to the spinal cord.
3. An interneuron in the spinal cord processes the information and forms a response.
4. A motor neuron carries impulses to its effector, a muscle that it stimulates.
5. The muscle contracts and your leg moves.

Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system regulates activities that are involuntary, or not under
conscious control.

For instance, when you start to run, the autonomic nervous system speeds up your heart
rate and blood flow to the skeletal muscles, stimulates the sweat glands, and slows down
the contractions of smooth muscles in the digestive system.

The autonomic nervous system consists of two parts, the sympathetic nervous system
and the parasympathetic nervous system.

In general, the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems have opposite effects on each
organ.

For example, heart rate is increased by the sympathetic nervous system but decreased
by the parasympathetic nervous system.

Are these voluntary, involuntary or both?

Sympathetic system prepares the body for intense activity.

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Lecture notes on Anatomy & Physiology
Collage of health science
Plasma university
Causes an increase in blood pressure, the release of energy-rich sugar into the blood,
and the shutting down of activities not related to the body’s preparation to “fight or flee”
in response to stress.

Parasympathetic system causes the “rest and digest” response.

It lowers heart rate and blood pressure, activates digestion, and activates pathways that
store food molecules in the tissues of the body.

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Lecture notes on Anatomy & Physiology
Collage of health science
Plasma university

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