Dr.

Mohamed Ali Omer Rahoum

University of Khartoum
Faculty of Medicine

The Coordination system

For the Preliminary Medicine
Students

Compiled by

Dr. Mohamed Ali Omer Rahoum

Department of Zoology
Faculty of Science
University of Khartoum

February 2020

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The coordination system

Coordination is a process that controls different body parts activities and make
them work together in harmony. This process is done by the neurosensory system,
the endocrine system and the effectors (response organs).
Neurosensory system:
Is the system that makes the animal feels the environmental changes (stimuli),
interacts and responds to them in a way that makes the animal capable to orients
itself in the right way. The neurosensory system consists of the nervous system and
the sense organs. The basic building unit of the nervous system are the nerve cells
(neurons).
Nervous tissue:
It originates from the embryonic ectoderm. The nervous tissue structural unit
is the nerve cell (neuron) which consists of a cell body (perikaryon). The cell body
contains the cytoplasm, Nissl bodies, nerve fibrils and nerve processes (cytoplasmic
processes). Nerve cells may group together and enveloped by a connective tissue
called perineurium forming a nerve bundle. Nerve bundles may group together and
enveloped by a connective tissue called epineurium forming a nerve.
Classification of nerve cells:
Nerve cells (neurons) are classified according to their structure or
function to:
Classification of nerve cells according to their structure
Nerve cells are classified according to their structure to:
1\ Unipolar neurons:
Unipolar neuron is a nerve cell with a rounded cell body having a single
cytoplasmic process. This type is found in lower vertebrates, in sensory spinal
ganglia and in most cranial ganglia.
2\ Bipolar neurons:
These are nerve cells with two cytoplasmic processes, one of them is a
dendrite and the other is an axon. This type is found in vertebrates embryos, in the
retina of the eye and in the olfactory mucosa of vertebrates.
3\ Multipolar neurons:
These are nerve cells with polygonal cell body, many dendrites and an axon.
The axon may be myelinated or not. This type forms the motor nerves of adult
vertebrates.
4\ Pseudounipolar neurons:
Are similar to the unipolar neurons but the single cytoplasmic process divides
to two parts, one of them is ramified to dendrites and the other is an axon. It
constitute the sensory neurons in vertebrates.
Classification of neurons according to their function:
Here the neurons are classified into three types:

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1\ Motor neurons (efferent neurons):

These are nerve cells transmitting nerve impulses from the CNS to the
effectors (e.g. muscles). The cell bodies and dendrites of these neurons are found
inside the CNS while their axons come out from the CNS through the ventral root
and extend to the effectors on which they end as nerve endings.
2\ Sensory neurons (afferent neurons):
These are nerve cells transmitting nerve impulses from the sense organs to the
CNS. The cell bodies of these neurons are found outside the CNS and their axons
extend from the CNS to sense organs on which they end as nerve endings. The
dendrites of these neurons inter the CNS from the dorsal root of the spinal cord.
3\ Interneurons (relay neuron):
These are neurons found inside the CNS between the dendrites of the sensory
neurons and motor neurons. These neurons have many dendrite but they lack axons.

The nervous system:

In the ancient vertebrates ancestor, the nervous system consists of two parts
that are not or poorly tied to each other. These parts are the somatic nervous system
and the visceral nervous system. In the ancient ancestor, the somatic nervous system
does not control the visceral nervous system, as is the case in the extant (present)
vertebrates. However, there are some evidences that show a degree of visceral
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nervous system independence to somatic nervous system in all extant vertebrates.

For example, the alimentary canal may responds to some stimuli in a way that is
independent to the somatic nervous system.
The somatic nervous system:
This system is located in the outer part of the body and responds to the external
stimuli. It originates as an invagination in the mid dorsal side of the embryonic
ectoderm forming the neural plate which folds upward to form the neural tube (nerve
tube). The anterior part of the neural tube enlarged and elaborated forming the brain
and the rest part slightly thickened forming the spinal cord (nerve cord). The somatic
nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral
nervous system. The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord.
The CNS is the system that processes and coordinates sensory information conveyed
to it from the different parts of the body, and generate and convey motor commands
to the response organs. The CNS is known to be the site of the complicated
vertebrates functions such as memory, intelligence, learning and emotions. On the
other hand, the peripheral nervous system consists of neural tissue located outside
the CNS and it is responsible for conveying sensory information from the sensory
organs to the CNS and the motor commands from the CNS to the response organs.
Types of the CNS commands:
There are two kinds of commands
1\ The voluntary motor commands: Are the commands that are under the control
of will (controlled by the somatic nervous system) like locomotion and speaking.
2\ The involuntary motor commands: Are the commands that are not under the
control of will (controlled by the autonomic nervous system) like digestion and heart
beats.
The Vertebrates brain:
The general plan of the brain structure is the same in all vertebrates from fishes
to mammals, but the different parts of the brain are specialized and complicated to a
certain degree in different vertebrates groups. The development and the evolution of
the brain is generally directed towards the increase in the complications and
elaboration, especially in the cerebrum and the cerebellum. At early embryonic
development of vertebrates, the anterior portion of the neural tube is differentiated
and enlarges to form the brain and the rest of the tube forms the spinal cord. In the
developing brain, three locations are differentiated to form the prosencephalon (fore
brain), the mesencephalon (mid brain) and the rhombencephalon (hindbrain).

1\ Fore brain (prosencephalon):

The fore brain consists of two differentiated parts, the telencephalon, which
forms the anterior part and the diencephalon or thalamencephalon, which forms the
posterior part.
a\ Telencephalon: It consists of two olfactory lobes and two cerebral hemispheres
(cerebrum). These cerebral hemispheres contains the basal nuclei (corpus striatum),
the cerebral cortex (pallium) and the first and second lateral ventricles which are
connected to the third ventricle by a canal.
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The origin of the nervous system

The structure and evolution of cerebral hemispheres (cerebrum):

The cerebrum formed from white matter, which is primarily, formed from
myelinated axons that connects the different parts of the brain.
The evolution of the brain from the vertebrate ancestor up to the primitive
mammals is concentrated on the coordination of olfactory information. This is
because the sense of olfaction is the dominant sense in all vertebrates except in bony
fishes and birds. For this reason, in animals like cartilaginous fishes and amphibians,
the olfactory lobes occupys most of the cerebrum. This reflects the important role of
the cerebrum in olfaction and so the cerebrum becomes specialized to olfactory
function. In most vertebrates, the cerebrum divides to right and left cerebral
hemispheres.
The cerebral hemispheres begin as foci of olfactory receptors during the
evolution of vertebrates. In cyclostomes, the olfactory lobes and the cerebral
hemispheres are olfactory centers. At the beginning of tetrapod evolution the
cerebral hemispheres enlarged and became the important center for sensation and
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coordination, and in mammals they became the center of the complicated processes.
In the primitive vertebrates the cerebral tissue consists of paleopallium. In
amphibians, the cerebral hemispheres tissue divides into three regions:
1\ Basal nuclei region: This region is found on the ventral side of the cerebrum. It
is a primitive coordination center in amphibians, but in all vertebrates higher than
amphibians it becomes highly important as an advanced center known in birds and
mammals as corpus striatum.

2\ Paleopallium region: This region is found on the lateral side of the cerebrum. It
is of an olfactory function in all vertebrates.

3\ Archipallium region: This region is found on the mid dorsal side of the
cerebrum. This region acts as a minor coordination center in all vertebrates. In
mammals, this region is represented by the hippocampus.
These three regions receive olfactory stimuli and are connected to each other
and to the brain stem (mid brain, pons and medulla oblongata) by nerve fibers.
During the evolution of vertebrates the grey matter of both paleopallium and
archipallium tends to creep outward forming the cerebral cortex (pallium), while the
basal nuclei region tends to creep inwards. In amphibians and sharks, the grey matter
of the three regions stays inside. In reptiles the cerebral hemispheres became large,
more developed, complicated and well organized than their condition in amphibians.
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In these reptiles some grey matter of the paleopallium and the archipallium creeps
outwards while the basal nuclei creeps inwards and situates at the bottom of the
brain, becoming an important coordination center connected to the thalamus and the
brain stem by bundles of nerve fibers. In advanced reptiles and mammals appears a
new cortex known as neopallium. This cortex appears between the paleopallium and
the archipallium as a coordination center. In mammals, the new cerebral cortex
(neopallium) formed wholly from the grey matter while in the advanced reptiles it
formed partially from the grey matter. This new cortex is responsible for the
complicated functions such as learning. This new cortex is not found in less
complicated vertebrates such as fishes and amphibians that have only the older
cortex (paleopallim). In mammals the neopallium forms most of the cerebrum cortex
(in humans it represents about 90% of the cerebrum cortex and it consists of six
layers). The cerebrum in mammals forms the largest part of the brain and during its
embryonic development enlarges and expands to cover many brain structures even
the posterior part of the brain and becomes responsible for many functions that were
previously done by other parts of the brain in other vertebrates. The cerebrum in
mammals also does many functions that were not found in fishes, amphibians and
reptiles. In simple small mammals, the cortex may be smooth, but in large
complicated mammals, the cortex is highly folded and convoluted. Between the
cortex folding there are passages which may be shallow called sulci or deep called
fissures. The complicated functions of the brain are correlated to the folding of the
cerebral cortex not to the size of the brain. In mammals, this new cortex is well
developed and dominated over the paleopallium and the archipallium.

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In bony fishes, the roof of the cerebral hemispheres is a narrow non-nervous

membrane and the grey matter of the pallial regions and the basal nuclei creeps and
crowds downwards and inward to form massive structures bulging up into the
ventricles from below. This condition, which is the reverse to the condition in
amphibians, reptiles and mammals, may be due to the relative unimportance of
olfaction in bony fishes.
In birds, the cerebral hemispheres become large but they evolve in a way
different from that of mammals. This may be due to the less importance of olfactory
sense in birds. In birds, the paleopallium becomes small, the mid posterior region of
the cerebral hemispheres developed to a medium size structure which is of
archipallium nature, and the basal nuclei region enlarged and occupy most of the
internal region of the cerebral hemispheres forming the corpus striatum. This corpus
striatum is considered to be the center of the complex series of stereotyped action
and learning in birds.

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The evolution of the mammalian brain is concentrated on the enlargement of

the cerebral hemispheres due to the enlargement and elaboration of the neopallium
that becomes complicated and expands to cover the cerebral hemispheres roof and
sides. With the expansion of the neopallium, the archipallium is reduced and folded
to a restricted area on the median part of the hemispheres where it remains as the
hippocampus. The olfactory lobes, which constitute the paleopallium comes to
constitute a small hemisphere region known as the pyriform lobe. The basal nuclei
region creeps inwards and becomes the relay center for automatic reactions known
as the corpus striatum. With the development in mammalian evolution, the
neopallium assumes newer and higher types of neural activity in correlation and
association and it takes over many functions previously exercised by the brain stem
centers and the basal nuclei. By the development and the elaboration of the
neopallium the midbrain loses its former importance and is reduced to a relay center.
In mammals, auditory, optic and somatic sensations relayed on forwards to the
thalamus and then projected to the hemispheres by the great fiber tracts. In all
vertebrates except mammals the basal nuclei region connected to the thalamus.
However, in mammals the greater part of these fibers plunges on through the basal
nuclei (corpus striatum) to radiate out to the neopallial surface where the appropriate
motor decision made. One set of stimuli sent from the cortex to the cerebellum by
way of the pons for appropriate regulatory effects. There are cortical connections to
the corpus striatum and even to the hypothalamus and thence to the autonomic
system. The main motor discharge by the pyramidal tract (a fiber bundle which
extend directly without intervening relay) from the neopallial cortex to voluntary
motor region of the brain stem and cord is an evident feature emphasizing the
dominating position of the cerebral cortex in mammals.

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With it expansion, the cerebral hemispheres tend to cover and envelope other
brain structures. In primitive mammalian brain, the cerebrum leaves much of the
midbrain exposed, but in the majority of living mammals, the midbrain and part of
the cerebellum are overlapped by the cerebrum. In humans, the cerebral hemispheres
often described as composed of a frontal lobe (at the anterior end), a parietal lobe (at
the summit), an occipital lobe (at the posterior end) and a temporal lobe (laterally).
The grey matter of the neopallium has a complex histological structure
(consists of six cellular layers and masses of intervening fibers) in contrast to the
simple structure of the paleopallium and the archipallium (consists of two to four
cellular layers). In larger mammalian brains, the number of neopallial cells may
reach billions.

b\ Diencephalon or thalamencephalon:
It consists of the thalamus, epithalamus (projected from its roof the pineal
body) and the hypothalamus (projected from its bottom the pituitary gland) and it

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contains the third ventricle. In all vertebrates classes the thalamus acts as a relay
center for motor and sensory messages. In mammals all sensory messages from all
over the body (except those specialized to olfactory receptors) are transmitted to the
thalamus which intern conveyed them to the cerebrum. The hypothalamus is located
under the thalamus forming the bottom of the third ventricle. The hypothalamus
contains the olfactory center and is considered to be the main coordination center for
regulating the activity of the viscera through its messages to the centers found in the
medulla oblongata and the spinal cord that act to regulate activities such as the rate
of heart beat, respiration rate and the digestive system function. The hypothalamus
connects the nervous system with the endocrine system anatomically through the
pituitary stalk and physiologically through the neuro-hormones that it secretes. In
reptiles, birds and mammals the hypothalamus acts to regulate body temperature and
in mammals it regulates the gut activities, heartbeat, respiration rate, blood pressure
and sleep as well as its function on the sexual and emotional responses.

2\ Midbrain or mesencephalon:
It consists of the dorsally located optic lobes (all vertebrates have two optic
lobes except mammals they have four small optic lobes known as corpora
quadrigemina) and the ventrally located crura cerebri. The mid brain in fishes and
amphibians is the most conspicuous part of the brain and in addition to the presence
of dorsally located optic lobes specializing in vision it acts as a main connection
region that receives sensory information, integrated it and sending decision to the
appropriate motor nerves. In reptiles, birds and mammals most of the optic lobes
function is done by the cerebrum which is developed in the forebrain. In mammals,
the mid brain is greatly reduced and most of its functions have been transferred to
the grey matter of the cerebral hemispheres. In mammals, the optic lobes are four
small swellings known as corpora quadrigemina. The anterior pair (superior
colliculus) of the corpora quadrigemina (represent the optic lobes of the lower
vertebrates) deals with visual reflexes while the posterior pair (inferior colliculus)
attains a considerable size in some groups of mammals and acts as a relay station for
auditory stimuli on their way to the thalamus and thereafter to the cerebral
hemispheres. It is notable that few of the optic fibers in mammals follow the original
course to the mid brain while most of them interrupted in the thalamus and shunted
forward to the grey matter of the cerebral hemispheres (cerebral cortex).

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3\ Hindbrain or Rhombencephalon:
The hindbrain consists of two major parts the metencephalon and the
myelincephalon
a\ The metencephalon: It consists of the cerebellum and the pons.
The cerebellum: In higher vertebrates it originates as a specialized part of the
acoustic area of the medulla oblongata and is located above the brain stem at the
anterior end of the medulla oblongata. In lower vertebrates it originates from the
acoustic-lateralis area of which registered the equilibrium sensation from the ears
and the lateral lines sensation. The cerebellum is a brain center which is of extreme
importance in the coordination of motor (muscle) activities and the maintenance of
the body orientation, equilibrium and posture. The shape and size of the cerebellum
vary among different vertebrates, for its development is correlated to the complexity
and the development of the animal muscular activity and the body movements, so it
is little developed in cyclostomes and amphibians and small in reptiles (less active
animals) and of a large size in birds mammals and some fishes (active animals). In
a well develop cerebellum the grey matter forms the cerebellar cortex which is
highly convoluted. The data upon which the cerebellum acts are derived primary
from the acoustic area and the system of muscles and tendon spindles and secondary
from fiber relays from skin sensory area, the optic centers and in lower vertebrates
even from the nose
The Pons: Found in mammals as a prominent swelling of great mass of fibers which
bridges over the anterior part of the medulla oblongata and connects to the
cerebellum. The Pons acts as a bridge which connects the spinal cord and the
medulla oblongata with the higher parts of the brain. The Pons contains the centers
that help in regulating respiration and the nuclei that relay impulse from the
cerebrum to the cerebellum.
b\ The myelincephalon or the medulla oblongata: It is the part of the hind brain
which have a thick wall formed mostly from nerve tracts, bundles of axons, that
connects the spinal cord with the different parts of the brain. The medulla oblongata
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contains the fourth ventricle which connects with the spinal cord central canal and
with the third ventricle by a canal that runs through the midbrain. In structurally
complicated vertebrates, the medulla oblongata contains the centers that regulate
respiration, heartbeat, blood pressure as well as the reflex centers that regulate
activities like swallowing, coughing and vomiting. The medulla oblongata, mid
brain and the pons form the adult brain stem.
The spinal cord:
It is the extension of the CNS that connects to the hind part of the medulla
oblongata and runs through the neural canal of the vertebral column. The spinal cord
of vertebrates is tubular with a spinal canal filled with the spinal fluid.
The peripheral nervous system:
The peripheral nervous system consists of nerve ganglions and the spinal and
cranial nerves that innervate different parts of the body. The nerve is a group of many
nerve fibers that enveloped by a connective tissue. This group of nerve fibers
constitutes the sensory or afferent nerves (afferent neurons) that transmit nerve
impulses to the CNS and the motor or efferent nerves (efferent neurons) that transmit
nerve impulses from the CNS to the effectors.

The spinal nerves:

These are series of paired nerves which come out from the spinal cord between
the vertebrae. Hence, they are metamerically segmented. In lower chordates like
cephalochordates (e.g. Amphioxus) and lower jawless vertebrates (cyclostomes) the
sensory nerves alternate with the motor nerves (the sensory nerves extend from the
spinal cord between the body segments while the motor nerves extend from the
spinal cord towards the center of the body segment). However, in higher vertebrates
the sensory and motor nerves do not alternate (the spinal nerve comes out from the
spinal cord by two roots: the dorsal root of afferent nerve fibers and a ventral root of
efferent nerve fibers. These two roots nerves come and emerge together between the
vertebrae.
In Amphioxus, the dorsal region of the spinal cord contains the somatic and
visceral sensory nerves, and the visceral motor nerves, while the ventral regions of
the spinal cord contain only the somatic motor nerves. In cyclostomes the dorsal
region of the spinal cord contains the somatic and visceral sensory nerves, and most
of the visceral motor nerves, while the ventral regions of the spinal cord contains the
somatic motor nerves and some visceral motor nerves. In some vertebrates like
fishes and amphibians, some visceral motor nerves found in the dorsal region of the
spinal cord. However, in higher vertebrates classes the dorsal region of the spinal
cord contains all the somatic and visceral sensory nerves and the ventral regions of
the spinal cord contains all the somatic and visceral motor nerves.

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Cranial verves:
There are ten pairs of cranial nerves in all vertebrates except in mammals,
there are twelve cranial nerves (the accessory and the hypoglossal nerves found only
in mammals). The distribution of these nerves is the same in all vertebrates groups.
These nerves can be divided to three groups which include the special somatic
sensory nerves, the complex dorsal root or the branchial nerves and the ventral root
nerves. The cranial nerves given numbers and names according to their anatomical
position in humans as shown below:
1\ special somatic sensory nerves:
There are special somatic sensory structures on the head which include the
eyes, ears and nose. These structures are innervated by special somatic sensory
nerves which include three verves:
a\ The olfactory nerve (I): It is a sensory nerve from the olfactory epithelium.
b\ The optic nerve (II): It is a sensory nerve from the eye.
c\ The acoustic nerve (VIII): It is a sensory nerve from the inner ear.

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2\ The complex dorsal root or branchial nerves:

In addition to the somatic muscles in the head and the neck region there are
special visceral striated muscles connected to the gill bars. These muscles are
innervated by the branchial nerves. The branchial nerves consists of somatic and
visceral sensory nerves and visceral motor nerves which include autonomic and
special visceral motor nerves associated with the branchial region. The branchial
nerves include 5 nerves:
a\ The trigeminal nerve (V): It is a big nerve with three stems. The major part of it
is sensory and it conveys the somatic sensation from the head. The other parts are
motor and convey nerves commands to the jaw muscles.
b\ The facial nerve (VII): It is a sensory and motor nerve which innervates the
facial muscles.
c\ Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX): It is a small sensory nerve which innervates most
of the tongue and the pharynx.
d\ The vagus nerve (X): It is a sensory and motor nerve which originates from the
medulla oblongata and innervates some parts of the head region and most of the
viscera (the heart, the lung, the stomach, the liver, the intestine and the pancreas)
e\ The accessory nerve (XI): It is a somatic nerve included with the vagus nerve.
3\ The ventral root or the somatic motor nerves:
These include four nerves:
a\ The oculomotor nerve (III): It is a motor nerve which originates from the ventral
side of the midbrain. It innervates four of the six eye muscles, the inferior oblique
and the superior, inferior and anterior rectus muscles.
b\ The trochlear nerve (IV): It is a motor nerve which originates from the ventral
side of the midbrain. It innervates the superior oblique muscle.
c\ The abductor nerve (VI): It is a motor nerve which originates from the anterior
part of medulla oblongata. It innervates the posterior rectus muscle.
d\ The hypoglossal nerve (XII): It is a somatic nerve which innervates the tongue.

The cranial nerves

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The visceral nervous system:

The visceral nervous system is connected with the viscera and responds to
internal stimuli. It consists of motor and sensory visceral nerves. The motor
visceral nerves form the autonomic nervous system which consists of the
sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.
1\ The sympathetic nervous system:
Is also known as the thoracolumbar nervous system. It is the system that
controls activities that need emotion readiness and alert, such as fighting and
escaping, so it is called fight or flight system. In this system, the nerve impulse is
transmitted from the CNS through a short neuron found before the ganglion
(preganglionic neuron) and thereafter through a long neuron found after the
ganglion (postganglionic neuron).
2\ The parasympathetic nervous system:
Is also known as the craniosacral nervous system. It is the system that controls
activities that need calmness and rest such as digestion, so it is known as rest and
repose system. In this system, the nerve impulse is transmitted from the CNS through
a long neuron found before the ganglion (preganglionic neuron) and thereafter
through a short neuron found after the ganglion (postganglionic neuron).

Sympathetic parasympathetic

Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

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Pre and post ganglionic neurons of the autonomic nervous system

The simple reflex action:

It is a fast involuntary automatic response to a stimulus of great survival
value. This reflex action is done by a series of cells, their collective anatomical
organization known as the reflex arc. The reflex action found in both voluntary and
involuntary response organs (effectors).
a\ The voluntary effectors: Here the reflex action is done through fife cells
namely (1) the receptor, (2) the sensory neuron, (3) the relay neuron, (4) the motor
neuron and (5) the voluntary effectors (like skeletal muscles).
b\ The involuntary effectors: Here the reflex action is done through six cells
namely (1) the receptor, (2) the sensory neuron, (3) the relay neuron, (4) the
preganglionic motor neuron, (5) the postganglionic motor neuron and (6) the
involuntary effectors (like glands and stomach etc.). This means that the reflex
action in an involuntary organ performed through the autonomic nervous system.

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The conditional reflex:

It is an adaptive action performed by a learned response through which the
same respond can be achieved if the unconditional appropriate stimulus is replaced
by a conditional inappropriate stimulus. To perform this conditional response the
conditioned and unconditioned stimuli should be induced together until the animal
correlates between them and responds to either of them similarly. The conditional
reflex was discovered by Ivan Pavlov in 1904. Pavlov observed that a dog salivates
automatically when it saw the food (unconditioned stimulus). He conducts an
experiment by ringing a bell at every time he provides the dog with food. The dog
gradually correlates the bell ringing (conditioned stimulus) with the provision of
food and salivates in reaction to bell ringing even if the food is not provided.

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The sensory system:

It consists of sensory cells which receive the stimuli and transmit them
through the sensory neurons to the CNS where the appropriate decision is taken
and send through a nerve impulse to the appropriate effector organ. The individual
sensory cells are called receptors while the complex structure of sensory cells and
the supporting or accessory cells is called the sense organ.
Classification of sense organs:
Sense organs can be classified according to their distribution in the body or
according to the type of the stimulus they react to.
1\ Classification of sense organs according to their distribution in the body:
In this classification sense organs are classified into three groups
a\ The special sense organs: These are the eyes, nose, ears and taste buds (they
are found in the cephalic region).
b\ The general sense organs: They include the visceral organ receptors (viscero-
receptors) and the skin receptors (exo-receptors) like thermoreceptors that sense
heat and cold, Meissner`s corpuscle that sense touch, Nociceptors that sense
pressure and Pacinian corpuscle that sense pain.
c\ The proprioceptors: These are the nerve endings on muscles, tendons and
joints that respond to internal stimuli and make the individual capable to sense the
position of the body, the degree of joints bending, muscle tension, posture and
weight.

2\ Classification of sense organs according to the stimulus they react to:

In this classification, sense organs are classified into four groups:
a\ The photoreceptors: The eyes. They react and respond to light.
b\ The heat or thermoreceptors: These are receptors that react with changes in
temperature. They are found in the skin.
c\ The mechanoreceptors: These are receptors that react with tactile (touch),
pressure, gravity, pain and sounds.

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d\ The chemoreceptors: These are receptors that react with chemical materials.
They include nerve endings in the skin, olfactory epithelium in the nose and taste
buds in the tongue.

Dr. Mohamed Ali Omer Rahoum

Department of Zoology
Faculty of Science
University of Khartoum
February 2020

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