Classical antiquity

Classical antiquity (also the classical era, classical

period or classical age) is the period of cultural history
between the 8th century BC and the 5th century AD centred
on the Mediterranean Sea,[note 1] comprising the interlocking
civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome known as
the Greco-Roman world. It is the period in which both Greek
and Roman societies flourished and wielded huge influence
throughout much of Europe, North Africa, and Western
Asia.[1][2]

Conventionally, it is taken to begin with the earliest-recorded

Epic Greek poetry of Homer (8th–7th-century BC), and The Parthenon is one of the most
continues through the emergence of Christianity (1st century recognizable symbols of the classical era,
exemplifying ancient Greek culture.
AD) and the fall of the Western Roman Empire (5th-century
AD). It ends with the decline of classical culture during late
antiquity (250–750), a period overlapping with the Early
Middle Ages (600–1000). Such a wide span of history and territory covers many disparate cultures
and periods. Classical antiquity may also refer to an idealized vision among later people of what was,
in Edgar Allan Poe's words, "the glory that was Greece, and the grandeur that was Rome".[3]

The culture of the ancient Greeks, together with some influences from the ancient Near East, was the
basis of European art,[4] philosophy, society, and education, until the Roman imperial period. The
Romans preserved, imitated, and spread this culture over Europe, until they themselves were able to
compete with it, and the classical world began to speak Latin as well as Greek.[5][6] This Greco-Roman
cultural foundation has been immensely influential on the language, politics, law, educational
systems, philosophy, science, warfare, poetry, historiography, ethics, rhetoric, art and architecture of
the modern world. Surviving fragments of classical culture led to a revival beginning in the 14th
century which later came to be known as the Renaissance, and various neo-classical revivals occurred
in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Contents
Archaic period (c. 8th to c. 6th centuries BC)
Phoenicians, Carthaginians and Assyrians
Greece
Greek colonies
Iron Age Italy
Roman Kingdom
Classical Greece (5th to 4th centuries BC)
Hellenistic period (323–146 BC)
Roman Republic (5th to 1st centuries BC)
Roman Empire (1st century BC to 5th century AD)
Late antiquity (4th to 6th centuries AD)
Political revivalism
Cultural legacy
Timeline
See also
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading

Archaic period (c. 8th to c. 6th centuries BC)

The earliest period of classical antiquity takes place against the background of gradual re-appearance
of historical sources following the Bronze Age collapse. The 8th and 7th centuries BC are still largely
proto-historical, with the earliest Greek alphabetic inscriptions appearing in the first half of the 8th
century. Homer is usually assumed to have lived in the 8th or 7th century BC, and his lifetime is often
taken as marking the beginning of classical antiquity. In the same period falls the traditional date for
the establishment of the Ancient Olympic Games, in 776 BC.

Phoenicians, Carthaginians and Assyrians

The Phoenicians originally expanded from Canaan ports, by the

8th century dominating trade in the Mediterranean. Carthage was
founded in 814 BC, and the Carthaginians by 700 BC had firmly
established strongholds in Sicily, Italy and Sardinia, which created
conflicts of interest with Etruria. A stela found in Kition, Cyprus
commemorates the victory of King Sargon II in 709 BC over the
seven kings of the island, marking an important step in the Map of Phoenician (in yellow) and
transfer of Cyprus from Tyrian rule to the Neo-Assyrian Greek colonies (in red) around 8th
Empire.[7][8][9][10] to 6th century BC

Greece

The Archaic period followed the Greek Dark Ages, and saw significant advancements in political
theory, and the rise of democracy, philosophy, theatre, poetry, as well as the revitalization of the
written language (which had been lost during the Dark Ages).

In pottery, the Archaic period sees the development of the Orientalizing style, which signals a shift
from the Geometric style of the later Dark Ages and the accumulation of influences derived from
Egypt, Phoenicia and Syria.

Pottery styles associated with the later part of the Archaic age are the black-figure pottery, which
originated in Corinth during the 7th-century BC and its successor, the red-figure style, developed by
the Andokides Painter in about 530 BC.
Greek colonies

Iron Age Italy

The Etruscans had established political control in the region by the

late 7th-century BC, forming the aristocratic and monarchial elite.
The Etruscans apparently lost power in the area by the late 6th-
century BC, and at this point, the Italic tribes reinvented their
government by creating a republic, with much greater restraints
on the ability of rulers to exercise power.[11]

Roman Kingdom

According to legend, Rome was founded on 21 April 753 BC by

twin descendants of the Trojan prince Aeneas, Romulus and
Remus.[12] As the city was bereft of women, legend says that the
Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried
maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins and the Etruscan civilization in north of Italy,
Sabines.[13] 800 BC.

Archaeological evidence indeed shows first traces of settlement at

the Roman Forum in the mid-8th BC, though settlements on the Palatine Hill may date back to the
10th century BC.[14][15]

The seventh and final king of Rome was Tarquinius Superbus. As the son of Tarquinius Priscus and
the son-in-law of Servius Tullius, Superbus was of Etruscan birth. It was during his reign that the
Etruscans reached their apex of power. Superbus removed and destroyed all the Sabine shrines and
altars from the Tarpeian Rock, enraging the people of Rome. The people came to object to his rule
when he failed to recognize the rape of Lucretia, a patrician Roman, at the hands of his own son.
Lucretia's kinsman, Lucius Junius Brutus (ancestor to Marcus Brutus), summoned the Senate and had
Superbus and the monarchy expelled from Rome in 510 BC. After Superbus' expulsion, the Senate in
509 BC voted to never again allow the rule of a king and reformed Rome into a republican
government.

Classical Greece (5th to 4th centuries BC)

The classical period of Ancient Greece corresponds to most of the 5th and 4th centuries  BC, in
particular, from the fall of the Athenian tyranny in 510  BC to the death of Alexander the Great in
323 BC. In 510, Spartan troops helped the Athenians overthrow the tyrant Hippias, son of Peisistratos.
Cleomenes I, king of Sparta, put in place a pro-Spartan oligarchy conducted by Isagoras.

The Greco-Persian Wars (499–449  BC), concluded by the Peace of Callias gave way not only to the
liberation of Greece, Macedon, Thrace, and Ionia from Persian rule, but also resulted in giving the
dominant position of Athens in the Delian League, which led to conflict with Sparta and the
Peloponnesian League, resulting in the Peloponnesian War (431–404  BC), ending in a Spartan
victory.
Greece entered the 4th century under Spartan hegemony,
but by 395 BC the Spartan rulers removed Lysander from
office, and Sparta lost her naval supremacy. Athens, Argos,
Thebes and Corinth, the latter two of which were formerly
Spartan allies, challenged Spartan dominance in the
Corinthian War, which ended inconclusively in 387  BC.
Later, in 371  BC, the Theban generals Epaminondas and
Pelopidas won a victory at the Battle of Leuctra. The result of
this battle was the end of Spartan supremacy and the
establishment of Theban hegemony. Thebes sought to
maintain its position until it was finally eclipsed by the rising
power of Macedon in 346 BC.
Delian League ("Athenian Empire"), right
before the Peloponnesian War in 431 BC
Under Philip II, (359–336 BC), Macedon expanded into the
territory of the Paeonians, the Thracians and the Illyrians.
Philip's son, Alexander the Great, (356–323 BC) managed to
briefly extend Macedonian power not only over the central Greek city-states but also to the Persian
Empire, including Egypt and lands as far east as the fringes of India. The classical period
conventionally ends at the death of Alexander in 323  BC and the fragmentation of his empire, which
was at this time divided among the Diadochi.

Hellenistic period (323–146 BC)

Classical Greece entered the Hellenistic period with the rise of Macedon and the conquests of
Alexander the Great. Greek became the lingua franca far beyond Greece itself, and Hellenistic culture
interacted with the cultures of Persia, the Kingdom of Israel and Kingdom of Judah, Central Asia and
Egypt. Significant advances were made in the sciences (geography, astronomy, mathematics, etc.),
notably with the followers of Aristotle (Aristotelianism).

The Hellenistic period ended with the rise of the Roman Republic to a super-regional power in the
2nd century BC and the Roman conquest of Greece in 146 BC.

Roman Republic (5th to 1st centuries BC)

The Republican period of Ancient Rome began with the
overthrow of the Monarchy c.  509  BC and lasted over 450
years until its subversion through a series of civil wars, into
the Principate form of government and the Imperial period.
During the half millennium of the Republic, Rome rose from
a regional power of the Latium to the dominant force in Italy
and beyond. The unification of Italy under Roman hegemony
was a gradual process, brought about in a series of conflicts
of the 4th and 3rd centuries, the Samnite Wars, Latin War,
The extent of the Roman Republic and
and Pyrrhic War. Roman victory in the Punic Wars and
Roman Empire in 218 BC (dark red),
Macedonian Wars established Rome as a super-regional
133 BC (light red), 44 BC (orange), 14 AD
power by the 2nd century BC, followed up by the acquisition
(yellow), after 14 AD (green), and
of Greece and Asia Minor. This tremendous increase of maximum extension under Trajan 117 (light
power was accompanied by economic instability and social green)
unrest, leading to the Catiline conspiracy, the Social War and the First Triumvirate, and finally the
transformation to the Roman Empire in the latter half of the 1st century BC.

Roman Empire (1st century BC to 5th century AD)

The precise end of the Republic is disputed by modern
historians;[note 2] Roman citizens of the time did not
recognize that the Republic had ceased to exist. The early
Julio-Claudian Emperors maintained that the res publica
still existed, albeit under the protection of their
extraordinary powers, and would eventually return to its full
Republican form. The Roman state continued to call itself a
res publica as long as it continued to use Latin as its official
language.

Rome acquired imperial character de facto from the 130s BC The extent of the Roman Empire under
with the acquisition of Cisalpine Gaul, Illyria, Greece and Trajan,  AD 117
Hispania, and definitely with the addition of Iudaea, Asia
Minor and Gaul in the 1st century  BC. At the time of the
empire's maximal extension under Trajan (AD 117), Rome controlled the entire Mediterranean as well
as Gaul, parts of Germania and Britannia, the Balkans, Dacia, Asia Minor, the Caucasus, and
Mesopotamia.

Culturally, the Roman Empire was significantly Hellenized, but also saw the rise of syncretic "eastern"
traditions, such as Mithraism, Gnosticism, and most notably Christianity.
The empire began to decline
in the crisis of the third century.

While sometimes compared with classical Greece, classical Rome had vast differences within their
family life. Fathers had great power over their children, and husbands over their wives. In fact, the
word family, familia in Latin, actually referred to those who were under the authority of a male head
of household. This included non-related members such as slaves and servants. In marriage, both men
and women were loyal to one another and shared property. Divorce was first allowed starting in the
first century BC and could be done by either man or woman.[16]

Late antiquity (4th to 6th centuries AD)

Late antiquity saw the rise of Christianity under Constantine
I, finally ousting the Roman imperial cult with the
Theodosian decrees of  393. Successive invasions of
Germanic tribes finalized the
decline of the Western Roman
Empire in the 5th century, while the Eastern Roman Empire
persisted throughout the Middle Ages, in a state called the
Roman Empire by its citizens, and labeled the Byzantine
Empire by later historians.
Hellenistic philosophy was The Western and Eastern Roman Empires
succeeded by continued developments in Platonism and by 476
Epicureanism, with Neoplatonism in due course influencing
the theology of the Church Fathers.
Many writers have attempted to put a specific date on the symbolic "end" of antiquity with the most
prominent dates being the deposing of the last Western Roman Emperor in 476,[17][18] the closing of
the last Platonic Academy in Athens by the Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian  I in  529,[19] and the
conquest of much of the Mediterranean by the new Muslim faith from 634 to 718.[20] These Muslim
conquests, of Syria (637), Egypt (639), Cyprus (654), North Africa (665), Hispania (718), Southern
Gaul (720), Crete (820), and Sicily (827), Malta (870) (and the sieges of the Eastern Roman capital,
First Arab Siege of Constantinople (674–78) and Second Arab Siege of Constantinople (717–18))
severed the economic, cultural, and political links that had traditionally united the classical cultures
around the Mediterranean, ending antiquity (see Pirenne Thesis).[20]

The original Roman Senate continued to express decrees into

the late 6th century, and the last Eastern Roman emperor to
use Latin as the language of his court in Constantinople was
emperor Maurice, who reigned until 602. The overthrow of
Maurice by his mutinying Danube army under Phocas
resulted in the Slavic invasion of the Balkans and the decline
of Balkan and Greek urban culture (leading to the flight of
Balkan Latin speakers to the mountains, see Origin of the The Byzantine Empire in 650 after the
Romanians), and also provoked the Byzantine–Sasanian Arabs conquered the provinces of Syria
War of 602–628 in which all the great eastern cities except and Egypt. At the same time early Slavs
Constantinople were lost. The resulting turmoil did not end settled in the Balkans.
until the Muslim conquests of the 7th century finalized the
irreversible loss of all the largest Eastern Roman imperial
cities besides the capital itself. The emperor Heraclius in Constantinople, who emerged during this
period, conducted his court in Greek, not Latin, though Greek had always been an administrative
language of the eastern Roman regions. Eastern-Western links weakened with the ending of the
Byzantine Papacy.

The Eastern Roman empire's capital city of Constantinople was left as the only unconquered large
urban center of the original Roman empire, as well as being the largest city in Europe. Yet many
classical books, sculptures, and technologies survived there along with classical Roman cuisine and
scholarly traditions, well into the Middle Ages, when much of it was "rediscovered" by visiting
Western crusaders. Indeed, the inhabitants of Constantinople continued to refer to themselves as
Romans, as did their eventual conquerors in 1453, the Ottomans. (see Rûm and Romaioi.) The
classical scholarship and culture that was still preserved in Constantinople were brought by refugees
fleeing its conquest in 1453 and helped to spark the Renaissance (see Greek scholars in the
Renaissance).

Ultimately, it was a slow, complex, and graduated change in the socio-economic structure in European
history that led to the changeover between Classical antiquity and Medieval society and no specific
date can truly exemplify that.

Political revivalism
In politics, the late Roman conception of the Empire as a universal state, headed by one supreme
divinely appointed ruler, united with Christianity as a universal religion likewise headed by a supreme
patriarch, proved very influential, even after the disappearance of imperial authority in the west. This
tendency reached its peak when Charlemagne was crowned "Roman Emperor" in the year 800, an act
which led to the formation of the Holy Roman Empire. The notion that an emperor is a monarch who
outranks a mere king dates from this period. In this political ideal, there would always be a Roman
Empire, a state whose jurisdiction extended through the entire civilized western world.

That model continued to exist in Constantinople for the entirety of the Middle Ages; the Byzantine
Emperor was considered the sovereign of the entire Christian world. The Patriarch of Constantinople
was the Empire's highest-ranked cleric, but even he was subordinate to the emperor, who was "God's
Vicegerent on Earth". The Greek-speaking Byzantines and their descendants continued to call
themselves "Romans" until the creation of a new Greek state in 1832.

After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Russian Czars (a title derived from Caesar) claimed the
Byzantine mantle as the champion of Orthodoxy; Moscow was described as the "Third Rome," and the
Czars ruled as divinely appointed Emperors into the 20th century.

Despite the fact that the Western Roman secular authority disappeared entirely in Europe, it still left
traces. The Papacy and the Catholic Church in particular maintained Latin language, culture, and
literacy for centuries; to this day the popes are called Pontifex Maximus which in the classical period
was a title belonging to the emperor, and the ideal of Christendom carried on the legacy of a united
European civilization even after its political unity had disappeared.

The political idea of an Emperor in the West to match the Emperor in the East continued after the
Western Roman Empire's collapse; it was revived by the coronation of Charlemagne in 800; the self-
described Holy Roman Empire ruled over central Europe until 1806.

The Renaissance idea that the classical Roman virtues had been lost under medievalism was especially
powerful in European politics of the 18th and 19th centuries. Reverence for Roman republicanism was
strong among the Founding Fathers of the United States and the Latin American revolutionaries; the
Americans described their new government as a republic (from res publica) and gave it a Senate and a
President (another Latin term), rather than make use of available English terms like commonwealth
or parliament.

Similarly in Revolutionary and Napoleonic France, republicanism and Roman martial virtues were
upheld by the state, as can be seen in the architecture of the Panthéon, the Arc de Triomphe, and the
paintings of Jacques-Louis David. During the revolution, France itself followed the transition from
kingdom to republic to dictatorship to Empire (complete with Imperial Eagles) that Rome had
undergone centuries earlier.

Cultural legacy
Classical antiquity is a broad term for a long period of cultural
history. Such a wide sampling of history and territory covers
many rather disparate cultures and periods. "Classical
antiquity" often refers to an idealized vision of later people, of
what was, in Edgar Allan Poe's words,

the glory that was Greece, the grandeur that was

Rome! Plato and Aristotle walking and disputing.
Detail from Raphael's The School of
Athens (1509–1511)
In the 18th and 19th centuries AD, reverence for classical antiquity was much greater in Europe and
the United States than it is today. Respect for the ancient people of Greece and Rome affected politics,
philosophy, sculpture, literature, theatre, education, architecture, and sexuality.

Epic poetry in Latin continued to be written and circulated well into the 19th century. John Milton
and even Arthur Rimbaud received their first poetic educations in Latin. Genres like epic poetry,
pastoral verse, and the endless use of characters and themes from Greek mythology left a deep mark
on Western literature. In architecture, there have been several Greek Revivals, which seem more
inspired in retrospect by Roman architecture than Greek. Washington, DC is filled with large marble
buildings with facades made out to look like Greek temples, with columns constructed in the classical
orders of architecture.

In philosophy, the thought of St. Thomas Aquinas was derived largely from that of Aristotle, despite
the intervening change in religion from Hellenic Polytheism to Christianity. Greek and Roman
authorities such as Hippocrates and Galen formed the foundation of the practice of medicine even
longer than Greek thought prevailed in philosophy. In the French theater, tragedians such as Molière
and Racine wrote plays on mythological or classical historical subjects and subjected them to the strict
rules of the classical unities derived from Aristotle's Poetics. The desire to dance like a latter-day
vision of how the ancient Greeks did moved Isadora Duncan to create her brand of ballet.

Timeline

See also
History portal
Ancient Greece
portal
Ancient Rome
portal

Classical architecture
Classical tradition
Classics (Classical education)
Outline of classical studies
Outline of ancient Egypt
Outline of ancient Greece
Outline of ancient Rome
Postclassical Era (the next period)

Regions during classical antiquity

Ancient history of Cyprus

Hellenistic Greece
History of the Balkans
Roman Britain
Roman Dacia
Troy
Notes
1. For more detail on the end dates used by historians, see Middle Ages § Terminology and
periodisation.
2. The precise event which signaled the transition of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire is
a matter of interpretation. Historians have proposed the appointment of Julius Caesar as perpetual
dictator (44 BC), the Battle of Actium (September 2, 31 BC), and the Roman Senate's grant of
Octavian's extraordinary powers under the first settlement (January 16, 27 BC), as candidates for
the defining pivotal event.

References

Citations
1. McLaughlin, Raoul (2014-09-11). The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World
Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia and India. Pen & Sword. ISBN 9781473840959.
2. McLaughlin, Raoul (2016-11-11). The Roman Empire and the Silk Routes: The Ancient World
Economy & the Empires of Parthia, Central Asia & Han China. Pen & Sword.
ISBN 9781473889811.
3. Poe EA (1831). "To Helen".
4. Helga von Heintze: Römische Kunst (Roman art). In: Walter-Herwig Schuchhardt (1960): Bildende
Kunst I (Archäologie) (Visual arts I – archaeology). Das Fischer Lexikon. S. Fischer Verlag. p. 192.
"Bestimmend blieb (...) der italisch-römische Geist, der sich der entlehnten Formen nur bediente.
(...) Ohne [die] Begegnung [mit der griechischen Formenwelt, author's note] hätte der italisch-
römische Geist sich wohl kaum in künstlerischen Schöpfungen ausdrücken können und wäre nicht
über die Ansätze, die wir in den Kanopen von Chiusi (...), der kapitolinischen Wölfin (...), dem
Krieger von Capestrano (...) erhalten haben, hinausgekommen. Auch die gleichermaßen
realistische wie unkünstlerische Auffassung der Porträts im 2. und 1. J[ahr]h[undert] v[or]
Chr[istus] konnte sich nur unter dem Einfluß griechischer Formen ändern." ("Determinant
remained the Italic-Roman spirit, that just availed itself of the borrowed forms. (...) Without having
come across [the world of the Greek forms], the Italic–Roman spirit would hardly have been able
to express itself in works of art and would not have got beyond the starts that are preserved in the
canopic jars of Chiusi, the Capitoline Wolf, the Warrior of Capestrano. Also the likewise realistic
and inartistic conception and production of the portraits in the second and the first centuries BC
could only change under the influence of Greek forms.")
5. Der Große Brockhaus. 1. vol.: A-Beo. Eberhard Brockhaus, Wiesbaden 1953, p. 315. "Ihre
dankbarsten und verständnisvollsten Schüler aber fand die hellenistische Kultur in den Römern;
sie wurden Mäzene, Nachahmer und schließlich Konkurrenten, indem sie die eigene Sprache
wetteifernd neben die griechische setzten: so wurde die antike Kultur zweisprachig, griechisch und
lateinisch. Das System dieser griechisch-hellenistisch-römischen Kultur, das sich in der römischen
Kaiserzeit abschließend gestaltete, enthielt, neben Elementen des Orients, die griechische
Wissenschaft und Philosophie, Dichtung, Geschichtsschreibung, Rhetorik und bildende Kunst."
("The Hellenistic culture but found its most thankful and its most understanding disciples in the
Romans; they became patrons, imitators, and finally rivals, when they competitively set the own
language beside the Greek: thus, the antique culture became bilingual, Greek and Latin. The
system of this Greco-Latin culture, that assumed its definitive shape in the Roman imperial period,
contained, amongst elements of the Orient, the Greek science and philosophy, poetry,
historiography, rhetoric and visual arts.")
 6. Veit Valentin: Weltgeschichte – Völker, Männer, Ideen (History of the world – peoples, men, ideas).
Allert de Lange, Amsterdam 1939, p. 113. "Es ist ein merkwürdiges Schauspiel – dieser Kampf
eines bewussten Römertums gegen die geriebene Gewandtheit des Hellenismus: der römische
Geschmack wehrt sich und verbohrt sich trotzig in sich selbst, aber es fällt ihm nicht genug ein, er
kann nicht über seine Grenzen weg; was die Griechen bieten, hat soviel Reiz und Bequemlichkeit.
In der bildenden Kunst und in der Philosophie gab das Römertum zuerst den Kampf um seine
Selbständigkeit auf – Bilden um des Bildes willen, Forschen und Grübeln, theoretische
Wahrheitssuche und Spekulation lagen ihm durchaus nicht." ("It is a strange spectacle: this fight of
a conscious Roman striving against the wily ingenuity of Hellenism. The Roman taste offers
resistance, defiantly goes mad about itself, but there does not come enough into its mind, it is not
able to overcome its limits; there is so much charm and so much comfort in what the Greeks
afford. In visual arts and philosophy, Romanism first abandoned the struggle for its
independence – forming for the sake of the form, poring and investigation, theoretical speculation
and hunt for truth were by no means in its line.")
7. "The Esarhaddon Prism / Library of Ashurbanipal" (https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collec
tion_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=291290&partId=1). British Museum.
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le Palais de Sargon II, Roi d’Assyrie, Paris, 159–179.
9. Radner, K. 2010: “The Stele of Sargon II of Assyria at Kition: A focus for an emerging Cypriot
identity?”, in R. Rollinger, B. Gufler, M. Lang, I. Madreiter (eds), Interkulturalität in der Alten Welt:
Vorderasien, Hellas, Ägypten und die vielfältigen Ebenen des Kontakts, Wiesbaden, 429–449.
10. "The Cypriot rulers as client kings of the Assyrian empire" (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sargon/essentials/
countries/cyprus/). The many kingdoms of Cyprus. 5 Nov 2012. Retrieved 21 January 2016.
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ISBN 0-7894-8153-7. p. 12.
12. Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy (1998). Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (https://books.google.com/
books?id=9JJdqJ8YGH8C&pg=PA5). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-
0195123326.
13. Myths and Legends – Rome, the Wolf, and Mars (http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/grecoromanm
yth1/a/mythslegends_3.htm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070529053414/http://ancien
thistory.about.com/cs/grecoromanmyth1/a/mythslegends_3.htm) 2007-05-29 at the Wayback
Machine. Accessed 2007-3-8.
14. Matyszak, Philip (2003). Chronicle of the Roman Republic: The Rulers of Ancient Rome from
Romulus to Augustus. Thames & Hudson. p. 19. ISBN 978-0500051214.
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o1500duik/page/129) (Third ed.). Wadsworth. p. 129. ISBN 978-0-534-57168-9.
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Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-8995-8.
17. Clare, I. S. (1906). Library of universal history: containing a record of the human race from the
earliest historical period to the present time; embracing a general survey of the progress of
mankind in national and social life, civil government, religion, literature, science and art. New York:
Union Book. p. 1519 (cf., Ancient history, as we have already seen, ended with the fall of the
Western Roman Empire; [...])
18. United Center for Research and Training in History. (1973). Bulgarian historical review. Sofia: Pub.
House of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences]. p. 43. (cf. ... in the history of Europe, which marks
both the end of ancient history and the beginning of the Middle Ages, is the fall of the Western
Roman Empire.)
19. Hadas, Moses (1950). A History of Greek Literature (https://books.google.com/books?id=dOht360
9JOMC&q=%22end+of+antiquity%22&pg=PA273). Columbia University Press. p. 273 of 331.
ISBN 0-231-01767-7.
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halemagne) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150408092705/https://archive.org/details/Mo
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8)

Further reading
Boatwright, Mary T., Daniel J. Gargola, and Richard J. A. Talbert. 2004. The Romans: From village
to empire. New York and Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press
Bugh, Glenn. R., ed. 2006. The Cambridge Companion to the Hellenistic world. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge Univ. Press.
Burkert, Walter. 1992. The Orientalizing revolution: The Near Eastern influence on Greek culture
in the early Archaic age. Translated by Margaret E. Pinder and Walter Burkert. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard Univ. Press.
Erskine, Andrew, ed. 2003. A companion to the Hellenistic world. Malden, MA, and Oxford:
Blackwell.
Flower, Harriet I. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge Univ. Press.
Green, Peter. 1990. Alexander to Actium: The historical evolution of the Hellenistic age. Berkeley:
Univ. of California Press.
Hornblower, Simon. 1983. The Greek world 479–323 BC. London and New York: Methuen.
Kallendorf, Craig W., ed. 2007. A Companion to the Classical Tradition. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Kinzl, Konrad, ed. 2006. A Companion to the Classical Greek world. Oxford and Malden, MA:
Blackwell.
Murray, Oswyn. 1993. Early Greece. 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
Potter, David S. 2006. A companion to the Roman Empire. Malden, MA: Blackwell
Rhodes, Peter J. 2006. A history of the Classical Greek world: 478–323 BC. Blackwell History of
the Ancient World. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Rosenstein, Nathan S., and Robert Morstein-Marx, eds. 2006. A companion to the Roman
Republic. Oxford: Blackwell.
Shapiro, H. Alan, ed. 2007. The Cambridge Companion to Archaic Greece. Cambridge
Companions to the Ancient World. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
Shipley, Graham. 2000. The Greek world after Alexander 323–30 BC. London: Routledge.
Walbank, Frank W. 1993. The Hellenistic world. Revised ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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