Greece

Hellas redirects here. For other uses of Hellas Church, rooted in the rst century CE, shaped the modand Greece, see Hellas (disambiguation) and Greece ern Greek identity while transmitting Greek traditions
(disambiguation).
to the wider Orthodox World.[9] Following centuries of
Ottoman rule, the nation state of Greece was established
in 1830 following the war of independence.
i
Greece ( /ris/ GREESS; Greek: , Ellda
[elaa]), ocially the Hellenic Republic (Greek: Greece is a democratic and developed country with an
, Ellnik Dmokrata [elinici advanced high-income economy, a high quality of life
imokrati.a]) and known since ancient times as Hel- and a very high standard of living. A founding memlas (/hls/; Greek: , Ells), is a country located ber of the United Nations, Greece was the tenth memin southeastern Europe. According to the 2011 census, ber to join the European Communities (precursor to the
Greeces population is around 10.8 million. Athens is the European Union) and has been part of the Eurozone
nations capital and largest city, followed by Thessaloniki, since 2001. It is also a member of numerous other inwhich is commonly referred to as the co-capital.
ternational institutions, including the Council of Europe,
[lower-alpha 1]
OECD, OSCE and the WTO. Greece,
Greece is strategically located at the crossroads of NATO,
which
is
one
of
the
worlds largest shipping powers and
Europe, Asia, and Africa. Situated on the southern tip of
top
tourist
destinations,
has the largest economy in the
the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania
Balkans,
where
it
is
an
important
regional investor.
to the northwest, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria
to the north and Turkey to the northeast. Greece consists
of nine geographic regions: Macedonia, Central Greece,
the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Epirus, the Aegean Islands
(including the Dodecanese and Cyclades), Thrace, Crete,
and the Ionian Islands. The Aegean Sea lies to the east
of the mainland, the Ionian Sea to the west, and the
Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the longest
coastline on the Mediterranean Basin and the 11th longest
coastline in the world at 13,676 km (8,498 mi) in length,
featuring a vast number of islands, of which 227 are inhabited. Eighty percent of Greece is mountainous, with
Mount Olympus being the highest peak at 2,917 m (9,570
ft).

1 Etymology
Main article: Name of Greece

The names for the nation of Greece and the Greek people
dier from the names used in other languages, locations
and cultures. Although the Greeks call the country Hellas or Ellada (Greek: or ) and its ocial
name is the Hellenic Republic, in English it is referred to
as Greece, which comes from the Latin term Graecia as
used by the Romans, which literally means 'the land of
Modern Greece traces its roots to the civilization of the Greeks, and derives from the Greek name .
Ancient Greece, which is considered the cradle of However, the name Hellas is sometimes used in English
all Western civilization, including democracy, Western as well.
philosophy, the Olympic Games, Western literature,[7]
historiography, political science, major scientic and
mathematical principles, and Western drama, including
both tragedy and comedy. Greeces rich historical legacy 2 History
is reected in large part by its 17 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, among the most in Europe and the world.[8]
Main article: History of Greece
Spanning an assortment of independent city-states, the
Greeks had for centuries resisted foreign domination before being unied by Alexander the Great in the fourth
century BCE. Through his rapid conquest of the an- 2.1 Earliest settlements to 3rd century BC
cient world, Greek culture and science ourished, spreading from the eastern Mediterranean to the Indus River. Main articles: Ancient Greece and Classical Greece
The earliest evidence of the presence of human anAnnexed by Rome in the second century BCE, Greece
became an integral part of the Roman Empire and the cestors in the southern Balkans, dated to 270,000 BC,
successive Byzantine Empire. The Greek Orthodox is to be found in the Petralona cave, in the Greek
province of Macedonia.[10] All three stages of the stone
1

2 HISTORY

Fresco displaying the Minoan ritual of bull leaping, found in

Knossos, Crete.
The Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens is one of the best
known symbols of classical Greece.

lization on the mainland (19001100 BC).[20] These civilizations possessed writing, the Minoans writing in an
undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Mycenaeans in Linear B, an early form of Greek. The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC, during a time of regional upheaval known as the Bronze Age collapse.[21] This ushered in a period known as the Greek Dark Ages, from
which written records are absent.

The Lion Gate, Mycenae

Greek territories and colonies during the Archaic period (750550 BC)

age (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic) are represented in Greece, for example in the Franchthi Cave.[11]
Neolithic settlements in Greece, dating from the 7th millennium BC,[10] are the oldest in Europe by several centuries, as Greece lies on the route via which farming
spread from the Near East to Europe.[12]

The end of the Dark Ages is traditionally dated to 776

BC, the year of the rst Olympic Games.[22] The Iliad
and the Odyssey, the foundational texts of Western literature, are believed to have been composed by Homer in the
8th or 7th centuries BC[23][24] With the end of the Dark
Ages, there emerged various kingdoms and city-states
across the Greek peninsula, which spread to the shores
of the Black Sea, Southern Italy (Latin: Magna Graecia,
or Greater Greece) and Asia Minor. These states and their
colonies reached great levels of prosperity that resulted in
an unprecedented cultural boom, that of classical Greece,
expressed in architecture, drama, science, mathematics
and philosophy. In 508 BC, Cleisthenes instituted
the worlds rst democratic system of government in
Athens.[25][26]
By 500 BC, the Persian Empire controlled the Greek city
states in Asia Minor and had made territorial gains in the
Balkans and Eastern Europe proper as well.[27] Attempts
by the Greek city-states of Asia Minor to overthrow Persian rule failed, and Persia invaded the states of mainland
Greece in 492 BC, but was forced to withdraw after a defeat at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. The Battle of
Marathon is often seen as a pivotal moment in European
history, since the following two hundred years saw the
rise of the Classical Greek civilization, which has been
enduringly inuential in western society and civilization.
A second invasion by the Persians followed in 480 BC.
Despite a heroic resistance at Thermopylae by Spartans
and other Greeks led by King Leonidas, Persian forces
occupied Athens.

Greece is home to the rst advanced civilizations

in Europe and is considered the birthplace of Western civilization,[13][14][15][16][17][18] beginning with the
Cycladic civilization on the islands of the Aegean Sea
at around 3200 BC,[19] the Minoan civilization in Crete
(27001500 BC),[18][20] and then the Mycenaean civi- Following successive Greek victories in 480 and 479 BC

2.2

Hellenistic and Roman periods (323 BC 4th century AD)

2.2 Hellenistic and Roman periods (323

BC 4th century AD)
Main articles: Hellenistic Greece and Roman Greece
See also: Wars of Alexander the Great and Roman Empire
After a period of confusion following Alexanders death,

Alexander the Great on his horse Bucephalus

at Salamis, Plataea, and Mycale, the Persian army were

forced to withdraw for a second time, as well as marking their eventual entire withdrawal from their European
territories. The military conicts, known as the Greco- The Antikythera mechanism (c. 100 BC) is believed to be the
Persian Wars, were led mostly by Athens and Sparta.
earliest mechanical analog computer (National Archaeological
Lack of political unity within Greece resulted in frequent conict between Greek states. The most devastating intra-Greek war was the Peloponnesian War (431
404 BC), won by Sparta and marking the demise of
the Athenian Empire as the leading power in ancient
Greece. Both Athens and Sparta were later overshadowed
by Thebes and eventually Macedon, with the latter uniting
the Greek world in the League of Corinth (also known as
the Hellenic League or Greek League) under the guidance
of Phillip II, who was elected leader of the rst unied
Greek state in history.

Museum, Athens).

the Antigonid dynasty, descended from one of Alexanders generals, established its control over Macedon and
most of the Greek city-states by 276 BC.[31] From about
200 BC the Roman Republic became increasingly involved in Greek aairs and engaged in a series of wars
with Macedon.[32] Macedons defeat at the Battle of
Pydna in 168 BC signalled the end of Antigonid power
in Greece.[33] In 146 BC Macedonia was annexed as a
province by Rome, and the rest of Greece became a Ro[32][34]
Following the assassination of Phillip II, his son man protectorate.
Alexander III (The Great) assumed the leadership of The process was completed in 27 BC when the Roman
the League of Corinth and launched an invasion of the Emperor Augustus annexed the rest of Greece and conPersian Empire with the combined forces of all Greek stituted it as the senatorial province of Achaea.[34] Destates in 334 BC. Undefeated in battle, Alexander had spite their military superiority, the Romans admired and
conquered the Persian Empire in its entirety by 330 BC. became heavily inuenced by the achievements of Greek
By the time of his death in 323 BC, he had created one culture, hence Horace's famous statement: Graecia capta
of the largest empires in history, stretching from Greece ferum victorem cepit (Greece, although captured, took
to India. His empire split into several kingdoms upon its wild conqueror captive).[35] The epics of Homer inhis death, the most famous of which were the Seleucid spired the Aeneid of Virgil, and authors such as Seneca
Empire, Ptolemaic Egypt, the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom the younger wrote using Greek styles. Roman heroes
and the Indo-Greek Kingdom. Many Greeks migrated to such as Scipio Africanus, tended to study philosophy and
Alexandria, Antioch, Seleucia and the many other new regarded Greek culture and science as an example to be
Hellenistic cities in Asia and Africa.[28] Although the po- followed. Similarly, most Roman emperors maintained
litical unity of Alexanders empire could not be main- an admiration for things Greek in nature. The Roman
tained, it resulted in the Hellenistic civilization and spread Emperor Nero visited Greece in AD 66, and performed
the Greek language and Greek culture in the territories at the Ancient Olympic Games, despite the rules against
conquered by Alexander.[29] Greek science, technology non-Greek participation. Hadrian was also particularly
and mathematics are generally considered to have reached fond of the Greeks; before he became emperor he served
their peak during the Hellenistic period.[30]
as an eponymous archon of Athens.

2 HISTORY

Greek-speaking communities of the Hellenized East were

instrumental in the spread of early Christianity in the 2nd
and 3rd centuries,[36] and Christianitys early leaders and
writers (notably St Paul) were mostly Greek-speaking,
though generally not from Greece itself.[37] The New Testament was written in Greek, and some of its sections
(Corinthians, Thessalonians, Philippians, Revelation of
St. John of Patmos) attest to the importance of churches
in Greece in early Christianity. Nevertheless, much of
Greece clung tenaciously to paganism, and ancient Greek
religious practices remained in vogue until the end of the
4th century,[38] when they were outlawed by the Roman
emperor Theodosius I.[39] Some remote areas such as the
southeastern Peloponnese remained pagan until well into
the 10th century AD.[40]

2.3

Medieval period (4th century 1453)

Roman Empire in its own time) and lasted until 1453.

With its capital in Constantinople, its language and literary culture was Greek and its religion was predominantly
Eastern Orthodox Christian.[42]
From the 4th century, the Empires Balkan territories,
including Greece, suered from the dislocation of the
Barbarian Invasions. The raids and devastation of the
Goths and Huns in the 4th and 5th centuries and the
Slavic invasion of Greece in the 7th century resulted in
a dramatic collapse in imperial authority in the Greek
peninsula.[43] Following the Slavic invasion, the imperial government retained formal control of only the islands and coastal areas, particularly the densely populated walled cities such as Athens, Corinth and Thessalonica, while some mountainous areas in the interior held
out on their own and continued to recognize imperial
authority.[43] Outside of these areas, a limited amount
of Slavic settlement is generally thought to have occurred, although on a much smaller scale than previously
thought.[44][45]

Main articles: Byzantine Greece and Frankokratia

See also: Byzantine Empire and Stato da Mr
The Roman Empire in the east, following the fall of the The Byzantine recovery of lost provinces began toward
the end of the 8th century and most of the Greek peninsula came under imperial control again, in stages, during the 9th century.[46][47] This process was facilitated
by a large inux of Greeks from Sicily and Asia Minor
to the Greek peninsula, while at the same time many
Slavs were captured and re-settled in Asia Minor and
those that remained were assimilated.[44] During the 11th
and 12th centuries the return of stability resulted in the
Greek peninsula beneting from strong economic growth
much stronger than that of the Anatolian territories of
the Empire.[46]
The Byzantine Empire at its greatest extent under Justinian I, in
555 AD

Following the Fourth Crusade and the fall of Constantinople to the "Latins" in 1204 mainland Greece was split
between the Greek Despotate of Epirus (a Byzantine
successor state) and Frankish rule[48] (known as the
Frankokratia), while some islands came under Venetian
rule.[49] The re-establishment of the Byzantine imperial
capital in Constantinople in 1261 was accompanied by
the empires recovery of much of the Greek peninsula,
although the Frankish Principality of Achaea in the Peloponnese and the rival Greek Despotate of Epirus in the
north both remained important regional powers into the
14th century, while the islands remained largely under
Genoese and Venetian control.[48]

In the 14th century, much of the Greek peninsula was lost

by the Byzantine Empire at rst to the Serbs and then to
the Ottomans.[50] By the beginning of the 15th century,
the Ottoman advance meant that Byzantine territory in
Greece was limited mainly to its then-largest city, ThessaHagia Sophia ( ) church in Constantinople is the epit- loniki, and the Peloponnese (Despotate of the Morea).[50]
ome of Byzantine architecture. It was constructed between 532 After the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453,
and 537 by the Greek scientists Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius the Morea was the last remnant of the Byzantine Empire
of Tralles on the orders of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I.[41] to hold out against the Ottomans. However, this, too, fell
to the Ottomans in 1460, completing the Ottoman conEmpire in the west in the 5th century, is conventionally quest of mainland Greece.[51] With the Turkish conquest,
known as the Byzantine Empire (but was simply called

2.4

Ottoman period (15th century 1821)

many Byzantine Greek scholars, who up until then were

largely responsible for preserving Classical Greek knowledge, ed to the West, taking with them a large body of
literature and thereby signicantly contributing to the Renaissance.[52]

2.4

5
Empire. Discrimination against Christians, particularly
when combined with harsh treatment by local Ottoman
authorities, led to conversions to Islam, if only supercially. In the 19th century, many crypto-Christians returned to their old religious allegiance.[54]

Ottoman period (15th century 1821)

Main article: Ottoman Greece

See also: Phanariotes
While most of mainland Greece and the Aegean islands

The Byzantine castle of Angelokastro successfully repulsed the

Ottomans during the First Great Siege of Corfu in 1537, the siege
of 1571, and the Second Great Siege of Corfu in 1716, causing
them to abandon their plans to conquer Corfu.[53]

was under Ottoman control by the end of the 15th century, Cyprus and Crete remained Venetian territory and
did not fall to the Ottomans until 1571 and 1670 respectively. The only part of the Greek-speaking world
that escaped long-term Ottoman rule was the Ionian Islands, which remained Venetian until their capture by the
First French Republic in 1797, then passed to the United
Kingdom in 1809 until their unication with Greece in
1864.[54]

The White Tower of Thessaloniki, one of the best-known Ottoman structures remaining in Greece

The nature of Ottoman administration of Greece varied, though it was invariably arbitrary and often harsh.[54]
Some cities had governors appointed by the Sultan, while
others (like Athens) were self-governed municipalities.
Mountains regions in the interior and many islands reWhile Greeks in the Ionian Islands and Constantinople
from the central Ottoman
lived in prosperity, and Greeks living in Constantino- mained eectively autonomous
state for many centuries.[54]
ple achieved positions of power within the Ottoman
administration,[54] much of the population of mainland When military conicts broke out between the Ottoman
Greece suered the economic consequences of the Ot- Empire and other states, Greeks usually took arms against
toman conquest. Heavy taxes were enforced, and in later the Empire, with few exceptions. Prior to the Greek
years the Ottoman Empire enacted a policy of creation revolution, there had been a number of wars which saw
of hereditary estates, eectively turning the rural Greek Greeks ght against the Ottomans, such as the Greek parpopulations into serfs.[55]
ticipation in the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, the Epirus
The Greek Orthodox Church and the Ecumenical Patri- peasants revolts of 16001601, the Morean War of
archate of Constantinople were considered by the Ot- 16841699, and the Russian-instigated Orlov Revolt in
up the Ottoman Empire
toman governments as the ruling authorities of the en- 1770, which aimed at breaking
[54]
These
uprisings were put
in
favor
of
Russian
interests.
tire Orthodox Christian population of the Ottoman Em[56][57]
down
by
the
Ottomans
with
great
bloodshed.
pire, whether ethnically Greek or not. Although the
Ottoman state did not force non-Muslims to convert to The 16th and 17th centuries are regarded as something
Islam, Christians faced several types of discrimination of a dark age in Greek history, with the prospect of
intended to highlight their inferior status in the Ottoman overthrowing Ottoman rule appearing remote with only

2 HISTORY

the Ionian islands remaining free of Turkish domination. Corfu withstood three major sieges in 1537, 1571
and 1716 all of which resulted in the repulsion of the
Ottomans. However, in the 18th century, there arose
through shipping a wealthy and dispersed Greek merchant class. These merchants came to dominate trade
within the Ottoman Empire, establishing communities
throughout the Mediterranean, the Balkans, and Western
Europe. Though the Ottoman conquest had cut Greece
o from signicant European intellectual movements
such as the Reformation and the Enlightenment, these
ideas together with the ideals of the French Revolution
and romantic nationalism began to penetrate the Greek
world via the mercantile diaspora.[54] In the late 18th century, Rigas Feraios, the rst revolutionary to envision an
independent Greek state, published a series of documents
relating to Greek independence, including but not limited to a national anthem and the rst detailed map of
Greece, in Vienna, and was murdered by Ottoman agents
in 1798.[54][58]

2.5

ria (Society of Friends) was founded with the aim of

liberating Greece. The Filiki Eteria planned to launch
revolution in the Peloponnese, the Danubian Principalities and Constantinople. The rst of these revolts began on 6 March 1821 in the Danubian Principalities under the leadership of Alexandros Ypsilantis, but it was
soon put down by the Ottomans. The events in the north
spurred the Greeks of the Peloponnese into action and
on 17 March 1821 the Maniots declared war on the
Ottomans.[59]
By the end of the month, the Peloponnese was in
open revolt against the Ottomans and by October 1821
the Greeks under Theodoros Kolokotronis had captured
Tripolitsa. The Peloponnesian revolt was quickly followed by revolts in Crete, Macedonia and Central Greece,
which would soon be suppressed. Meanwhile, the
makeshift Greek navy was achieving success against the
Ottoman navy in the Aegean Sea and prevented Ottoman
reinforcements from arriving by sea. In 1822 and 1824
the Turks and Egyptians ravaged the islands, including
Chios and Psara, committing wholesale massacres of the
population.[59] This had the eect of galvanizing public
opinion in western Europe in favor of the Greek rebels.[54]

Greek War of Independence (1821

1832)
Tensions soon developed among dierent Greek factions,

leading to two consecutive civil wars. Meanwhile, the

Main article: Greek War of Independence
Ottoman Sultan negotiated with Mehmet Ali of Egypt,
See also: Modern Greek Enlightenment, Greek Declarawho agreed to send his son Ibrahim Pasha to Greece with
tion of Independence and First Hellenic Republic
an army to suppress the revolt in return for territorial gain.
In 1814, a secret organization called the Filiki EteIbrahim landed in the Peloponnese in February 1825 and
had immediate success: by the end of 1825, most of the
Peloponnese was under Egyptian control, and the city of
Missolonghiput under siege by the Turks since April
1825fell in April 1826. Although Ibrahim was defeated in Mani, he had succeeded in suppressing most of
the revolt in the Peloponnese and Athens had been retaken.
After years of negotiation, three Great Powers, Russia,
the United Kingdom and France, decided to intervene
in the conict and each nation sent a navy to Greece.
Following news that combined OttomanEgyptian eets
were going to attack the Greek island of Hydra, the allied
eet intercepted the OttomanEgyptian eet at Navarino.
After a week-long stando, a battle began which resulted
in the destruction of the OttomanEgyptian eet. A
French expeditionary force was dispatched to supervise
the evacuation of the Egyptian army from the Peloponnese, while the Greeks proceeded to the captured part of
Central Greece by 1828. As a result of years of negotiation, the nascent Greek state was nally recognized under
the London Protocol in 1830.

2.6 19th century

The sortie of Messolonghi, during the Greek War of Independence (18211830), by Theodoros Vryzakis.

See also: Kingdom of Greece

In 1827, Ioannis Kapodistrias, from Corfu, was chosen as the rst governor of the First Hellenic Repub-

2.7

20th century

7
quently published in Katharevousa (puried) Greek, a
form which few ordinary Greeks could read. Liberals
favoured recognising Demotic as the national language,
but conservatives and the Orthodox Church resisted all
such eorts, to the extent that, when the New Testament
was translated into Demotic in 1901, riots erupted in
Athens and the government fell (the Evangeliaka). This
issue would continue to plague Greek politics until the
1970s.

The Entry of King Otto in Athens, Peter von Hess, 1839.

The territorial evolution of Kingdom of Greece until 1947.

All Greeks were united, however, in their determination

to liberate the Greek-speaking provinces of the Ottoman
Empire. Especially in Crete, a prolonged revolt in 1866
1869 had raised nationalist fervour. When war broke out
between Russia and the Ottomans in 1877, Greek popular sentiment rallied to Russias side, but Greece was too
poor, and too concerned of British intervention, to ocially enter the war. Nevertheless, in 1881, Thessaly and
small parts of Epirus were ceded to Greece as part of the
Treaty of Berlin, while frustrating Greek hopes of receiving Crete.
Greeks in Crete continued to stage regular revolts, and
in 1897, the Greek government under Theodoros Deligiannis, bowing to popular pressure, declared war on the
Ottomans. In the ensuing Greco-Turkish War of 1897
the badly trained and equipped Greek army was defeated
by the Ottomans. Through the intervention of the Great
Powers however, Greece lost only a little territory along
the border to Turkey, while Crete was established as an
autonomous state under Prince George of Greece.

lic. Following his assassination in 1831 and the subsequent conference a year later, the Great Powers of Britain,
France and Russia installed Bavarian Prince Otto von 2.7 20th century
Wittelsbach as monarch.[60] In 1843 an uprising forced
the king to grant a constitution and a representative as- See also: Greek Struggle for Macedonia, Balkan Wars,
National Schism, Asia Minor Campaign, 4th of August
sembly.
Regime, Greco-Italian War, Battle of Greece, Axis ocDue to his authoritarian rule, he was eventually dethroned
cupation of Greece, Greek Civil War and Greek military
in 1862 and a year later replaced by Prince Wilhelm junta of 196774
(William) of Denmark, who took the name George I and
At the end of the Balkan Wars, the extent of Greeces
brought with him the Ionian Islands as a coronation gift territory and population had increased. In the followfrom Britain. In 1877 Charilaos Trikoupis, who is creding years, the struggle between King Constantine I and
ited with signicant improvement of the countrys infras- charismatic Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos over
tructure, curbed the power of the monarchy to interfere
the countrys foreign policy on the eve of World War I
in the assembly by issuing the rule of vote of condence dominated the countrys political scene, and divided the
to any potential prime minister.
country into two opposing groups. During parts of the
Corruption and Trikoupis increased spending to create First World War, Greece had two governments; a royalist
necessary infrastructure like the Corinth Canal overtaxed pro-German government in Athens and a Venizelist prothe weak Greek economy, forcing the declaration of Britain one in Thessaloniki. The two governments were
public insolvency in 1893 and to accept the imposition united in 1917, when Greece ocially entered the war on
of an International Financial Control authority to pay o the side of the Triple Entente.
the countrys debtors. Another political issue in 19th- In the aftermath of the First World War, Greece atcentury Greece was uniquely Greek: the language ques- tempted further expansion into Asia Minor, a region
tion. The Greek people spoke a form of Greek called with a large native Greek population at the time,
Demotic. Many of the educated elite saw this as a peas- but was defeated in the Greco-Turkish War of 1919
ant dialect and were determined to restore the glories of 1922, contributing to a massive ight of Asia Minor
Ancient Greek.
Greeks.[61][62] These events both overlapped, and were
Government documents and newspapers were conse- preceded by, what has been called the Greek genocide

2 HISTORY

Signing at Zappeion of the documents for the accession of Greece

to the European Communities in 1979.

King Constantine I with PM Eleftherios Venizelos (seated, with

back to camera) in 1913, during the Balkan Wars

contributed to the death of several hundred thousand Asia

Minor Greeks. The resultant Greek exodus from Asia
Minor was made permanent, and expanded, in an ocial
Population exchange between Greece and Turkey, part
of the terms of the Treaty of Lausanne, which ended the
war.[68]
The following era was marked by instability, overshadowed by the massive task of incorporating 1.5
million propertyless Greek refugees from Turkey into
Greek society, more than a quarter of Greeces prior
population.[69] The Greek population in Istanbul dropped
from 300,000 in 1900 to around 3,000 in 2001.[70]

Following the catastrophic events in Asia Minor, the

monarchy was abolished via a referendum in 1924 and
the Second Hellenic Republic was declared. Premier
Georgios Kondylis took power in 1935 and eectively
Map of Greater Greece after the Treaty of Svres, when the abolished the republic by bringing back the monarchy via
Megali Idea seemed close to fulllment, featuring Eleftherios a referendum in 1935. A coup d'tat followed in 1936
Venizelos.
and installed Ioannis Metaxas as the head of a dictatorial
regime known as the 4th of August Regime. Although a
dictatorship, Greece remained on good terms with Britain
and was not allied with the Axis.
On 28 October 1940, Fascist Italy demanded the surrender of Greece, but the Greek administration refused and
in the following Greco-Italian War, Greece repelled Italian forces into Albania, giving the Allies their rst victory
over Axis forces on land. The Greek struggle and victory
against the Italians received exuberant praise at the time.
Most prominent is the quote of Winston Churchill:

Greek troops during the Italian Spring Oensive (1941) in the

Greco-Italian War. Greeces victory against Fascist Italy, gave
the Allies their rst victory over Axis forces on land in World
War II.

Hence we will not say that Greeks ght like

heroes, but we will say that heroes ght like
Greeks. [71]

French general Charles de Gaulle was among those who

praised the erceness of the Greek resistance. In an ofcial notice released to coincide with the Greek national
(1914-1922),[63][64][65][66] a period during which, accord- celebration of the Day of Independence, De Gaulle exing to various sources,[67] Ottoman and Turkish ocials pressed his admiration for the heroic Greek resistance:

2.8

21st century
In the name of the captured yet still alive
French people, France wants to send her greetings to the Greek people who are ghting for
their freedom. The 25 March 1941 nds Greece
in the peak of their heroic struggle and in the
top of their glory. Since the Battle of Salamis,
Greece had not achieved the greatness and the
glory which today holds. [72]

9
the regime, and a counter-coup established Brigadier
Dimitrios Ioannidis as dictator. On 20 July 1974, as
Turkey invaded the island of Cyprus, the regime collapsed.

The former prime minister Konstantinos Karamanlis was

invited back from Paris where he had lived in self-exile
since 1963, marking the beginning of the Metapolitefsi
era. The rst multiparty elections since 1964 were held
on the rst anniversary of the Polytechnic uprising. A
The country would eventually fall to urgently dispatched
democratic and republican constitution was promulgated
German forces during the Battle of Greece, despite the
on 11 June 1975 following a referendum which chose to
erce Greek resistance particularly in the Battle of the
not restore the monarchy.
Metaxas Line. Adolf Hitler himself recognised the bravery and the courage of the Greek army, stating in his ad- Meanwhile, Andreas Papandreou founded the
Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) in redress to the Reichstag on 11 December 1941, that:
sponse to Karamanliss conservative New Democracy
"Historical justice obliges me to state that of
party, with the two political formations alternating
the enemies who took up positions against us,
in government ever since. Greece rejoined NATO
the Greek soldier particularly fought with the
in 1980.[78] Greece became the tenth member of the
highest courage. He capitulated only when furEuropean Communities (subsequently subsumed by
ther resistance had become impossible and usethe European Union) on 1 January 1981, ushering in a
less."[73]
period of sustained growth. Widespread investments in
industrial enterprises and heavy infrastructure, as well as
Greece was eventually occupied by the Nazis who pro- funds from the European Union and growing revenues
ceeded to administer Athens and Thessaloniki, while from tourism, shipping and a fast-growing service sector
other regions of the country were given to Nazi Ger- raised the countrys standard of living to unprecedented
manys partners, Fascist Italy and Bulgaria. The occupa- levels. Traditionally strained relations with neighbouring
tion brought about terrible hardships for the Greek civil- Turkey improved when successive earthquakes hit both
ian population. Over 100,000 civilians died of starvation nations in 1999, leading to the lifting of the Greek veto
during the winter of 19411942, tens of thousands more against Turkeys bid for EU membership.
died because of reprisals by Nazis and collaborators, the
countrys economy was ruined and the great majority of
Greek Jews were deported and murdered in Nazi concen- 2.8 21st century
tration camps.[74][75] The Greek Resistance, one of the
most eective resistance movements in Europe fought ve- The country adopted the euro in 2001 and successfully
hemently against the Nazis and their collaborators. The hosted the 2004 Summer Olympic Games in Athens.[79]
German occupiers committed numerous atrocities, mass More recently, Greece has suered greatly from the
executions, and wholesale slaughter of civilians and de- late-2000s recession and has been central to the related
struction of towns and villages in reprisals. In the course European sovereign debt crisis. The Greek governmentof the concerted anti-guerrilla campaign, hundreds of vil- debt crisis, subsequent austerity policies and resultant
lages were systematically torched and almost 1,000,000 protests have agitated domestic politics and have reguGreeks left homeless.[75] In total, the Germans executed larly threatened European and global nancial markets
some 21,000 Greeks, the Bulgarians 40,000 and the Ital- since the crisis began in 2010.
ians 9,000.[76]
After liberation, Greece experienced a polarising civil
war between communist and anticommunist forces,
which led to economic devastation and severe social tensions between rightists and largely communist leftists for
the next thirty years.[77] The next twenty years were characterized by marginalisation of the left in the political and
social spheres but also by rapid economic growth, propelled in part by the Marshall Plan.
King Constantine II's dismissal of George Papandreou's
centrist government in July 1965 prompted a prolonged
period of political turbulence which culminated in a coup
d'tat on 21 April 1967 by the Regime of the Colonels.
The brutal suppression of the Athens Polytechnic uprising on 17 November 1973 sent shockwaves through

3 Geography and climate

Main article: Geography of Greece
Located in Southern Europe,[80] Greece consists of a
mountainous, peninsular mainland jutting out into the
sea at the southern end of the Balkans, ending at the
Peloponnese peninsula (separated from the mainland
by the canal of the Isthmus of Corinth) and strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and
Africa.[81][82][83] Due to its highly indented coastline and
numerous islands, Greece has the 11th longest coastline in the world with 13,676 km (8,498 mi);[84] its land
boundary is 1,160 km (721 mi). The country lies approx-

10

3 GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE

the world.[86] Another notable formation are the Meteora
rock pillars, atop which have been built medieval Greek
Orthodox monasteries.
Northeastern Greece features another high-altitude
mountain range, the Rhodope range, spreading across
the region of East Macedonia and Thrace; this area is
covered with vast, thick, ancient forests, including the
famous Dadia forest in the Evros regional unit, in the far
northeast of the country.
Extensive plains are primarily located in the regions of
Thessaly, Central Macedonia and Thrace. They constitute key economic regions as they are among the few
arable places in the country. Rare marine species such
as the pinniped seals and the loggerhead sea turtle live
in the seas surrounding mainland Greece, while its dense
forests are home to the endangered brown bear, the lynx,
the roe deer and the wild goat.

3.1 Islands
Main article: List of islands of Greece
Greece features a vast number of islands, between 1,200
and 6,000, depending on the denition,[87] 227 of which
are inhabited. Crete is the largest and most populous isimately between latitudes 34 and 42 N, and longitudes land; Euboea, separated from the mainland by the 60m19 and 30 E, with the extreme points being:[85]
wide Euripus Strait, is the second largest, followed by
Lesbos and Rhodes.
North: Ormenio village
The Greek islands are traditionally grouped into the fol South: Gavdos island
lowing clusters: The Argo-Saronic Islands in the Saronic
gulf near Athens, the Cyclades, a large but dense collec East: Strongyli island
tion occupying the central part of the Aegean Sea, the
West: Othonoi island
North Aegean islands, a loose grouping o the west coast
of Turkey, the Dodecanese, another loose collection in
Eighty percent of Greece consists of mountains or hills, the southeast between Crete and Turkey, the Sporades, a
making the country one of the most mountainous in Eu- small tight group o the coast of northeast Euboea, and
rope. Mount Olympus, the mythical abode of the Greek the Ionian Islands, located to the west of the mainland in
Gods, culminates at Mytikas peak 2,917 m (9,570 ft), the Ionian Sea.
the highest in the country. Western Greece contains a
number of lakes and wetlands and is dominated by the
Pindus mountain range. The Pindus, a continuation of the 3.2 Climate
Dinaric Alps, reaches a maximum elevation of 2,637 m
(8,652 ft) at Mt. Smolikas (the second-highest in Greece) Further information: Climate of Greece
and historically has been a signicant barrier to east-west The climate of Greece is primarily Mediterranean, featuring mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers. This
travel.
The Pindus range continues through the central Pelopon- climate occurs at all coastal locations, including Athens,
nese, crosses the islands of Kythera and Antikythera and the Cyclades, the Dodecanese, Crete, the Peloponnese,
nds its way into southwestern Aegean, in the island of the Ionian Islands and parts of the Central Continental
Crete where it eventually ends. The islands of the Aegean Greece region. The Pindus mountain range strongly afare peaks of underwater mountains that once constituted fects the climate of the country, as areas to the west of the
an extension of the mainland. Pindus is characterized range are considerably wetter on average (due to greater
by its high, steep peaks, often dissected by numerous exposure to south-westerly systems bringing in moisture)
canyons and a variety of other karstic landscapes. The than the areas lying to the east of the range (due to a rain
spectacular Vikos Gorge, part of the Vikos-Aoos Na- shadow eect).
Navagio (shipwreck) bay, Zakynthos island

tional Park in the Pindus range, is listed by the Guin- The mountainous areas of Northwestern Greece (parts of
ness book of World Records as the deepest gorge in Epirus, Central Greece, Thessaly, Western Macedonia)

4.1

Political parties

11
legislative, and judicial branches, and grants extensive
specic guarantees (further reinforced in 2001) of civil
liberties and social rights.[89][90] Womens surage was
guaranteed with an amendment to the 1952 Constitution.

A view of Mount Olympus, the highest mountain in Greece and

mythical abode of the Gods of Olympus

as well as in the mountainous central parts of Peloponnese including parts of the regional units of Achaea,
Arcadia and Laconia feature an Alpine climate with
heavy snowfalls. The inland parts of northern Greece, in
Central Macedonia and East Macedonia and Thrace feature a temperate climate with cold, damp winters and hot,
dry summers with frequent thunderstorms. Snowfalls occur every year in the mountains and northern areas, and
brief snowfalls are not unknown even in low-lying southern areas, such as Athens.

3.3

Ecology

According to the Constitution, executive power is exercised by the President of the Republic and the
Government.[88] From the Constitutional amendment of
1986 the Presidents duties were curtailed to a signicant
extent, and they are now largely ceremonial; most political power thus lies in the hands of the Prime Minister.[91]
The position of Prime Minister, Greeces head of government, belongs to the current leader of the political
party that can obtain a vote of condence by the Parliament. The President of the Republic formally appoints
the Prime Minister and, on his recommendation, appoints
and dismisses the other members of the Cabinet.[88]
Legislative powers are exercised by a 300-member elective unicameral Parliament.[88] Statutes passed by the
Parliament are promulgated by the President of the
Republic.[88] Parliamentary elections are held every four
years, but the President of the Republic is obliged to dissolve the Parliament earlier on the proposal of the Cabinet, in view of dealing with a national issue of exceptional
importance.[88] The President is also obliged to dissolve
the Parliament earlier, if the opposition manages to pass
a motion of no condence.[88]

4.1 Political parties

Main articles: Political parties of Greece and List of poPhytogeographically, Greece belongs to the Boreal King- litical parties in Greece
dom and is shared between the East Mediterranean Since the restoration of democracy, the Greek party sysprovince of the Mediterranean Region and the Illyrian
province of the Circumboreal Region. According to the
World Wide Fund for Nature and the European Environment Agency, the territory of Greece can be subdivided
into six ecoregions: the Illyrian deciduous forests, Pindus
Mountains mixed forests, Balkan mixed forests, Rhodope
montane mixed forests, Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests and Crete Mediterranean
forests.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Greece

The Hellenic Parliament in central Athens.

Greece is a unitary parliamentary republic.[88] The nominal head of state is the President of the Republic, who is
elected by the Parliament for a ve-year term.[88] The current Constitution was drawn up and adopted by the Fifth
Revisionary Parliament of the Hellenes and entered into
force in 1975 after the fall of the military junta of 1967
1974. It has been revised three times since, in 1986, 2001
and 2008. The Constitution, which consists of 120 articles, provides for a separation of powers into executive,

tem has been dominated by the liberal-conservative New

Democracy (ND) and the social-democratic Panhellenic
Socialist Movement (PASOK).[lower-alpha 2] Other significant parties include the Communist Party of Greece
(KKE), the Coalition of the Radical Left (SYRIZA) the
Popular Orthodox Rally (LAOS) and the Popular Association Golden Dawn.
In 2010, two new parties split o from ND and SYRIZA,
the centrist-liberal Democratic Alliance (DS) and the

12

4 POLITICS
Mnimonio and the austerity measures. The leftist party
of SYRIZA became the second major party, with an increase from 4% to 16%. No party could form a sustainable government, which led to the parliamentary elections
of June 2012. The result of the second elections was the
formation of a coalition government composed of New
Democracy (29%), PASOK (12%) and Democratic Left
(6%) parties.
Alexis Tsipras led Syriza to victory in the general election held on 25 January 2015, falling short of an outright
majority in Parliament by just two seats. The following
morning, Tsipras reached an agreement with the rightwing populist Independent Greeks party to form a coalition, and he was sworn in as Prime Minister of Greece.

4.2 Law and justice

Main articles: Judicial system of Greece and Law
enforcement in Greece
The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the
legislature and comprises three Supreme Courts: the
Court of Cassation ( ), the Council of State
( ) and the Court of Auditors ( ). The Judiciary system is also
Count Ioannis Kapodistrias, rst governor and founder of the composed of civil courts, which judge civil and penal
modern Greek State
cases and administrative courts, which judge disputes between the citizens and the Greek administrative authorimoderate leftist Democratic Left (DA). George Papan- ties.
dreou, president of PASOK, won the parliamentary elec- The Hellenic Police (Greek: )
tions of October 2009 with a majority in the Parliament is the national police force of Greece. It is a very
of 160 out of 300 seats. A new government was sworn large agency with its responsibilities ranging from road
in on 20 June 2011, and received a marginal vote of con- trac control to counter-terrorism.
It was estabdence on 22 June, with 155 votes for, 143 against, and lished in 1984 under Law 1481/1-10-1984 (Governtwo MPs absent.[92]
ment Gazette 152 A) as the result of the fusion of
Since the beginning of the government-debt crisis in the Gendarmerie (, Chorofylaki) and the
Police ( , Astynomia Poleon)
2009, the two major parties, New Democracy and PA- Cities [99]
forces.
SOK, have seen a sharp decline in the share of votes in
polls conducted, with recent polls showing support from
34% to 48% for the two major parties.[93][94][95][96][97]
Polls show support for PASOK ranging from 8%[97] to 4.3 Foreign relations
18%,[93] while New Democracy is in the 18% to 30%
Main article: Foreign relations of Greece
range.[93][95]
Greeces foreign policy is conducted through the Ministry
In November 2011, the two major parties joined the for Foreign Aairs and its head, the Minister for Forsmaller Popular Orthodox Rally in a grand coalition, eign Aairs. The current minister is Nikos Kotzias.
pledging their parliamentary support for a government of According to the ocial website, the main aims of the
national unity headed by former European Central Bank Ministry for Foreign Aairs are to represent Greece bevice-president Lucas Papademos.[98] Panos Kammenos fore other states and international organizations;[101] safevoted against this government and he split o from ND guarding the interests of the Greek state and of its citiforming Independent Greeks.
zens abroad;[101] the promotion of Greek culture;[101] the
The coalition government led the country to the fostering of closer relations with the Greek diaspora;[101]
parliamentary elections of May 2012. The power of and the promotion of international cooperation.[101] Adthe traditional Greek political parties, PASOK and New ditionally, Greece has developed a regional policy to
Democracy, declined from 43% to 13% and from 33% to help promote peace and stability in the Balkans, the
18%, respectively, due to their support on the politics of Mediterranean, and the Middle East.[102]

4.5

Administrative divisions

13
An Alenia C-27J Spartan used by the Hellenic Air Force

Representation through:[100] embassy embassy in another country

general consulate liaison oce no representation Greece

A Leopard 2 used by the Hellenic Army

The Hellenic Armed Forces are overseen by the

Hellenic National Defense General Sta (Greek:
The Ministry identies three issues as of particular im- ), with civilian auportance to the Greek state: Turkish challenges to Greek thority vested in the Ministry of National Defence. It consovereignty rights in the Aegean Sea and correspond- sists of three branches:
ing airspace;[103] the legitimacy of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus on the island of Cyprus;[103] and
Hellenic Army
the Macedonia naming dispute[103] with the small Balkan
country which shares a name with Greeces largest and
Hellenic Navy
second-most-populous region, also called Macedonia.
Hellenic Air Force
Greece is a member of numerous international organizations, including the Council of Europe, the European
Union, the Union for the Mediterranean and the United Moreover, Greece maintains the Hellenic Coast Guard
for law enforcement at sea, search and rescue, and port
Nations, of which it is a founding member.
operations. Though it can support the navy during
wartime, it resides under the authority of the Ministry of
Shipping.

4.4

Military

Greece has universal compulsory military service for

males, while females are exempted from conscription but
may otherwise serve in the military. As of 2009, mandatory military service is nine months for male citizens between the ages of 19 and 45. Additionally, Greek males
between the age of 18 and 60 who live in strategically sensitive areas may be required to serve part-time in the National Guard. However, as the military has sought to become a completely professional force, the government has
promised to reduce mandatory military service or abolish
A Greek frigate Spetsai (F-453) used by the Hellenic it completely.
Navy
As a member of NATO, the Greek military participates
in exercises and deployments under the auspices of the
alliance.
Main article: Military of Greece

Greece spends over 7 billion USD every year on its military, or 2.3% of GDP, the 24th-highest in the world.

An F-16D used by the Hellenic Air Force

4.5 Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative divisions of Greece
Since the Kallikratis programme reform entered into effect on 1 January 2011, Greece has consisted of thirteen
regions subdivided into a total of 325 municipalities. The
54 old prefectures and prefecture-level administrations
have been largely retained as sub-units of the regions.
Seven decentralized administrations group one to three

14

5 ECONOMY

regions for administrative purposes on a regional basis.

There is also one autonomous area, Mount Athos (Greek:
Agio Oros, Holy Mountain), which borders the region
of Central Macedonia.

Greece is a developed country with high standards of

living and high Human Development Index.[109][110] Its
economy mainly comprises the service sector (85.0%)
and industry (12.0%), while agriculture makes up 3.0%
of the national economic output.[111] Important Greek
industries include tourism (with 14.9 million[112] international tourists in 2009, it is ranked as the 7th most
5 Economy
visited country in the European Union[112] and 16th in
the world[112] by the United Nations World Tourism OrMain articles: Economy of Greece and List of Greek
ganization) and merchant shipping (at 16.2%[113] of the
subdivisions by GDP
worlds total capacity, the Greek merchant marine is
the largest in the world[113] ), while the country is also
a considerable agricultural producer (including sheries)
within the union.
5.1 Introduction
With an economy larger than all the Balkan economies
combined, Greece is the largest economy in the
Balkans,[114][115][116] and an important regional
investor.[114][115] Greece is the number-two foreign
investor of capital in Albania, the number-three foreign
investor in Bulgaria, at the top-three of foreign investors
in Romania and Serbia and the most important trading
partner and largest foreign investor of the Republic of
Macedonia. Greek banks open a new branch somewhere
in the Balkans on an almost weekly basis.[117][118][119]
The Greek telecommunications company OTE has
become a strong investor in Yugoslavia and other Balkan
countries.[117]

The main building of the Bank of Greece in Athens.

Thessaloniki, the capital of Macedonia, important nancial and

industrial center of Northern Greece.

The
Greek
economy
is
classied
as
advanced[120][121][122][123][124] and high-income.[125][126]
Greece was a founding member of the Organisation
for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
and the Organization of the Black Sea Economic
Cooperation (BSEC). In 1979 the accession of the
country in the European Communities and the single
market was signed, and the process was completed in
1982. Greece was accepted into the Economic and
Monetary Union of the European Union on 19 June
2000, and in January 2001 adopted the Euro as its
currency, replacing the Greek drachma at an exchange
rate of 340.75 drachma to the Euro.[127] Greece is also
a member of the International Monetary Fund and the
World Trade Organization, and is ranked 24th on the
KOF Globalization Index for 2013.

5.2 Financial crisis (2010present)

See also: Greek government-debt crisis
By the end of 2009, as a result of a combination of international and local factors the Greek economy faced its
most-severe crisis since the restoration of democracy in
1974 as the Greek government revised its decit from
an estimated 6% to 12.7% of gross domestic product
(GDP).[128][129]

According to World Bank statistics for the year 2013, the

economy of Greece is the 43rd largest by nominal gross
domestic product at $242 billion[106] and 52nd largest
by purchasing power parity (PPP) at $284 billion.[107]
Additionally, Greece is the 15th largest economy in the
27-member European Union.[108] In terms of per capita
income, Greece is ranked 38th or 40th in the world at In early 2010, it was revealed that through the assistance
$21,910 and $25,705 for nominal GDP and PPP respec- of Goldman Sachs, JPMorgan Chase and numerous other
banks, nancial products were developed which enabled
tively.

5.3

Energy

15
On 15 November 2010, the EUs statistics body Eurostat revised the public nance and debt gure for Greece
following an excessive decit procedure methodological
mission in Athens, and put Greeces 2009 government
decit at 15.4% of GDP and public debt at 126.8% of
GDP making it the biggest decit (as a percentage of
GDP) among the EU member nations.[144]

Greek public debt 19992010 compared with Eurozone average

In 2011, it became apparent that the bail-out would be insucient and a second bail-out amounting to 130 billion ($173 billion) was agreed in 2012, subject to strict
conditions, including nancial reforms and further austerity measures.[145] As part of the deal, there was to be a
53% reduction in the Greek debt burden to private creditors and any prots made by Eurozone central banks on
their holdings of Greek debt are to be repatriated back to
Greece.[145] Greece achieved a primary government budget surplus in 2013. In April 2014, Greece returned to
the global bond market as it successfully sold 3 billion
worth of ve-year government bonds at a yield of 4.95%.
Greece returned to growth after six years of economic decline in the second quarter of 2014,[146] and was the Eurozones fastest-growing economy in the third quarter.[147]

the governments of Greece, Italy and many other European countries to hide their borrowing.[130][131] Dozens 5.3 Energy
of similar agreements were concluded across Europe
whereby banks supplied cash in advance in exchange for Main article: Energy in Greece
future payments by the governments involved; in turn, Electric energy production in Greece is dominated by
the liabilities of the involved countries were kept o the
books.[131][132][133][134][135][136]
According to Der Spiegel credits given to European governments were disguised as swaps and consequently
did not get registered as debt. As Eurostat at the time
ignored statistics involving nancial derivatives, a German derivatives dealer had commented to Der Spiegel that
The Maastricht rules can be circumvented quite legally
through swaps, and In previous years, Italy used a similar trick to mask its true debt with the help of a dierent US bank.[136] These conditions had enabled Greek as
well as many other European governments to spend beyond their means, while meeting the decit targets of the
European Union.[131][137]
In May 2010, the Greek government decit was again revised and estimated to be 13.6%[138] which was the second highest in the world relative to GDP with Iceland in
rst place at 15.7% and the United Kingdom third with
12.6%.[139] Public debt was forecast, according to some
estimates, to hit 120% of GDP during 2010.[140]
As a consequence, there was a crisis in international condence in Greeces ability to repay its sovereign debt.
To avert such a default, in May 2010 the other Eurozone countries, and the IMF, agreed to a rescue package which involved giving Greece an immediate 45 billion in loans, with more funds to follow, totaling 110
billion.[141][142] To secure the funding, Greece was required to adopt harsh austerity measures to bring its
decit under control.[143]

Solar-power generation potential in Greece

the state owned Public Power Corporation (known mostly

by its acronym , or in English DEI). In 2009 DEI
supplied for 85.6% of all electric energy demand in
Greece,[148] while the number fell to 77.3% in 2010.[148]
Almost half (48%) of DEIs power output is generated
using lignite, a drop from the 51.6% in 2009.[148]
Twelve percent of Greeces electricity comes from Hy-

16

5 ECONOMY

droelectric power plants[149] and another 20% from farming in Greece increased by 885%, the highest change
natural gas.[149] Between 2009 and 2010, independent percentage in the EU.
companies energy production increased by 56%,[148]
from 2,709 Gigawatt hour in 2009 to 4,232 GWh in
5.5 Maritime industry
2010.[148]
In 2012, renewable energy accounted for 13.8% of the
Main articles: Greek shipping and List of ports in Greece
countrys total energy consumption,[150] a rise from the
See also: Economy of Greece Maritime industry
[150]
10.6% it accounted for in 2011,
a gure almost equal
The shipping industry is a key element of Greek eco[150]
to the EU average of 14.1% in 2012.
10% of the
[151]
countrys renewable energy comes from solar power,
while most comes from biomass and waste recycling.[151]
In line with the European Commission's Directive on Renewable Energy, Greece aims to get 18% of its energy
from renewable sources by 2020.[152]
In 2013, according to the independent power transmission operator in Greece () more than 20% of the
electricity in Greece has been produced from renewable
energy sources and hydroelectric powerplants. This percentage in April reached 42%. Greece currently does not
have any nuclear power plants in operation, however in
2009 the Academy of Athens suggested that research in
the possibility of Greek nuclear power plants begin.[153]

5.4

Agriculture

Greece controls 16.2% of the worlds total merchant eet, making

it the largest in the world. Greece is ranked in the top 5 for all
kinds of ships, including rst for tankers and bulk carriers.

nomic activity dating back to ancient times.[156] Today,

Main article: Agriculture in Greece
In 2010, Greece was the European Union's largest pro- shipping is one of the countrys most important industries.
It accounts for 4.5% of GDP, employs about 160,000
people (4% of the workforce), and represents of the
countrys trade decit.[157]
According to a United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development report in 2011, the Greek merchant navy
is the largest in the world at 16.2% of the worlds total capacity,[113] up from 15.96% in 2010.[158] This is
a drop from the equivalent number in 2006, which was
18.2%.[159] The total tonnage of the countrys merchant
eet is 202 million dwt, ranked 1st in the world.[113]
During the 1960s, the size of the Greek eet nearly doubled, primarily through the investment undertaken by the
shipping magnates, Aristotle Onassis and Stavros Niarchos.[160] The basis of the modern Greek maritime inSun-drying of Zante currant on Zakynthos
dustry was formed after World War II when Greek shipducer of cotton (183,800 tons) and pistachios (8,000 ping businessmen were able to amass surplus ships sold
tons)[154] and ranked second in the production of rice to them by the U.S. government through the Ship Sales
(229,500 tons)[154] and olives (147,500 tons),[155] third Act of the 1940s.[160]
in the production of gs (11,000 tons) and [155] almonds In terms of total number of ships, the Greek Merchant
(44,000 tons),[155] tomatoes (1,400,000 tons),[155] and Navy stands at 4th worldwide, with 3,150 ships (741 of
watermelons (578,400 tons)[155] and fourth in the produc- which are registered in Greece whereas the rest 2,409
tion of tobacco (22,000 tons).[154] Agriculture contributes in other ports).[158] In terms of ship categories, Greece
3.8% of the countrys GDP and employs 12.4% of the ranks rst in both tankers and dry bulk carriers, fourth
countrys labor force.
in the number of containers, and fth in other ships.[161]
Greece is a major beneciary of the Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union. As a result of the
countrys entry to the European Community, much of its
agricultural infrastructure has been upgraded and agricultural output increased. Between 2000 and 2007 organic

However, todays eet roster is smaller than an all-time

high of 5,000 ships in the late 1970s.[156] Additionally,
the total number of ships ying a Greek ag (includes
non-Greek eets) is 1,517, or 5.3% of the worlds dwt
(ranked 5th).[158]

5.7

5.6

Transport

Tourism

17

5.7 Transport

Main article: Tourism in Greece

Main article: Transport in Greece
An important percentage of Greeces national income Since the 1980s, the road and rail network of Greece has

Panoramic view of parts of old Corfu City, a UNESCO World

Heritage Site, as seen from Palaio Frourio. The Bay of Garitsa
is to the left and the port of Corfu is just visible on the top right
of the picture. Spianada is in the foreground.

The RioAntirrio bridge (Charilaos Trikoupis) connects mainland Greece to the Peloponnese.

Panorama of Santorini

been signicantly modernized. Important works include

the A2 (Egnatia Odos) motorway, that connects northwestern Greece (Igoumenitsa) with northern and northeastern Greece (Kipoi); and the RioAntirrio bridge,
the longest suspension cable bridge in Europe (2,250 m
(7,382 ft) long), connecting the Peloponnese from Rio (7
km (4 mi) from Patras) with Antirrio in Central Greece.

Important projects that are currently underway include,

the conversion of the GR-8A, connecting Athens with Patras and further towards Pyrgos in the western Peloponnese, into a modernised motorway throughout its length
(scheduled to be completed by 2014); upgrading unnished sections of motorway on the A1, connecting Athens
to Thessaloniki; and the construction of the Thessaloniki
The vast majority of visitors in Greece in 2007 Metro.
came from the European continent, numbering 12.7 The Athens Metropolitan Area in particular is served by
million,[165] while the most visitors from a single na- some of the most modern and ecient transport infrastionality were those from the United Kingdom, (2.6 tructure in Europe, such as the Athens International Airmillion), followed closely by those from Germany (2.3 port, the privately run Attiki Odos motorway network and
million).[165] In 2010, the most visited region of Greece the expanded Athens Metro system.
was that of Central Macedonia, with 18% of the countrys
Most of the Greek islands and many main cities of Greece
total tourist ow (amounting to 3.6 million tourists), fol- are connected by air mainly from the two major Greek
lowed by Attica with 2.6 million and the Peloponnese with airlines, Olympic Air and Aegean Airlines. Maritime
1.8 million.[163] Northern Greece is the countrys most- connections have been improved with modern high-speed
visited geographical region, with 6.5 million tourists, craft, including hydrofoils and catamarans.
while Central Greece is second with 6.3 million.[163]
Railway connections play a somewhat lesser role
In 2010, Lonely Planet ranked Greeces northern and in Greece than in many other European countries,
second-largest city of Thessaloniki as the worlds fth- but they too have also been expanded, with new
best party town worldwide, comparable to other cities suburban/commuter rail connections, serviced by
such as Dubai and Montreal.[166] In 2011, Santorini Proastiakos around Athens, towards its airport, Kiato
was voted as The Worlds Best Island in Travel + and Chalkida; around Thessaloniki, towards the cities of
Leisure.[167] Its neighboring island Mykonos, came in fth Larissa and Edessa; and around Patras. A modern inin the European category.[167]
tercity rail connection between Athens and Thessaloniki
23 million tourists visited Greece throughout 2014, a has also been established, while an upgrade to double
record for Greek tourism.[168]
lines in many parts of the 2,500 km (1,600 mi) network
comes from tourism. Tourism funds 16% of the gross domestic products which also includes the Tourism Council and the London-Based World Travel.[162] According
to Eurostat statistics, Greece welcomed over 19.5 million
tourists in 2009,[163] which is an increase from the 17.7
million tourists it welcomed in 2007.[164]

18

5 ECONOMY

is underway. International railway lines connect Greek

cities with the rest of Europe, the Balkans and Turkey.

5.8

Telecommunications

Main article: Telecommunications in Greece

Modern digital information and communication net-

OTE headquarters in Athens

Thessaloniki Science Center and Technology Museum

works reach all areas. There are over 35,000 km (21,748

mi) of ber optics and an extensive open-wire network. Broadband internet availability is widespread in
Greece: there were a total of 2,252,653 broadband connections as of early 2011, translating to 20% broadband penetration.[169] According to 2012 ELSTAT data,
53,6% of the households used the internet regularly and
of which 94,8% of them had broadband connection[170]

average of 1.93%, but, according to Research DC, based

on OECD and Eurostat data, between 1990 and 1998, total R&D expenditure in Greece enjoyed the third-highest
increase in Europe, after Finland and Ireland. Because
of its strategic location, qualied workforce and political and economic stability, many multinational companies such as Ericsson, Siemens, Motorola and Coca-Cola
have their regional research and development headquarInternet cafs that provide net access, oce applica- ters in Greece.
tions and multiplayer gaming are also a common sight
in the country, while mobile internet on 3G and 4G- Greeces technology parks with incubator facilities inLTE cellphone networks and Wi-Fi connections can clude the Science and Technology Park of Crete (Herbe found almost everywhere.[171] 3G/4G mobile inter- aklion), the Thessaloniki Technology Park, the Lavrio
net usage has been on a sharp increase in recent years, Technology Park and the Patras Science Park, the
with a 340% increase between August 2011 and August Science and Technology Park of Epirus (Ioannina).
2012.[172] The United Nations International Telecommu- Greece has been a member of the European Space
[174]
Cooperation between
nication Union ranks Greece among the top 30 countries Agency (ESA) since 2005.
ESA
and
the
Hellenic
National
Space
Committee began
with a highly developed information and communications
[173]
in
the
early
1990s.
In
1994
Greece
and
ESA signed their
infrastructure.
rst cooperation agreement. Having formally applied for
full membership in 2003, Greece became the ESAs sixteenth member on 16 March 2005. As member of the
5.9 Science and technology
ESA, Greece participates in the agencys telecommunicaThe General Secretariat for Research and Technology tion and technology activities, and the Global Monitoring
of the Ministry of Development is responsible for de- for Environment and Security Initiative.
signing, implementing and supervising national research As of 2007, Greece had the eighth highest percentage of
and technological policy. In 2003, public spending on tertiary enrollment in the world (with the percentages for
research and development (R&D) was 456.37 million eu- female students being higher than for male) while Greeks
ros (12.6% increase from 2002). Total R&D spending of the Diaspora are equally active in the eld of education.
(both public and private) as a percentage of GDP had Hundreds of thousands of Greek students attend western
increased considerably since the beginning of the past universities every year while the faculty lists of leading
decade, from 0.38% in 1989, to 0.65% in 2001.
Western universities contain a striking number of Greek
R&D spending in Greece remained lower than the EU names.[175]

6.1

Cities

Notable Greek scientists of modern times include

Dimitrios Galanos, Georgios Papanikolaou (inventor
of the Pap test), Nicholas Negroponte, Constantin
Carathodory (known for the Carathodory theorems and
Carathodory conjecture), Manolis Andronikos (discovered the tomb of Philip II of Macedon in Vergina),
Michael Dertouzos, John Argyris, Panagiotis Kondylis,
John Iliopoulos (2007 Dirac Prize for his contributions
on the physics of the charm quark, a major contribution to the birth of the Standard Model, the modern
theory of Elementary Particles), Joseph Sifakis (2007
Turing Award, the Nobel Prize of Computer Science),
Christos Papadimitriou (2002 Knuth Prize, 2012 Gdel
Prize), Mihalis Yannakakis (2005 Knuth Prize), Dimitri
Nanopoulos and Helene Ahrweiler.

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Greece and Greeks

According to the ocial statistical body of Greece, the

19

6.1 Cities
See also: List of cities in Greece
Almost two-thirds of the Greek people live in urban
areas. Greeces largest and most inuential metropolitan centres are those of Athens and Thessaloniki, with
metropolitan populations of approximately 4 million and
1 million inhabitants respectively. Other prominent cities
with urban populations above 100,000 inhabitants include those of Patras, Heraklion, Larissa, Volos, Rhodes,
Ioannina, Chania and Chalcis.[178]
The table below lists the largest cities in Greece, by population contained in their respective contiguous built up
urban areas; which are either made up of many municipalities, evident in the cases of Athens and Thessaloniki,
or are contained within a larger single municipality, case
evident in most of the smaller cities of the country. The
results come from the preliminary gures of the population census that took place in Greece in May 2011.

6.2 Migration
Main articles: Greek Diaspora and Immigration to
Greece
Throughout the 20th century, millions of Greeks mi-

Hermoupolis, on the island of Syros, is the capital of the

Cyclades.

Hellenic Statistical Authority (ELSTAT), the countrys

total population in 2011 was 10,815,197.[176] The birth
rate in 2003 stood at 9.5 per 1,000 inhabitants, signicantly lower than the rate of 14.5 per 1,000 in 1981. At
the same time, the mortality rate increased slightly from
8.9 per 1,000 inhabitants in 1981 to 9.6 per 1,000 inhabitants in 2003.

A map of the fty countries with the largest Greek diaspora communities.

grated to the United States, United Kingdom, Australia,

Canada, and Germany, creating a large Greek diaspora.
Net migration started to show positive numbers from
the 1970s, but until the beginning of the 1990s, the
main inux was that of returning Greek migrants or of
Pontic Greeks and others from Russia, Georgia, Turkey
the Czech Republic, and elsewhere in the former Soviet
Bloc.[179]

Greek society has changed rapidly over the last several

decades. Its declining fertility rate has led to an increase
in the median age, which coincides with the overall aging
of Europe. In 2001, 16.71 percent of the population were
65 years old and older, 68.12 percent between the ages of A study from the Mediterranean Migration Observatory
15 and 64 years old, and 15.18 percent were 14 years old maintains that the 2001 census recorded 762,191 persons
and younger.[177]
residing in Greece without Greek citizenship, constitutMarriage rates began declining from almost 71 per 1,000 ing around 7% of total population. Of the non-citizen resinhabitants in 1981 until 2002, only to increase slightly in idents, 48,560 were EU or European Free Trade Associ2003 to 61 per 1,000 and then fall again to 51 in 2004.[177] ation nationals and 17,426 were Cypriots with privileged
Moreover, divorce rates have seen an increase from 191.2 status. The majority come from Eastern European counper 1,000 marriages in 1991 to 239.5 per 1,000 marriages tries: Albania (56%), Bulgaria (5%) and Romania (3%),
in 2004.[177] As a result of these trends, the average Greek while migrants from the former Soviet Union (Georgia,
family is smaller and older than in previous generations. Russia, Ukraine, Moldova, etc.) comprise 10% of the

20

6 DEMOGRAPHICS

total.[180] Some of the immigrants from Albania are from

the Greek minority in Albania centred on the region of
Northern Epirus. In addition the total Albanian national
population which includes temporary migrants and undocumented persons is around 600,000.[181]
The 2011 census recorded 9,903,268 Greek citizens
(91,56%), 480,824 Albanian citizens (4,44%), 75,915
Bulgarian citizens (0,7%), 46,523 Romanian citizenship (0,43%), 34,177 Pakistani citizens (0,32%), 27,400
Georgian citizens (0,25%) and 247,090 people had other
or unidentied citizenship (2,3%).[182] 189,000 people of
the total population of Albanian citizens were reported in
2008 as ethnic Greeks from Southern Albania, in the historical region of Northern Epirus.[179]

Stavronikita monastery, a Greek Orthodox monastery in Athos

The greatest cluster of non-EU immigrant population are peninsula, Northern Greece
the larger urban centers, especially the Municipality of
Athens, with 132,000 immigrants comprising 17% of the
local population, and then Thessaloniki, with 27,000 immigrants reaching 7% of the local population. There is
also a considerable number of co-ethnics that came from
the Greek communities of Albania and the former Soviet
Union.[179]

Greece, together with Italy and Spain, faces a large inux

of illegal immigrants trying to enter the EU. Illegal immigrants entering Greece mostly do so from the border with
Turkey at the Evros River. In 2012, the majority of illegal immigrants entering Greece came from Afghanistan,
followed by Pakistanis and Bangladeshis.[183] Since 2012,
extensive day-to-day police operations (called Xenios
Zeus) take place in Athens and other major Greek cities
for the detention of illegal immigrants. So far more than Monastery of Saint John the Theologian, Patmos
15,000 illegal immigrants have been detained and thousands have been checked for their country residence stawhich is mostly located in Thrace, range from 98,000 to
tus.
140,000,[185][188] (about 1%) while the immigrant Muslim community numbers between 200,000 and 300,000.
Albanian immigrants to Greece are usually associated
6.3 Religion
with the Muslim religion, although most are secular in
orientation.[189] Following the 19191922 Greco-Turkish
Main articles: Church of Greece, Orthodoxy in Greece War and the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, Greece and
and Religion in Greece
Turkey agreed to a population transfer based on cultural
The Greek Constitution recognizes Eastern Orthodoxy and religious identity. About 500,000 Muslims from
as the prevailing faith of the country, while guaranteeGreece, predominantly those dened as Turks, but also
ing freedom of religious belief for all.[88][184] The Greek Greek Muslims like the Vallahades of western Macegovernment does not keep statistics on religious groups donia, were exchanged with approximately 1,500,000
and censuses do not ask for religious aliation. Accord- Greeks from Turkey. However, many refugees who seting to the U.S. State Department, an estimated 97% of tled in former Ottoman Muslim villages in Central MaceGreek citizens identify themselves as Eastern Orthodox, donia and were dened as Christian Orthodox Caucasus
belonging to the Greek Orthodox Church.[185]
Greeks arrived from the former Russian Transcaucasus
In a Eurostat Eurobarometer 2010 poll, 79% of Greek province of Kars Oblast after it had been retroceded to
citizens responded that they believe there is a God.[186] Turkey but in the few years before the ocial population
According to other sources, 15.8% of Greeks describe exchange.[190]
themselves as very religious, which is the highest among Judaism has existed in Greece for more than 2,000 years.
all European countries. The survey also found that just Sephardi Jews used to have a large presence in the city of
3.5% never attend a church, compared to 4.9% in Poland Thessaloniki (by 1900, some 80,000, or more than half of
and 59.1% in the Czech Republic.[187]
the population, were Jews),[192] but nowadays the GreekEstimates of the recognized Greek Muslim minority, Jewish community who survived German occupation and

6.4

Languages

21

the Holocaust, during World War II, is estimated to number around 5,500 people.[185][188]
Greek citizens who are Roman Catholic are estimated to
be at around 50,000[185][188] with the Roman Catholic
immigrant community in the country approximately
200,000.[185] Old Calendarists account for 500,000
followers.[188] Protestants, including Greek Evangelical Church and Free Evangelical Churches, stand at
about 30,000.[185][188] Assemblies of God, International
Church of the Foursquare Gospel and other Pentecostal
churches of the Greek Synod of Apostolic Church
have 12,000 members.[193] Independent Free Apostolic
Church of Pentecost is the biggest Protestant denomination in Greece with 120 churches.[194] There are not
ocial statistics about Free Apostolic Church of Pentecost, but the Orthodox Church estimates the followers as 20,000.[195] The Jehovahs Witnesses report having
28,874 active members.[196]

Bulgaria

Rep. of Macedonia

Albania
Albania

Meglenitic
Serres
Florina

Xanthi

Slavic

Alb.
Arom.

Pomak
Turkish
Komotini

Thessaloniki

Kozani

Aromanian

Alb.

Ioannina

Turkey

Livadhia
Thebes
Patras
Corinth

Athens

Arvanitika

Kalamata

Turkish
Slavic (Maced./Bulg.)
Albanian (Arvanitika)
Aromanian, Meglenitic
Turkish

Ladino

Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism has also been reportedly practiced by thousands of Greeks.
Regions with a traditional presence of languages other than

6.4

Greek. Today, Greek is the dominant language throughout the

country.[197][198][199][200][201][202]

Languages

Main articles: Greek language, Languages of Greece and the state and scholarly language, or the Dimotiki, the
form of the Greek language which evolved naturally from
Minorities in Greece
The rst textual evidence of the Greek language dates Byzantine Greek and was the language of the people. The
dispute was nally resolved in 1976, when Dimotiki was
made the only ocial variation of the Greek language,
and Katharevousa fell to disuse.

Northern dialects

Ionian
Peloponnesian

Cretan
Cycladian

Southern dialects
Tsakonian

Southeastern
dialects

Old Athenian / Maniot

Distribution of major modern Greek dialect areas.

back to 15th century BC and the Linear B script which is

associated with the Mycenaean Civilization. Greek was a
widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world
and beyond during Classical Antiquity, and would eventually become the ocial parlance of the Byzantine Empire.
During the 19th and 20th centuries there was a major dispute known as the Greek language question, on whether
the ocial language of Greece should be the archaic
Katharevousa, created in the 19th century and used as

Greece is today relatively homogeneous in linguistic

terms, with a large majority of the native population using Greek as their rst or only language. Among the
Greek-speaking population, speakers of the distinctive
Pontic dialect came to Greece from Asia Minor after
the Greek genocide and constitute a sizable group. The
Cappadocian dialect came to Greece due to the genocide
as well, but is endangered and is barely spoken now. Indigenous Greek dialects include the archaic Greek spoken by the Sarakatsani, traditionally transhument mountain shepherds of Greek Macedonia and other parts of
Northern Greece. The Tsakonian language, a distinct
Greek language deriving from Doric Greek instead of
Ionic Greek, is still spoken in some villages in the southeastern Peloponnese.
The Muslim minority in Thrace, which amounts to
approximately 0.95% of the total population, consists
of speakers of Turkish, Bulgarian (Pomaks)[202] and
Romani. Romani is also spoken by Christian Roma
in other parts of the country. Further minority languages have traditionally been spoken by regional population groups in various parts of the country. Their use
has decreased radically in the course of the 20th century through assimilation with the Greek-speaking majority. Today they are only maintained by the older generations and are on the verge of extinction. This goes
for the Arvanites, an Albanian-speaking group mostly lo-

22

6 DEMOGRAPHICS

cated in the rural areas around the capital Athens, and for
the Aromanians and Moglenites, also known as Vlachs,
whose language is closely related to Romanian and who
used to live scattered across several areas of mountainous central Greece. Members of these groups ethnically
identify as Greeks[203] and are today all at least bilingual
in Greek.
Near the northern Greek borders there are also some
Slavicspeaking groups, locally known as Slavomacedonian-speaking, most of whose members identify ethnically as Greeks. Their dialects can be linguistically classied as forms of either Macedonian Slavic or
Bulgarian.[204][205] It is estimated that after the population exchanges of 1923, Macedonia had 200,000 to
400,000 Slavic speakers.[70] The Jewish community in
Greece traditionally spoke Ladino (Judeo-Spanish), today maintained only by a few thousand speakers. Other
notable minority languages include Armenian, Georgian,
and the Greco-Turkic dialect spoken by the Urums, a
community of Caucasus Greeks from the Tsalka region
of central Georgia and ethnic Greeks from southeastern
Ukraine who arrived in mainly Northern Greece as economic migrants in the 1990s.

6.5

Education

The Ionian Academy in Corfu, the rst academic institution of

modern Greece.

Main article: Education in Greece

Greeks have a long tradition of valuing and investing in pulsory. Kindergartens (, Nipiagogeo) are
now compulsory for any child above 4 years of age. Children start primary school aged 6 and remain there for six
years. Attendance at gymnasia starts at age 12 and lasts
for three years.
Greeces post-compulsory secondary education
consists of two school types: unied upper secondary schools ( , Genik Lykei) and
technicalvocational educational schools (
, TEE). Postcompulsory secondary education also includes vocational
The Academy of Athens is Greeces national academy and the training institutes (
highest research establishment in the country.
, IEK) which provide a formal but unclassied level of education. As they can accept both
paideia (education). Paideia was one of the highest soci- Gymnasio (lower secondary school) and Lykeio (upper
etal values in the Greek and Hellenistic world while the secondary school) graduates, these institutes are not
rst European institution described as a university was classied as oering a particular level of education.
founded in 5th century Constantinople and operated in According to the Framework Law (3549/2007), Pubvarious incarnations until the citys fall to the Ottomans lic higher education Highest Educational Institutions
in 1453.[206] The University of Constantinople was Chris- ( , Antata Ektian Europes rst secular institution of higher learning paideytik Idrmata, "") consists of two parallel
since no theological subjects were taught,[207] and con- sectors:the University sector (Universities, Polytechnics,
sidering the original meaning of the world university as Fine Arts Schools, the Open University) and the Techa corporation of students, the worlds rst university as nological sector (Technological Education Institutions
well.[206]
(TEI) and the School of Pedagogic and Technological EdCompulsory education in Greece comprises primary
schools ( , Dimotik Scholeio) and
gymnasium (). Nursery schools (
, Paidiks Stathms) are popular but not com-

ucation). There are also State Non-University Tertiary Institutes oering vocationally oriented courses of shorter
duration (2 to 3 years) which operate under the authority
of other Ministries. Students are admitted to these In-

23
stitutes according to their performance at national level 7 Culture
examinations taking place after completion of the third
grade of Lykeio. Additionally, students over twenty-two Main articles: Culture of Greece and List of Greeks
years old may be admitted to the Hellenic Open Univer- The culture of Greece has evolved over thousands of
sity through a form of lottery. The Capodistrian University of Athens is the oldest university in the eastern
Mediterranean.
The Greek education system also provides special kindergartens, primary and secondary schools for people with
special needs or diculties in learning. Specialist gymnasia and high schools oering musical, theological and
physical education also exist.

The Temple of Hephaestus in Athens.

6.6

Health

Main article: Health care in Greece

Greece has universal health care. In a 2000 World Health
Organization report, its health care system ranked 14th in
overall performance of 191 countries surveyed.[208] In a
2013 Save the Children report, Greece was ranked the
19th best country (out of 176 countries surveyed) for
the state of mothers and newborn babies.[209] In 2010,
there were 138 hospitals with 31,000 beds in the country, but on 1 July 2011, the Ministry for Health and Social Solidarity announced its plans to decrease the number to 77 hospitals with 36,035 beds, as a necessary
reform to reduce expenses and further enhance healthcare standards.[210] Greeces healthcare expenditures as
a percentage of GDP were 9.6% in 2007 according to
a 2011 OECD report, just above the OECD average of
9.5%.[211] The country has the largest number of doctorsto-population ratio of any OECD country.[211]

years, beginning in Mycenaean Greece and continuing

most notably into Classical Greece, through the inuence
of the Roman Empire and its Greek Eastern continuation, the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire. Other cultures and nations, such as the Latin and Frankish states,
the Ottoman Empire, the Venetian Republic, the Genoese
Republic, and the British Empire have also left their inuence on modern Greek culture, although historians credit
the Greek War of Independence with revitalising Greece
and giving birth to a single, cohesive entity of its multifaceted culture.
In ancient times, Greece was the birthplace of Western
culture.[215] Modern democracies owe a debt to Greek
beliefs in government by the people, trial by jury, and
equality under the law. The ancient Greeks pioneered in
many elds that rely on systematic thought, including biology, geometry, history,[216] philosophy,[217] physics and
mathematics.[218] They introduced such important literary forms as epic and lyric poetry, history, tragedy, and
comedy. In their pursuit of order and proportion, the
Greeks created an ideal of beauty that strongly inuenced
Western art.[219]

Life expectancy in Greece is 80.3 years, above the OECD

average of 79.5,[211] and among the highest in the world.
The island of Icaria has the highest percentage of 90year-olds in the world; approximately 33% of the is- 7.1 Theatre
landers make it to 90 (and beyond).[212] Blue Zones author Dan Buettner wrote an article in The New York Times See also: Theatre of ancient Greece and Modern Greek
about the longevity of Icarians under the title The Island theatre
Where People Forget to Die.[213]
Theatre was born in Greece.[220] The city-state of
The 2011 OECD report showed that Greece had the Classical Athens, which became a signicant cultural,
largest percentage of adult daily smokers of any of the political, and military power during this period, was its
34 OECD members.[211] The countrys obesity rate is centre, where it was institutionalised as part of a festival
18.1%, which is above the OECD average of 15.1%, but called the Dionysia, which honoured the god Dionysus.
considerably lower than the American rate of 27.7%.[211] Tragedy (late 6th century BC), comedy (486 BC), and
In 2008, Greece had the highest rate of perceived good the satyr play were the three dramatic genres to emerge
health in the OECD, at 98.5%.[214] Infant mortality is one there.

of the lowest in the developed world, with a rate of 3.1 During the Byzantine period, the theatrical art was heavdeaths per 1,000 live births.[211]
ily declined. According to Marios Ploritis, the only form

24

7 CULTURE

Nobile Teatro di San Giacomo di Corf, the rst theatre and

opera house of modern Greece and the place where the rst
Greek opera, Spyridon Xyndas' The Parliamentary Candidate
based on an exclusively Greek libretto was performed.

survived was the folk theatre (Mimos and Pantomimos),

despite the hostility of the ocial state.[221] Later, during the Ottoman period, the main theatrical folk art was
the Karagiozis. The renaissance which led to the modern
Greek theatre, took place in the Venetian Crete. Signical dramatists include Vitsentzos Kornaros and Georgios
Chortatzis.
The modern Greek theatre was born after the Greek independence, in the early 19th century, and initially was
inuenced by the Heptanesean theatre and melodrama,
such as the Italian opera. The Nobile Teatro di San Giacomo di Corf was the rst theatre and opera house of
modern Greece and the place where the rst Greek opera,
Spyridon Xyndas' The Parliamentary Candidate (based
on an exclusively Greek libretto) was performed. During
the late 19th and early 20th century, the Athenian theatre scene was dominated by revues, musical comedies,
operettas and nocturnes and notable playwrights included
Spyridon Samaras, Dionysios Lavrangas, Theophrastos
Sakellaridis and others.

Bust of Plato. The safest general characterisation of the

European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of
footnotes to Plato. (Alfred North Whitehead, Process and Reality, 1929).

in western thought. The Presocratics were from the western or the eastern colonies of Greece and only fragments
of their original writings survive, in some cases merely a
single sentence.
A new period of philosophy started with Socrates. Like
the Sophists, he rejected entirely the physical speculations in which his predecessors had indulged, and made
the thoughts and opinions of people his starting-point.
Aspects of Socrates were rst united from Plato, who also
combined with them many of the principles established
by earlier philosophers, and developed the whole of this
material into the unity of a comprehensive system.

The National Theatre of Greece was founded in 1880.

Notable playwrights of the modern Greek theatre include
Gregorios Xenopoulos, Nikos Kazantzakis, Pantelis
Horn, Alekos Sakellarios and Iakovos Kambanelis, while
notable actors include Cybele Andrianou, Marika Kotopouli, Aimilios Veakis, Orestis Makris, Katina Paxinou, Manos Katrakis and Dimitris Horn. Signicant
directors include Dimitris Rontiris, Alexis Minotis and Aristotle of Stagira, the most important disciple of Plato,
shared with his teacher the title of the greatest philosoKarolos Koun.
pher of antiquity. But while Plato had sought to elucidate and explain things from the supra-sensual standpoint of the forms, his pupil preferred to start from the
7.2 Philosophy
facts given us by experience. Except from these three
Main articles: Ancient Greek philosophy and Modern most signicant Greek philosophers other known schools
of Greek philosophy from other founders during anGreek Enlightenment
Stoicism, Epicureanism, Skepticism and
Most western philosophical traditions began in Ancient cient times were
[222]
Neoplatonism.
Greece in the 6th century BC. The rst philosophers are
called Presocratics, which designates that they came be- Byzantine philosophy refers to the distinctive philofore Socrates, whose contributions mark a turning point sophical ideas of the philosophers and scholars of the

7.4

Cinema

25

Byzantine Empire, especially between the 8th and 15th

centuries. It was characterised by a Christian world-view,
but one which could draw ideas directly from the Greek
texts of Plato, Aristotle, and the Neoplatonists.

ing the classical age, only a limited number of plays

by three authors have survived: those of Aeschylus,
Sophocles, and Euripides. The surviving plays by
Aristophanes are also a treasure trove of comic presenIn modern period, Diafotismos (Greek: , tation, while Herodotus and Thucydides are two of the
enlightenment, illumination) was the Greek expres- most inuential historians in this period. The greatest
sion of the Age of Enlightenment and its philosophical prose achievement of the 4th century was in philosophy
and political ideas. Some notable representatives were with the works of the three great philosophers.
Adamantios Korais, Rigas Feraios and Theophilos Kairis. Byzantine literature refers to literature of the Byzantine
Empire written in Atticizing, Medieval and early Modern
Greek, and it is the expression of the intellectual life of
7.3 Literature
the Byzantine Greeks during the Christian Middle Ages.
Main articles: Greek literature and Modern Greek litera- Modern Greek literature refers to literature written in
common Modern Greek, emerging from late Byzantine
ture
Greek literature can be divided into three main cate- times in the 11th century. The Cretan Renaissance poem
Erotokritos is undoubtedly the masterpiece of this period
of Greek literature. It is a verse romance written around
1600 by Vitsentzos Kornaros (15531613). Later, during
the period of Greek enlightenment (Diafotismos), writers
such as Adamantios Korais and Rigas Feraios prepared
with their works the Greek Revolution (18211830).
Leading literary gures of modern Greece include
Dionysios Solomos, Andreas Kalvos, Angelos Sikelianos, Emmanuel Rhoides, Kostis Palamas, Penelope
Delta, Yannis Ritsos, Alexandros Papadiamantis, Nikos
Kazantzakis, Andreas Embeirikos, Kostas Karyotakis,
Gregorios Xenopoulos, Constantine P. Cavafy, and
Demetrius Vikelas. Two Greek authors have been
awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature: George Seferis
in 1963 and Odysseas Elytis in 1979.

7.4 Cinema
Main article: Greek cinema
Cinema rst appeared in Greece in 1896 but the rst
actual cine-theatre was opened in 1907. In 1914 the
Asty Films Company was founded and the production of
long lms began. Golfo (), a well known traditional love story, is considered the rst Greek feature
lm, although there were several minor productions such
as newscasts before this. In 1931 Orestis Laskos directed
Giorgos Seferis, 1963 Nobel laureate in Literature.
Daphnis and Chloe ( ), containing the
rst nude scene in the history of European cinema; it was
gories: Ancient, Byzantine and modern Greek literature. also the rst Greek movie which was played abroad. In
At the beginning of Greek literature stand the two mon- 1944 Katina Paxinou was honoured with the Best Supumental works of Homer: the Iliad and the Odyssey. porting Actress Academy Award for For Whom the Bell
Though dates of composition vary, these works were Tolls.
xed around 800 BC or after. In the classical pe- The 1950s and early 1960s are considered by many to be
riod many of the genres of western literature became a golden age of Greek cinema. Directors and actors of
more prominent. Lyrical poetry, odes, pastorals, elegies, this era were recognized as important historical gures
epigrams; dramatic presentations of comedy and tragedy; in Greece and some gained international acclaim: Irene
historiography, rhetorical treatises, philosophical dialec- Papas, Melina Mercouri, Mihalis Kakogiannis, Alekos
tics, and philosophical treatises all arose in this period. Sakellarios, Nikos Tsiforos, Iakovos Kambanelis, Katina
The two major lyrical poets were Sappho and Pindar. The Paxinou, Nikos Koundouros, Ellie Lambeti, and othClassical era also saw the dawn of drama.
ers. More than sixty lms per year were made, with
Of the hundreds of tragedies written and performed dur- the majority having lm noir elements. Notable lms

26

7 CULTURE

Classic Greek salad

Director Theodoros Angelopoulos, winner of the Palme d'Or in

1998

were (1955 directed by Giorgos Tzavellas), (1951, directed by Grigoris Grigoriou), O Drakos (1956 directed by Nikos Koundouros),
Stella (1955 directed by Cacoyannis and written by Kampanellis).
Cacoyannis also directed Zorba the Greek with Anthony Quinn which received Best Director, Best Adapted
Screenplay and Best Film nominations. Finos Film also
contributed to this period with movies such as ,
, Madalena,
, and many
more. During the 1970s and 1980s Theo Angelopoulos
directed a series of notable and appreciated movies. His
lm Eternity and a Day won the Palme d'Or and the Prize
of the Ecumenical Jury at the 1998 Cannes Film Festival.
There were also internationally renowned lmmakers in
the Greek diaspora, such as the Greek-French CostaGavras and the Greek-Americans Elia Kazan, John Cassavetes and Alexander Payne.

7.5

Cuisine

Main article: Greek cuisine

Greek cuisine is characteristic of the healthy
Mediterranean diet, which is epitomized by dishes
of Crete.[223] Greek cuisine incorporates fresh ingre-

dients into a variety of local dishes such as moussaka,

stifado, Greek salad, fasolada, spanakopita and souvlaki.
Some dishes can be traced back to ancient Greece like
skordalia (a thick pure of walnuts, almonds, crushed
garlic and olive oil), lentil soup, retsina (white or ros
wine sealed with pine resin) and pasteli (candy bar with
sesame seeds baked with honey). Throughout Greece
people often enjoy eating from small dishes such as meze
with various dips such as tzatziki, grilled octopus and
small sh, feta cheese, dolmades (rice, currants and pine
kernels wrapped in vine leaves), various pulses, olives
and cheese. Olive oil is added to almost every dish.
Sweet desserts such as galaktoboureko, and drinks such
as ouzo, metaxa and a variety of wines including retsina.
Greek cuisine diers widely from dierent parts of the
mainland and from island to island. It uses some avorings more often than other Mediterranean cuisines:
oregano, mint, garlic, onion, dill and bay laurel leaves.
Other common herbs and spices include basil, thyme and
fennel seed. Many Greek recipes, especially in the northern parts of the country, use sweet spices in combination with meat, for example cinnamon and cloves in stews.
Frapp coee
Spanakopita
Metaxa
Gyros
Ouzo
Tzatziki

7.6 Music and dances

Main article: Music of Greece
Greek vocal music extends far back into ancient times
where mixed-gender choruses performed for entertainment, celebration and spiritual reasons. Instruments during that period included the double-reed aulos and the

7.6

Music and dances

plucked string instrument, the lyre, especially the special

kind called a kithara. Music played an important role in
the education system during ancient times. Boys were
taught music from the age of six. Later inuences from
the Roman Empire, Middle East, and the Byzantine Empire also had eect on Greek music.

Cretan dancers of traditional music

27
being the stories associated with Digenes Akritas. The
klephtic cycle came into being between the late Byzantine period and the start of the Greek War of Independence. The klephtic cycle, together with historical
songs, paraloghes (narrative song or ballad), love songs,
mantinades, wedding songs, songs of exile and dirges express the life of the Greeks. There is a unity between
the Greek peoples struggles for freedom, their joys and
sorrow and attitudes towards love and death.
The Heptanesean kantdhes ( 'serenades';
sing.: ) became the forerunners of the Greek
modern song, inuencing its development to a considerable degree. For the rst part of the next century, several Greek composers continued to borrow elements from the Heptanesean style. The most successful
songs during the period 18701930 were the so-called
Athenian serenades, and the songs performed on stage
( 'theatrical revue songs) in
revue, operettas and nocturnes that were dominating
Athens theater scene.
Rebetiko, initially a music associated with the lower
classes, later (and especially after the population exchange between Greece and Turkey) reached greater general acceptance as the rough edges of its overt subcultural
character were softened and polished, sometimes to the
point of unrecognizability. It was the base of the later
lak (song of the people). The leading performers of the
genre include Apostolos Kaldaras, Grigoris Bithikotsis,
Stelios Kazantzidis, George Dalaras, Haris Alexiou and
Glykeria.

Rebetes in Karaiskaki, Piraeus (1933). Left Markos Vamvakaris

with bouzouki, middle Giorgos Batis with guitar

While the new technique of polyphony was developing in the West, the Eastern Orthodox Church resisted
any type of change. Therefore, Byzantine music remained monophonic and without any form of instrumental accompaniment. As a result, and despite certain attempts by certain Greek chanters (such as Manouel
Gazis, Ioannis Plousiadinos or the Cypriot Ieronimos o
Tragoudistis), Byzantine music was deprived of elements
of which in the West encouraged an unimpeded development of art. However, this method which kept music
away from polyphony, along with centuries of continuous culture, enabled monophonic music to develop to the
greatest heights of perfection. Byzantium presented the
monophonic Byzantine chant; a melodic treasury of inestimable value for its rhythmical variety and expressive
power.
Along with the Byzantine (Church) chant and music, the
Greek people also cultivated the Greek folk song which
is divided into two cycles, the akritic and klephtic. The
akritic was created between the 9th and 10th centuries
and expressed the life and struggles of the akrites (fron- Maria Callas, one of the most renowned and inuential opera
tier guards) of the Byzantine empire, the most well known singers of the 20th century

28

7 CULTURE

Regarding the classical music, it was through the Ionian

islands (which were under western rule and inuence) that
all the major advances of the western European classical
music were introduced to mainland Greeks. The region is
notable for the birth of the rst School of modern Greek
classical music (Heptanesean or Ionian School, Greek:
), established in 1815. Prominent
representatives of this genre include Nikolaos Mantzaros,
Spyridon Xyndas, Spyridon Samaras and Pavlos Carrer.
Manolis Kalomiris is considered the founder of the Greek
National School of Music.
In the 20th century, Greek composers have had a signicant impact on the development of avant garde and modern classical music, with gures such as Iannis Xenakis, Spyridon Louis entering the Panathenaic Stadium at the end of
the marathon; 1896 Summer Olympics.
Nikos Skalkottas, and Dimitri Mitropoulos achieving international prominence. At the same time, composers
and musicians such as Mikis Theodorakis, Manos Hatzidakis, Eleni Karaindrou, Vangelis and Demis Roussos
garnered an international following for their music, which
include famous lm scores such as Zorba the Greek,
Serpico, Never on Sunday, America America, Eternity
and a Day, Chariots of Fire, Blade Runner, among others.
Greek American composers known for their lm scores
include Yanni and Basil Poledouris. Notable Greek opera
singers and classical musicians of the 20th and 21st century include Maria Callas, Nana Mouskouri, Mario Frangoulis, Leonidas Kavakos, Dimitris Sgouros and others.
Greece participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 35
times after its debut at the 1974 Contest. In 2005, Greece
won with the song "My Number One", performed by Angelos Charisteas scoring Greeces winning goal in the UEFA
Greek-Swedish singer Elena Paparizou. The song re- Euro 2004 Final
ceived 230 points with 10 sets of 12 points from Belgium,
Bulgaria, Hungary, the United Kingdom, Turkey, Albania, Cyprus, Serbia & Montenegro, Sweden and Germany
and also became a smash hit in dierent countries and
especially in Greece. The 51st Eurovision Song Contest was held in Athens at the Olympic Indoor Hall of
the Athens Olympic Sports Complex in Maroussi, with
hosted by Maria Menounos and Sakis Rouvas.

7.7

Sports

Main article: Sports in Greece

Greece is the birthplace of the ancient Olympic Games,
rst recorded in 776 BC in Olympia, and hosted the
modern Olympic Games twice, the inaugural 1896 Summer Olympics and the 2004 Summer Olympics. During the parade of nations Greece is always called rst,
as the founding nation of the ancient precursor of modern Olympics. The nation has competed at every Summer
Olympic Games, one of only four countries to have done
so. Having won a total of 110 medals (30 gold, 42 silver
and 38 bronze), Greece is ranked 32nd by gold medals in
the all-time Summer Olympic medal count. Their best
ever performance was in the 1896 Summer Olympics,
when Greece nished second in the medal table with 10
gold medals.

Greece won the silver medal at the 2006 FIBA World Championship after their memorable 10195 win against the USA.

The Greek national football team, ranking 12th in the

world in 2014 (and having reached a high of 8th in the
world in 2008 and 2011),[224] were crowned European
Champions in Euro 2004 in one of the biggest upsets in
the history of the sport and became one of the most successful national teams in European football, being one of

7.8

Mythology

only nine national teams to have won the UEFA European

Championship.[225] The Greek Super League is the highest professional football league in the country comprising eighteen teams. The most successful are Olympiacos,
Panathinaikos, AEK Athens and PAOK.
The Greek national basketball team has a decades-long
tradition of excellence in the sport, being considered
among the worlds top basketball powers. As of 2012,
it ranked 4th in the world and 2nd in Europe.[226] They
have won the European Championship twice in 1987
and 2005,[227] and have reached the nal four in two
of the last four FIBA World Championships, taking
the second place in the world in 2006 FIBA World
Championship, after a spectacular 10195 win against
Team USA in the tournaments seminal. The domestic top basketball league, A1 Ethniki, is composed
of fourteen teams. The most successful Greek teams
are Olympiacos, Panathinaikos, Aris Thessaloniki, AEK
Athens and P.A.O.K. Greek basketball teams are the
most successful in European basketball the last 25 years,
having won as many as 9 Euroleagues since the establishment of the modern era Euroleague Final Four format in 1988, while no other nation has won more than
4 Euroleague championships in this period. Besides the
9 Euroleagues, Greek basketball teams (Panathinaikos,
Olympiacos, Aris Thessaloniki, AEK Athens, P.A.O.K,
Maroussi) have won 3 Triple Crowns, 5 Saporta Cups, 2
Kora Cups and 1 FIBA Europe Champions Cup. After
the 2005 European Championship triumph of the Greek
national basketball team, Greece became the reigning European Champion in both football and basketball.
The Greece womens national water polo team have
emerged as one of the leading powers in the world, becoming World Champions after their gold medal win
against the hosts China at the 2011 World Championship. They have also won the silver medal at the 2004
Summer Olympics, the gold medal at the 2005 World
League and the silver medals at the 2010 and 2012 European Championships. The Greece mens national water polo team became the third best water polo team in
the world in 2005, after their win against Croatia in the
bronze medal game at the 2005 World Aquatics Championships in Canada. The domestic top water polo leagues,
Greek Mens Water Polo League and Greek Womens
Water Polo League are considered amongst the top national leagues in European water polo, as its clubs have
made signicant success in European competitions. In
mens European competitions, Olympiacos has won the
Champions League,[228] the European Super Cup and
the Triple Crown in 2002[229] becoming the rst club
in Water polo history to win every title in which it has
competed within a single year (National championship,
National cup, Champions League and European Super
Cup),[230] while NC Vouliagmeni has won the LEN Cup
Winners Cup in 1997. In womens European competitions, Greek water polo teams (NC Vouliagmeni, Glyfada
NSC, Olympiacos, Ethnikos Piraeus) are amongst the

29
most successful in European water pol, having won as
many as 4 LEN Champions Cups, 3 LEN Trophies and 2
European Supercups.
The Greek mens national volleyball team has won two
bronze medals, one in the European Volleyball Championship and another one in the European Volleyball
League, a 5th place in the Olympic Games and a 6th place
in the FIVB World Championship. The Greek league,
the A1 Ethniki, is considered one of the top volleyball
leagues in Europe and the Greek clubs have made signicant success in European competitions. Olympiacos
is the most successful volleyball club in the country having won the most domestic titles and being the only Greek
club to have won European titles; they have won two CEV
Cups, they have been CEV Champions League runnersup twice and they have played in as many as 12 Final
Fours in the European competitions, making them one
of the most traditional volleyball clubs in Europe. Iraklis
have also seen signicant success in European competitions, having been three times runners-up of the CEV
Champions League.
In other sports, cricket and handball are relatively popular
in Corfu and Veria respectively.

7.8 Mythology
Main article: Greek mythology
The numerous gods of the ancient Greek religion as well
as the mythical heroes and events of the ancient Greek
epics (The Odyssey and The Iliad) and other pieces of
art and literature from the time make up what is nowadays colloquially referred to as Greek mythology. Apart
from serving a religious function, the mythology of the
ancient Greek world also served a cosmological role as
it was meant to try to explain how the world was formed
and operated.
The principal gods of the ancient Greek religion were the
Dodekatheon, or the Twelve Gods, who lived on the top
of Mount Olympus. The most important of all ancient
Greek gods was Zeus, the king of the gods, who was
married to Hera, who was also Zeuss sister. The other
Greek gods that made up the Twelve Olympians were
Demeter, Ares, Poseidon, Athena, Dionysus, Apollo,
Artemis, Aphrodite, Hephaestus and Hermes. Apart
from these twelve gods, Greeks also had a variety of other
mystical beliefs, such as nymphs and other magical creatures.

7.9 Public holidays and festivals

Main article: Public holidays in Greece
According to Greek law, every Sunday of the year is
a public holiday. In addition, there are four mandatory
ocial public holidays: 25 March (Greek Independence
Day), Easter Monday, 15 August (Assumption or Dormi-

30

10

REFERENCES

lated by law as being optional but it is customary for employees to be given the day o. There are, however, more
public holidays celebrated in Greece than are announced
by the Ministry of Labour each year as either obligatory
or optional. The list of these non-xed national holidays
rarely changes and has not changed in recent decades, giving a total of eleven national holidays each year.
In addition to the national holidays, there are public holidays that are not celebrated nationwide, but only by a
specic professional group or a local community. For example, many municipalities have a Patron Saint parallel
to "Name Days", or a Liberation Day. On such days it
is customary for schools to take the day o.
Notable festivals include Patras Carnival, Athens Festival
and various local wine festivals. The city of Thessaloniki
is also home of a number of festivals and events. The
Thessaloniki International Film Festival is one of the
most important lm festivals in Southern Europe.[231]

8 See also
Civilization
Greek mythology
Index of Greece-related articles
International rankings of Greece
Macedonia naming dispute
Outline of Greece
Water supply and sanitation in Greece

Zeus was the King of the ancient Greek dodekatheon.

9 Notes
[1] On 14 August 1974 Greek forces withdrew from the integrated military structure of NATO in protest at the
Turkish occupation of northern Cyprus; Greece rejoined
NATO in 1980.
[2] For a diachronic analysis of the Greek party system see
Pappas 2003, pp. 90114, who distinguishes three distinct types of party system which developed in consecutive
order, namely, a predominant-party system (from 1952 to
1963), a system of polarised pluralism (between 1963 and
1981), and a two-party system (since 1981).
[3] The newest polls show about 20% Greek citizens being
irreligious which is much more than 1%. Ultimately, the
statistics are disputed until the results of the new census.

Procession of the epitaphios, Holy Friday

tion of the Holy Virgin), and 25 December (Christmas). 1

May (Labour Day) and 28 October (Ohi Day) are regu-

10 References
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31

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[3] Announcement of the results of the 2011 Population
Census for the Resident Population (PDF). Hellenic Statistical Authority. 28 December 2012. Retrieved 24 August 2013.
[4] Report for Selected Countries and Subjects. World
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[5] Gini coecient of equivalised disposable income
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of civilization along Middle Eastern rivers the Tigris,
Euphrates, and Nile the true cradle of Western literature is Athens. As the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley says,
We are all Greeks.
[8] Greece Properties inscribed on the World Heritage List
(17)". Unesco. Unesco.
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[10] Eugene N. Borza (1992). In the Shadow of Olympus: The
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the value and beauty of the individual human being; Greek

gods were actually no more than super-humans. Around
500 BC, Greece
[15] Fullinwider, Robert K (26 January 1996). Public Education in a Multicultural Society: Policy, Theory, Critique.
Cambridge University Press. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-52149958-3. Retrieved 5 December 2012. Similarly obscured was the inuence of Egypt on Greece, which European civilization honors as its fountainhead.
[16] Bulliet, Richard W; Kyle Crossley, Pamela; Headrick,
Daniel R; Johnson, Lyman L; Hirsch, Steven W (21
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Retrieved 5 December 2012. The emergence of the Minoan civilization on the island of Crete and the Mycenaean
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[17] Pomeroy, Sarah B (1999). Ancient Greece: A Political,
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[12] Perls, Catherine (2001), The Early Neolithic in Greece:

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[21] Drews, Robert (1995), The End of the Bronze Age:

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[13] Richard Bulliet; Pamela Crossley; Daniel Headrick;

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[14] Slomp, Hans (30 September 2011). Europe, A Political

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[24] D.C.H. Rieu's introduction to The Odyssey (Penguin,

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[23] Vidal-Naquet, Pierre. Le monde d'Homre (The World of

Homer), Perrin (2000), p. 19.

[25] Dunn, John (1994), Democracy: the unnished journey

508 BC 1993 AD, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19827934-5

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before the signing of the convention. According to the ofcial records of the Mixed Commission set up to monitor
the movements, the Greeks who were transferred after
1923 numbered 189,916 and the number of Muslims expelled to Turkey was 355,635 (Ladas I932, 438-439); but
using the same source Eddy 1931, 201 states that the post1923 exchange involved 192,356 Greeks from Turkey and
354,647 Muslims from Greece.
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Fine, John Van Antwerp (1991), The Early Medieval

Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the
Late Twelfth Century, University of Michigan Press,
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Kalaitzidis, Akis (2010), Europes Greece: A Giant
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Main article: Bibliography of Greece

12 External links
12.1 Government

Minorities in Greece Historical Issues and New

Perspectives. History and Culture of South Eastern Europe. An Annual Journal. Mnchen (Slavica)
2003.
The Constitution of Greece (PDF). Paparrigopoulos, Xenophon; Vassilouni, Stavroula (translators).
Athens: Hellenic Parliament. 2008. ISBN 978-960560-073-0. Retrieved 21 March 2011.

President of the Hellenic Republic

Minister of the Hellenic Republic
Hellenic Parliament
Greek National Tourism Organisation
Greek News Agenda Newsletter

Clogg, Richard (1992), A Concise History of Greece

(1st ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 1037, 12.2 General information
ISBN 0-521-37228-3, 257 pp.
Greece, Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Clogg, Richard (2002) [1992], A Concise History of
Greece, Traveler (guide), National Geographic.
Greece (2nd ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-00479-4.
Greece entry at The World Factbook
Dagtoglou, PD (1991). Protection of Individual
Rights. Constitutional Law Individual Rights (in
Greek) I. Athens-Komotini: Ant. N. Sakkoulas.

Greece, UCB Libraries GovPubs, Colorado.

Greece at DMOZ

12.2

General information

39

Greece, BBC News (prole) (UK), 25 December

2013.
Greek Council for Refugees.
Hellenic History, GR: FHW.
Hellenism Everything about Greece.
History of Greece: Primary Documents
The London Protocol of 3 February 1830
The Greek Heritage
Wikimedia Atlas of Greece
Geographic data
OpenStreetMap

related

to

Greece

Trade
World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Greece
Coordinates: 39N 22E / 39N 22E

at

40

13

13
13.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

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Referdy, BOLD LETTERS, Thingg, Ertness, Aitias, Samantha555, Brendon Favero, Pink oyd 242640687, Averystewart, Pelasgia, Dana
boomer, Arvanitia, IJA, Kion44, Adsfj;eoivnapvujnrpvun, Maqedoni, Besa Arvanon, BalkanFever, Simplonicity, Ostinato2, Nafsadh,
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, Fred.jackson222, Medvegja, Kupraios, Numbermaniac, Lugia2453, Czech is Cyrillized, Frosty, SFK2, Hair, MercurioMT,
Sowlos, Krakkos, 93, Epavli1500, 069952497a, JustAMuggle, Lgfcd, Alearod05, Faizan, AfricaTanz, Shotgunhunter104, Epicgenius, The
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The Anonybot, PhantomTech, MarrickLip, Everymorning, Kogmaw, Jakec, BooBooCakes, Super mario786, Jacob8888, Antipompous,
Googlecolby, EvergreenFir, JohnnyBlackBoy, Jimmyst14, TonyIronmace, NateDaBomb, Backendgaming, Buddezees1, Cookoo56, George

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Parastatidis, Neolaia Synaspismos, Georgij Michaliutin, VELZ777, Starshiners41, LouisAragon, Creta Kreta, Oxr033, Freshmen334,
Greyhound0660, Xmazter123, Smartcow360, 1980AIA, Username314159, Ugog Nizdast, Bronx24, IM-yb, Pus4292013, Dimsar01,
Hwasus, Pietro13, Ottomanturkey, Ardiman1, NottNott, Pointe Drive, Portlannd, Ginsuloft, Barneyaldridge, OZY WIKI, Poligres, Suppeoplesup, Kind Tennis Fan, Whatever-etwas, Blondeguynative, ProKro, Gjergj Ceka, Dimgreek28, OccultZone, Coreyemotela, Femwk,
Ifestio, Tannosuke, Thenazgullord2, Andreas11213, Nizolan, Andriomi, Astarti34, Dyspeptic skeptic, Kezzer16, Nate3346, Theparties,
EternalJimmies, Johnarcheus, Kdkdk3kd2, WorldOSchlong, Tito Papanikolaou, Ethnicdomos, Ella10101, Monkbot, Filedelinkerbot, AntiqueReader, SantiLak, TheBoulderite, Ryopus, Vacationlandman, BrightonC, Monopoly31121993, Crazynyancat, Gjirokastra15, Colvid,
Sciophobiaranger, Lovingtoyou, Finn The Human00, Puertagustavo99, DJV11181988, Funny Gardaland, Giorgioskp, ArordineriiiUkhtt,
Tokosexo, Polugap, Alfaweiss, Cirow, Spumuq, Piledhighandeep, Peterthlee, Eurodyne, Emanuelito martinez, PunSoc, Bookze111,
ESPON34, EChastain, Blakcii, Remenu, Strongjam, Esquivalience, Superuous man, Dragonball2014, AuditoreEzio, Greece, Bulgaria,
Serbia and Romania, TheDavinator0208, Mll mitch, SoSivr, Khanzalez, Obgibbs, Ismpol, Mcavusoglu, KonstantinoAndria, Ikilledledogs,
Saraya-Jade, Certied RPTSS, FreddyFazbear3, Abbiehiggins14, Eimukas22, Raminsahba, DX creatures, Kqui13772, Saturnoswald, KelseVin, Billymays236, Karan khambhati, Supdiop, Viet-hoian1, Aarav khambhati, ChrisAmsel, Helibounce, 1.Erfolg, KasparBot, Sebbywafers, Akresben, Zrbd330, Stellageorgian, Farbrookchanger, Fakeguywithadegree, Homu-chan, Gogo65689645, Akrben,
, Rfotusky, Autokratiras, Imsupercool15, Antonios1994, Goofysister11, Dtyhdty, Kynnek, IllusIon, BU Rob13, IvanScrooge98, Omegatrix, Konbasilas, Jimmyjames87, The Spartan 003, Minophis, SkarmyOG, Po007, LandedEagle, The Independent
100 and Anonymous: 3138

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File:000_Greqia_harta.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/000_Greqia_harta.PNG License: Public

domain Contributors: Prpunuar prej Image:Gr-map.png nga User:Hipi Zhdripi Original artist:
Original summary Harta Greqia nga CIA World Factbook
File:50_largest_Greek_diaspora.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/50_largest_Greek_diaspora.png
License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Modied BlankMap-World-v5.png to create image, using data obtained from Greek diaspora on
English Wikipedia Original artist: Wiz9999
File:Academy_of_Athens_2009-2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Academy_of_Athens_2009-2.
jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist:
File:Accession_of_Greece_to_the_European_Union.png Source:
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File:Alenia_C-27J_Spartan_Greece_-_Air_Force,_LUX_Luxembourg_(Findel),_Luxembourg_PP1198066163.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Alenia_C-27J_Spartan_Greece_-_Air_Force%2C_LUX_Luxembourg_
%28Findel%29%2C_Luxembourg_PP1198066163.jpg License: GFDL 1.2 Contributors:
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File:Angelokastro_(Corfu).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Angelokastro_%28Corfu%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dr.K.
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3.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Self-photographed Original artist: Eckhard Pecher
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domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jeremy Avnet (brainsik)
File:Charisteas{}_Siegtreffer_im_Finale_der_Euro_2004.jpg Source:
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Original artist: Fritz Duras
File:Chora_di_Patmos_con_il_Monastero_di_San_Giovanni_\char"0022\relax{}il_teologo.JPG
Source:
https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Chora_di_Patmos_con_il_Monastero_di_San_Giovanni_%22il_teologo%22.JPG License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Valeria Casali
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License: Public domain Contributors: Law 48, 108, 7 June 1975, [1] and [2]
Article 2
Original artist: File:Coat of Arms of Greece (Ministries).svg: Tonyje, based on national symbol.
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
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CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Marc Ryckaert (MJJR)
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Contributors: Own work Original artist: Marc Ryckaert (MJJR)
File:EU-Greece.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/EU-Greece.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
File:Location European nation states.svg Original artist: NuclearVacuum

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%28orthographic_projection%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Ssolbergj
File:Europe_green_light.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Europe_green_light.png License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Aegean Boy
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Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Argentina.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Based on: http://manuelbelgrano.gov.ar/bandera/creacion-de-la-bandera-nacional/ Original artist: (Vector graphics by
Dbenbenn)
File:Flag_of_Australia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Austria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work, http://www.bmlv.gv.at/abzeichen/dekorationen.shtml Original artist: User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_Belarus.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Flag_of_Belarus.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.tnpa.by/ViewFileText.php?UrlRid=52178&UrlOnd=%D1%D2%C1%20911-2008 Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Belgium_(civil).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg
License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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Herzegovina.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kseferovic
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n=000005&g= as: Original artist: SKopp
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License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: Zscout370, reworked by Pianist
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domain Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe
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R-41, Minestrone, Lupo, Zscout370,
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commons/thumb/7/7f/Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png/15px-Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png' width='15' height='15' srcset='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png/23px-Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png
1.5x,
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2x' data-le-width='202' data-le-height='202' /></a><a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:MaGa' title='User
talk:MaGa'>Ga</a> (based on Decision of the Parliament)
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File:Flag_of_Ecuador.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Flag_of_Ecuador.svg License: Public domain
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File:Flag_of_Egypt.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg License: CC0 Contributors:
From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: Open Clip Art
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File:Flag_of_Estonia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.riigikantselei.ee/?id=73847 Original artist: Originally drawn by User:SKopp. Blue colour changed by User:PeepP
to match the image at [1].
File:Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.ethiopar.net/type/Amharic/hopre/bills/1998/654.ae..pdf Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_Europe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg License: Public domain
Contributors:

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File based on the specication given at [1]. Original artist: User:Verdy p, User:-x-, User:Paddu, User:Nightstallion, User:Funakoshi,
User:Jeltz, User:Dbenbenn, User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Finland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg License: Public domain
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Contributors: own code Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi- (talk)
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domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:K21edgo
File:Flag_of_Haiti.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Flag_of_Haiti.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Coat of arms from: Coat of arms of Haiti.svg by Lokal_Prol and Myriam Thyes Original artist: (colours and size changes
of the now deletied versions) Madden, Vzb83, Denelson83, Chanheigeorge, Zscout370 and Nightstallion
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Contributors: Islandic National Flag Original artist: var Arnfjr Bjarmason, Zscout370 and others
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? Original artist: ?
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Original artist: Various
File:Flag_of_Iraq.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
This image is based on the CIA Factbook, and the website of Oce of the President of Iraq, vectorized by User:Militaryace Original artist:
Unknown, published by Iraqi governemt, vectorized by User:Militaryace based on the work of User:Hoshie
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Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Israel.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/History/Modern%20History/Israel%20at%2050/The%20Flag%20and%20the%20Emblem Original artist: The Provisional Council of State Proclamation of the Flag of the State of Israel of 25 Tishrei 5709 (28 October 1948) provides
the ocial specication for the design of the Israeli ag.
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artist: ?
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legilux.public.lu/leg/a/archives/1993/0731609/0731609.pdf Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp
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domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe
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Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Alex Covarrubias, 9 April 2006
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domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: B1mbo, Froztbyte
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Contributors: www.nato.int Original artist:
Vectorized by Mysid and uploaded to Flag of NATO.svg
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Public domain Contributors: http://www.mch.govt.nz/files/NZ%20Flag%20-%20proportions.JPG Original artist: Zscout370, Hugh Jass
and many others

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License:
Public domain Contributors:
Own work based on:
<a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text' href='https:
//docs.google.com/viewer?a=v,<span>,&,</span>,q=cache:tRiqYRg_YJ4J:www.casc.gob.ni/index.php?option%3Dcom_
docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D704%26Itemid%3D4+ley+sobre+los+simbolo+patrios+nicaragua+
2002,<span>,&,</span>,hl=es,<span>,&,</span>,gl=ni,<span>,&,</span>,pid=bl,<span>,&,</span>,srcid=ADGEEShaqFptSDRqZyUoeWlWgMGTvcFvWOs
About Characteristics And Use Of Patriotic Symbols of Nicaragua</a> Original artist: C records (talk contribs)
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del Paraguay
File:Flag_of_Peru.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Flag_of_Peru.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Peru Original artist: David Benbennick
File:Flag_of_Poland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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svg License: Public domain Contributors:

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-x-'s le
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People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/
design.html Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370
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artist: User:Achim1999
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License: Public domain Contributors: Foto personale Original artist: MM 00:11, 17 May 2006 (UTC)
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svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Future Perfect at Sunrise
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License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.navyband.navy.mil/anthems/national_anthems.htm Original artist: uploader
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