Acknowledgement

I would like to thank my chemistry teacher Mrs. Amudha

for her constant guidance, motivation, moral
encouragement and sympathetic attitude towards the
success of this project.
I also want to thank the principal and the institution for
providing the necessary materials.
I would also like to extend my gratitude towards the lab
attendant, my parents and everyone who has helped me in
completing the project successfully.

DRUPAD P

i
Bonafide certificate

This is to certify that DRUPAD P of class XII has

successfully completed the investigatory project on “TO
STUDY VARIATION OF CURRENT USING A
LDR" under the guidance of Mrs. Amudha.
This project is absolutely genuine and doesn't not involve
in any kind of plagiarism.
This is in partial fulfillment of Physics practical
examination AISSCE 2013.

Department of Physics
(AMUDHA)

i
INDEX
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE ii

INTRODUCTION 01

APPLICATIONS 02

AIM & APPARATUS 03

THEORY 04

PROCEDURE 09

OBSERVATIONS 10

RESULT & CONCLUSION 12

SOURCES OF ERROR 13

BIBLIOGRAPHY 14

i
 INTRODUCTION

The general purpose photoconductive cell is also known as

LDR – light dependent resistor. It is a type of
semiconductor and its conductivity changes with
proportional change in the intensity of light.
There are two common types of materials used to
manufacture the photoconductive cells. They are
Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) and Cadmium Selenide
(CdSe).
Extrinsic devices have impurities added, which have a
ground state energy closer to the conduction band - since
the electrons don't have as far to jump, lower energy
photons (i.e. longer wavelengths and lower frequencies)
are sufficient to trigger the device. Two of its earliest
applications were as part of smoke and fire detection
systems and camera light meters. The structure is covered
with glass sheet to protect it from moisture and dust and
allows only light to fall on it.

1
Applications
Lead sulfide (PbS) and indium antimonide (InSb) LDRs
are used for the mid infrared spectral region.
GeCu photoconductors are among the best far- infrared
detectors available, and are used for infrared astronomy and
infrared spectroscopy.

Analog Applications
· Camera Exposure Control
· Auto Slide Focus - dual cell
· Photocopy Machines - density of toner
· Colorimetric Test Equipment
· Densitometer
· Electronic Scales - dual cell
· Automatic Gain Control – modulated light source
· Automated Rear View Mirror

Digital Applications
· Automatic Headlight Dimmer
· Night Light Control
· Oil Burner Flame Out
· Street Light Control
· Position Sensor

*LDR has a disadvantage that when its temperature changes, its resistance changes
drastically for a particular light intensity.

2
 AIM & APPARATUS
AIM:
To study the variations, in current flowing in a circuit
containing a LDR, because of a variation:-

(a) In the power of the incandescent lamp, used to

‘illuminate’ the LDR. (Keeping all the lamps at a fixed
distance).

(b) In the distance of a incandescent lamp, (of fixed power),

used to ‘illuminate’ the LDR.

APPARATUS:
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
Connecting Wires
Source of different power rating (bulbs)
Bulb Holder
Metre scale
Multi Meter
Battery

3
 THEORY
1.) LDR and its characteristics

When light is incident on it, a photon is absorbed and thereby it

excites an electron from valence band into conduction band.
Due to such new electrons coming up in conduction band area,
the electrical resistance of the device decreases. Thus the LDR
or photo-conductive transducer has the resistance which is the
inverse function of radiation intensity.

λ0 = threshold wavelength, in meters

e = charge on one electron, in Coulombs Ew =
work function of the metal used, in Ev

Here we must note that any radiation with wavelength greater

than the value obtained in above equation CANNOT
PRODUCE any change in the resistance of this device.
The band gap energy of Cadmium Sulphide is 2.42eV
and for Cadmium Selenide it is1.74eV. Due to such large
energy gaps, both the materials have extremely high resistivity
at room temperature.

4
Characteristics of photoconductive
Now when the device is kept in darkness, its resistance is
called as dark resistance. This resistance is typically of the
order of 1013 ohms. When light falls on it, its resistance
decreases up to several kilo ohms or even hundreds of ohms,
depending on the intensity of light, falling on it.
The spectral response characteristics of two commercial cells
were compared in our laboratory. And we found that there is
almost no response to the radiation of a wavelength which was
shorter than 300nm. It was very interesting to note that the
Cadmium Sulphide cell has a peak response nearer or within
the green color of the spectrum within a range of 520nm. Thus
it can be used nearer to the infra-red region up to 750nm. It
was found that the maximum response of Cadmium
Sulphoselenide is in the yellow-orange range at 615nm and
also it can be used in the infra-red region up to about
970nm.

5
Sensitivit

The sensitivity of a photo detector is the relationship

between the light falling on the device and the resulting
output signal. In the case of a photocell, one is dealing
with the relationship between the incident light and the
corresponding resistance of the cell.

6
Spectral

Like the human eye, the relative sensitivity of a

photoconductive cell is dependent on the wavelength
(color) of the incident light. Each photoconductor material
type has its own unique spectral response curve or plot of
the relative response of the photocell versus wavelength
of light.

7
2.) luminous flux variation:
Considering the source to be a point radiating in all
directions; consider a steradian (or even a simple sphere),
take a small element dA on the steradian at a distance ‘r’
from the source. It comprises a small part of the energy
radiated (dEr).
Now, go further to a distance ‘R’ (R>r) from the
source, consider the same area element dA, it
comprises a much smaller part of energy radiated
(dER).
[dEr > dER].
It varies inversely as the square of the distance.

8
 PROCEDURE
 Choose a specific position for the source and mount it using a
holder, make sure it is stable.
 Select the bulb with the lowest power rating and connect it to
the holder as shown in the figure.
 Connect the LDR, battery(6V) and the multimeter in series.
 Set the multimeter to ohm section and select suitable range and
measure the resistance with a bulb on.
 Similarly switch to current section and move to micro ampere in
the multimeter. This gives the value of the current.
 Repeat these steps with different power sources at different
distances and note down observations.

9
 OBSERVATIONS
The experiment has been conducted by using
various sources with different power ratings.
Voltage of the battery = 6 V

1.) 15 watts (yellow) (wavelength = 570nm)

Serial DISTANCE FROM RESISTANCE CURRENT
No SOURCE (Kilo ohm) (micro ampere)
(cm)

1. 50 142.5 40
2. 40 69 80
3. 30 41 150
4. 20 21 300

2.) 15 watts (incandescent) (mean wavelength = 610nm

Serial DISTANCE FROM RESISTANCE CURRENT
No SOURCE (Kilo ohm) (micro ampere)
(cm)

1. 50 51 120
2. 40 35 170
3. 30 22 270
4. 20 11 540

1
3.) 40 watts (incandescent) (mean wavelength = 610nm)

Serial DISTANCE FROM RESISTANCE CURRENT

No SOURCE (Kilo ohm) (micro ampere)
(cm)

1. 50 20 300
2. 40 13 460
3. 30 8.5 700
4. 20 4.5 1330

4.) 20 watts (CFL) (white light)

Serial DISTANCE FROM RESISTANCE CURRENT

No SOURCE (Kilo ohm) (micro ampere)
(cm)

1. 50 15.5 380
2. 40 10 600
3. 30 6 1000
4. 20 3 2000

1
CONCLUSION & RESULT

 The LDR resistance decreases with increase in

intensity of light and hence there is an increase in the
flow of current.

 There is an increase in the current as the distance

from the source decreases.

 The intensity decreases as the distance from the source

increases

 The error lies within the experimental limit.

1
 SOURCES OF ERROR

 The LDR may not be perpendicular to the source.

 Connections may be faulty.

 The experiment should be conducted in a dark room.

 Measurements should be taken accurately.

1
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

 NCERT physics class XII

 Art of Electronics by paul worowitz

 www.wikipedia.com/

 www.electronics2000.co.uk/links/education-hobby/

 www.ecelab.com/