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The Application of 2d and 3d Graphic Statics in Design

Article  in  Journal of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures · December 2018
DOI: 10.20898/j.iass.2018.198.032

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 JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR SHELL AND SPATIAL STRUCTURES: J. IASS

THE APPLICATION OF
2D AND 3D GRAPHIC STATICS IN DESIGN
C. HARTZ1a,3, A. MAZUREK1b, M. MIKI1b, T. ZEGARD1b,2, T. MITCHELL1b and W. F. BAKER1c
1aDr.-Ing., 1bPhD, 1cDr.-Ing.E.h., Skidmore, Owings and Merrill LLP, 224 S Michigan Ave suite 1000,
Chicago, IL 60604, USA, [email protected], [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected], [email protected]
2Assistant Professor, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Chile, [email protected]
3Prof. Dr.-Ing., Technische Universität Dortmund, Germany, [email protected]

Editor’s Note: This paper is the winner of the 2017 Tsuboi Award for the outstanding paper published in the proceedings of
the annual IASS Symposium. It is re-published here with permission of the editors of the proceedings of the IASS 2017
Symposium: “Interfaces –Architecture. Engineering. Science”, held in September 2017 in Hamburg, Germany.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.20898/j.iass.2018.198.032

ABSTRACT
This paper focuses on the use of graphic statics in both the two and three-dimensional layout of structures, and in
the purely geometric panelization of architectural surfaces.
The paper will present an in-house computer program for graphic statics including an untangling algorithm, a
topology optimizer based on the Newton method with constraints and discrete step as well as an optimization
procedure based on virtual work.
In the second section, we show how graphic statics can be generalized to 3D to enable form-finding of 3D funicular
structures. In contrast to other form-finding techniques like the force density method, this method is
straightforward to use in the design of structures that have both compression and tension forces. We demonstrate
the utility of this approach via examples of form-finding of a bridge with a tensioned curved deck supported by a
spatially curved compression arch.
Finally, we will show how graphic statics can be used in a purely geometric context to lay out flat panels on
architectural surfaces of arbitrary topological complexity. Since graphic statics relates the equilibrium of forces
in a 2D truss structure to the orthogonal projection of a 3D plane-faced polyhedron (the discrete Airy function),
it is possible to use 2D equilibrium to define and control 3D plane-faced architectural surfaces. This approach
provides an intuitive method for engineers, normally more familiar with equilibrium than pure geometry, to
understand and rationalize architectural surfaces. Using this approach, we show how graphic statics can be used
to derive, explore, and reason about architectural planar panelizations. Unlike variational approaches to surface
planarization, it is straightforward to handle a surface of any topology; pentagons, octagons etc. are treated just
as easily as quads and triangles. We also believe this approach allows clearer reasoning about the limitations and
design degrees-of-freedom of different panelization strategies.

Keywords: dual structures, graphic statics, optimization, planarization, architectural geometry, form finding,
reciprocal diagrams, topology optimization

1. GRAPHIC STATICS OPTIMIZER planar graph. In graphic statics, the first task an
engineer needs to do is to annotate all nodes of the
1.1. Implementation
truss and polygons between the members of the truss.
It has been assumed in this chapter that the reader It shall be noted here that the graphic statics method
knows graphic statics (Zalewski and Allen [1], in its classic form is valid only for planar graphs
Baker et. al. [2], Beghini et. al. [3], Mazurek et. where each edge is adjacent to 2 different polygons
al. [4]) and graph theory (Bondy and Murty [5] and where no 2 edges have the same 2 polygons
especially chapter 10 on Planar Graphs). adjacent to them. That is, the diagram must be a
single sheet; multiple sheets cannot be joined.
Members of a truss structure (form diagram) are Another important restriction, that needs to be noted,
understood here to compose a single connected is that only nodes interconnected with members

Copyright © 2018 by C. Hartz, A. Mazurek, M. Miki, T. Zegard, T. Mitchell and W. F. Baker.

Published by the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) with permission. 235
 Vol. 59 (2018) No. 4 December n. 198

(edges) that are adjacent to one polygon can receive loaded polygons to be equal to the force applied at
a load or reaction. This single polygon is called the node – 2 equations per loaded node are:
external or loaded polygon.
(𝑥𝑥′2 − 𝑥𝑥′1 ) = 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 (2)
To set up dual form and force diagrams, it is first (𝑦𝑦′2 − 𝑦𝑦′1 ) = 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 (3)
necessary to check that the form diagram is a planar
graph. Finding planarity of a graph in general is not Where Fx, Fy are components of a vector
an easy task. Coding the process in the computer is representing nodal load.
even more difficult. An algorithm on how to find
Example shown in Figure 1 has 8 edges and 1 loaded
efficiently planarity of a graph has been described in
node = 10 equations. Number of unknown
Hopcroft and Tarjan [6].
coordinates of nodes reciprocal to the polygons is 2
Notation is a very important element in keeping x 6 = 12. However, one of the reciprocal nodes (2
graphic statics diagrams simple and consistent. unknowns) can be located freely in a 2D space.
Notation used to develop the Graphic Statics
Optimizer (GSO) is named Bow’s notation
(Bow [7], Zalewski and Allen [1]). In this notation,
polygons in the form diagram are annotated with
numbers: 1, 2, 3, … and capital letters: A, B, C, …
(see Figure 1). All open polygons marked with letters
are parts of a single closed loaded polygon separated
with loaded nodes. Polygons in form diagram
correspond (are reciprocal to) nodes in force
diagram. These reciprocal nodes are annotated with
numbers and small letters that correspond to
polygons they are reciprocal to: 1, 2, 3, … , a, b, c,
….

Edges in the form diagram are reciprocal to lines in

the force diagram. These lines are parallel to each
other and lengths of the lines in the force diagram
are proportional to the forces in the structural edges
shown in the form diagram.

The graphical procedure of creating a force diagram

for a given form diagram by drawing parallel lines
can be described mathematically with a set of linear
equations. Solving these equations, a computational
algorithm is able to locate all nodes of the force
diagram. These equations are: Figure 1: Form and force diagrams of a truss obtained
using GSO tool
- Equation describing lines of forces (in force
diagram) to be parallel to corresponding lines of Note that support reactions are not part of the
edges (in form diagram) – 1 equation per edge is: linear equations above. Because supports are
(𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 )(𝑥𝑥′2 − 𝑥𝑥′1 )=(𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 )(𝑦𝑦′2 − 𝑦𝑦′1 ) (1) assumed to restrain nodes in both directions the
reaction equations are not required.
Where x, y are coordinates of nodes, indexes 1 and 2
indicate start and end node of a line and prime sign
1.2. Benefits of the Graphic Statics
indicates node in the force diagram.
The graphics statics method was used to solve
- Equations describing distance between 2 nodes in trussed structures on a daily basis before the
the force diagram that are reciprocal to 2 adjacent development of computers. Today solving trusses is

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 JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR SHELL AND SPATIAL STRUCTURES: J. IASS

trivial using any basic finite element (FE) software. Value of load path is proportional to minimum
Thus, graphics statics has been largely forgotten. structural quantities for structure with uniform
However, there are other benefits to the method absolute stress not exceeding a stress limit, i.e.,
besides obtaining structural forces. An obvious one plastic design. At the same time load path is
is that the magnitude of member forces is represented proportional to total stiffness / elastic energy of a
graphically and it is easy to notice when a force structure with fixed volume (Mazurek et al. [8]).
becomes large as the graphics will show a long line Minimizing the load path is therefore beneficial for
unlike color scale solutions of FE programs. both minimizing structural quantities and
deflections, since, for a single load case, one problem
Another benefit of this method is that an engineer can be transformed into the other.
may want to modify member forces in the force
diagram and obtain a structure required to result in The graphics statics makes the calculation of the load
such forces. This is called design in the force path much easier. The summation in (4) is the dot
domain. Figure 2 shows Robert Maillard truss product of the lengths of each line from the two
(1924). This roof truss has been designed to have diagrams.
constant force in the top chord of the truss (constant
1.3. Dual Structures
lengths of lines c-6, d-5, e-3, f-2, g-1 and a-4) and to
have zero force in the diagonal web members. Note Form and force diagrams are reciprocal to each
that diagonal members (dashed lines) have been other. This means that the geometric rules used to
removed from the model after the geometry has been obtain a force diagram from a form diagram can be
found making the system statically unstable. used on the force diagram to generate back the
Nevertheless, this method still provides statically original form diagram. It can be proven that any
correct solution. force diagram, viewed as lines of a structure, can be
loaded in such a way that lines of the original form
diagram are its force diagram. Such two structures
are called dual structures. Both dual structures have
the same load path. If one of these structures is
optimal (has minimum load path) the other is also
optimal for its set of forces. An example of 2 optimal
dual structures is shown in Figure 3. More optimal
dual structures are presented in Baker et. al. [2].

Figure 2: Form and force diagrams of a Robert Maillard

truss obtained using GSO tool
The graphics statics tool can also be used to find the
stiffest truss within a described connectivity. The
stiffest truss is that with the minimal load path
(Baker et. al. [2]) defined with (4).
𝛿𝛿 = ∑|𝑓𝑓| ∙ 𝑙𝑙 (4)
Where: f are member forces and l are member Figure 3: Equally optimal dual structures obtained using
lengths. GSO tool

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 Vol. 59 (2018) No. 4 December n. 198

1.4. Optimization Figure 7 shows the 3D form and force diagrams

constructed for designing this pedestrian bridge. By
Modifying the above solver by adding an extension
considering the symmetry of the bridge, it is possible
to automatically find efficient structures was an easy
to complete the analysis of the entire structure. In the
addition. After defining a structural model
force diagram, the series of deck lines (red) and the
(topology, loads and constrains) the user needs to
series of arch lines (purple) seem to be flipped
define which nodes can be relocated and in what
around the strut lines (blue). This indicates that if the
directions. The program will automatically find most
arch is in compression, the deck is in tension.
efficient locations for these nodes. Currently 2
minimization methods are implemented: gradient The major advantage of the use of graphics statics is
based – Newton method with constraints (fast) and that it gives the designer direct control of the design
discrete – coordinate descent method (slow) and does not require any computationally expensive
(Nocedal and Wright [9]). The discrete method is nonlinear optimization technique. As illustrated in
used when the gradient based method locks in a local Figure 8, the construction of the form and force
minimum. The truss in Figure 4 is an outcome of diagram shown in Figure 7 is straightforward. It was
optimization of a simply supported spanning truss. decided to make the bridge symmetric about the mid-
Note that this truss is unstable without moment span. Because the semi-arch is supposed to be
continuity of the top and bottom chords. connected to its symmetric pair, we assume a mirror
Nevertheless, the force diagram shown in the bottom plane at the one end of the semi-arch. The first deck
of the same figure is statically correct. line does not need to be perpendicular to the mirror
plane but the reaction force does. However, because
the magnitude of the reaction force is unknown, it is
treated as the first variable parameter. Then the
direction of the first strut can be identified by
computing an intersection of the mirror plane and the
first deck line in the force diagram. Because this only
determines the direction of the first strut, the length
of the first strut is treated as the second variable
parameter. The second reaction force acting on the
bottom end of the strut also needs to be perpendicular
to the mirror plane but its magnitude is also
unknown. This is treated as the third variable
parameter. Other than those three parameters, the
Figure 4: Example of optimized truss using GSO tool curve of deck lines is also a variable parameter. We
decided to use a circular arc divided by a consistent
2. 3D GRAPHIC STATICS APPLIED TO A length as the deck lines. Hence, the parameters now
PEDESTRIAN BRIDGE DESIGN are the directions of the both ends of the deck, total
Graphic statics is conducted on a flat plane. length of the deck, and the three parameters
However, because the essence of graphic statics is to mentioned above. When designing this bridge, one
have all lines between form and force diagrams needs to adjust those parameters so that the overall
parallel and to close all the polygons in the force shape has a decent aesthetics and all the arches touch
diagram, both form and force diagrams can, in the ground.
principle, take three-dimensional forms.

Figure 5 and Figure 6 show a design example of a

pedestrian bridge that used three-dimensional
graphic statics. The bridge consists of one complete
arch and two semi-arches as noted in Figure 5. The
form of this bridge was originally inspired by the
Ripshorst pedestrian bridge by Schlaich Bergermann
Partner, though the form is different (lacking interior
triangulation) and was derived by a different method Figure 5: A design example of pedestrian bridge using
[10]. three-dimensional graphic statics

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 JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR SHELL AND SPATIAL STRUCTURES: J. IASS

After constructed those initial elements, rest of the

process is repetitions of the same task. Because lines
are parallel between form and force diagrams, planes
spanned by two lines should also be parallel between
two diagrams. Using this, length of the next deck line
in the force diagram can be identified by computing
an intersection between a plane and a line. Then the
direction of the next strut can be identified.
Repeating this, the entire form of the bridge will (a) Form diagram: reaction force (purple) should be
emerge. perpendicular to the plane that deterrmines mirror
symmetry

(b) Force diagram: because the magnitude of the reaction

force is unknown, it is treated as a variable parameter (E).
Figure 6: A rendered image of the bridge placed in a By computing an intersection between the plane and the
context first red line, point 3 can be identified

(a) Form diagram, applied loads (grey) and reaction

forces (purple) – Perspective view
(c) Form diagram: while the direction of the first strut is
determined (blue), the length is unknown. So the length of
the first strut is also treated as a variable parameter (D)

(b) Three-dimensional force diagram for Figure 5 –

Perspective view

Deck Strut Arch Vertical load (d) Force diagram: since the magnitude of the reaction
force acting on point B is also unknown, it is also treated
Figure 7: Constructed form (a) and force (b) diagrams for as a variable parameter (K). Point 4 is determined and we
highlighted section in Figure 5 obtain line 3-4

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 Vol. 59 (2018) No. 4 December n. 198

second derivatives represent stress tensors whereas

on the plane faced polyhedron the ‘jump’ of first
derivatives over across edges between adjacent faces
represent axial forces of a linear members in the form
diagram. The connection to the Airy function was
proven rigorously in Mitchell et al [12]. The
existence of such a plane faced polyhedron is not
(e) Form diagram: line B-C should be parallel to line 3-4 obvious for arbitrary form diagrams, but once a form
in the force diagram. To identify the location of C we look diagram is adjusted such that a force diagram truly
at a plane spanned by B, C’ and Q exists, this plane faced polyhedron always exists
regardless of whatever each polygonal face is. It is
truly surprising that even heptagon, octagon, or
enneagon can satisfy planarity conditions in a precise
sense.

This polyhedron has a high potential to be used for

architectural designs, since even though construction
technology is rapidly evolving and glass panels have
some capacity to undergo deformation when being
(f) Force diagram: because the direction of the second
deck line is known, point 6 can be identified by computing installed to a building, flat glass panels are
the plane in (e) and line 5-6’ preferable. Often complex surfaces are represented
by triangular panels. Triangular panelization leads to
very complicated connections. Flat faced polygonal
surfaces tend to have fewer edges connected at a
single point and therefore result in significantly
simpler connections.

(g) Form diagram: line Q-C is known and parallel to line

3-6 in (f). Point C can be identified

Deck
Strut
Arch

Vertical load

Figure 8: Construction of form (Figure 7a) and force

(Figure 7b) diagrams

3. GRAPHIC STATICS AND PANELIZATION

Although, the theory of graphic statics was
developed as a tool to find a structurally rational
form, there is also an interesting application of the
theory as be used in a purely geometric context.

It has been pointed out that given a form diagram,

when a force diagram exists, it is possible to Figure 9: Relation between (a) form diagram, (b) force
construct a planar faced polyhedron whose diagram, (c) planar faced polyhedron and (d) normal
projection is exactly the form diagram. Many vectors of faces in the planar faced polyhedron
authors, for example Fraternali [11], have pointed
out that this polyhedron is a ‘discrete’ version of the Figure 9 shows the relation of planar faced
Airy stress function, since on an Airy stress function polyhedron and its normal vectors to a pair of form

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 JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR SHELL AND SPATIAL STRUCTURES: J. IASS

and force diagrams. While form diagram represents it is recommended to use a software that supports
the horizontal projection of the polyhedron, the force parametric constraints such as GSO discussed above
diagram represents the x and y components of the or CATIA. Diagrams in Figure 12 were constructed
vectors normal to faces of the polyhedron. The using such software. The recovered polyhedron has
normal vectors are ‘normalized’ for their z horizontal planar polygons for bottom and top faces.
component equal 1.0. In other words, the force
diagram has a degree of freedom of parallel Figure 13 shows some renders of planar faced
translation, as well as the polyhedron and the polyhedra that were designed by graphic statics.
normalized vectors. These models have potential to be used as
architectural designs in the future.
A simple method to recover this polyhedron would
be using the Force Density method [13]. Figure 10
shows an arbitrary layout pretensioned by a set of
external forces. The plane faced polyhedron (b, c)
can be obtained by solving a linear system of
equations. (b) Front view of Airy’s stress
polyhedron

(a) Force diagram (c) Isometric view of Airy’s stress

polyhedron

Figure 11: Graphic statics and recovery of Airy’s stress

polyhedron which started with a Force Density method

(a) Form diagram (b) Force diagram

Figure 10: Force Density method

Note that, the boundary of the obtained polyhedron

is arbitrary and does not lie on a plane. The
(c) Front view of Airy’s (d) Isometric view of Airy’s
geometrical requirement of planarity of the base can stress polyhedron stress polyhedron
be interpreted in the force diagram by all external
forces intersecting at a single point. External forces
may be replaced with members connected at a single Figure 12: Graphic statics of a self-equilibrium structure
and recovery of Airy’s stress polyhedron
point and the resulting structure prestressed with a
non zero force (see red lines in (b) of Figure 12). The
4. COPYRIGHT
point where all external loads or prestressing
members meet defines the vector normal to the base. Copyright © 2018 by C. Hartz, A. Mazurek, M.
If the base is required to be horizontal the point needs Miki, T. Zegard, T. Mitchell, W. F. Baker.
to be located at (x,y) = (0,0). For engineer or Published by the International Association for Shell
architect, in order to find a form and force diagram, and Spatial Structures (IASS), with permission.

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 Vol. 59 (2018) No. 4 December n. 198

Figure 13: Application of techniques discussed in this section

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