A

Seminar Report
On
Study On Low Cost Housing Material Bricks Made Up Of
Building Waste
submitted
in partial fulfillment for the Degree of

Bachelor of
Technology in
Department of civil Engineering

Submitted to Submitted By
Dr. Krishan Kumar Saini Deepak Meena
Assistant Professor 19EJCCE030

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

JAIPUR ENGINEERING COLLEGE AND RESEARCH CENTRE
DECEMBER 2022
Jaipur Engineering College & Research Centre Department of Civil Engineering

CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the work, which is being presented in the Seminar, entitled “Study On Low
Cost Housing Material Bricks Made Up Of Building Waste ” in partial fulfillment for the award of
Degree of “Bachelor of Technology”, and submitted the Department of Civil Engineering,
Jaipur Engineering College and Research Centre, Jaipur, Rajasthan Technical University is a
record of my own preparations carried under the Guidance of Dr. Krishan Kumar
Saini,Assistant Professor,Department of Civil Engineering, Jaipur Engineering College and Research
Centre.

I have not submitted the matter presented in this report anywhere for the award of any degree.

Deepak Meena
19EJCCE030

i
Jaipur Engineering College & Research Centre Department of Civil Engineering

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Deepak Meena of VII Semester, B. Tech. (Civil Engineering) 2022- 23, has
presented a seminar report titled “Study On Low Cost Housing Material Bricks Made Up Of
Building Waste” in partial fulfillment for the award of degree of Bachelor of Technology under
Rajasthan Technical University, Kota.

Date: 17/12/2022

Mr. Teekam Singh Dr. Krishan Kumar Saini

Assistant Professor Asst. Prof. & Head
Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of any work will be
incomplete unless we mention the names of those people who made it possible, whose valuable
guidance and encouragement served as a beacon light and crowned the efforts with success.

I take this opportunity to thank our Principal Prof. (Dr.) V.K.Chandna for assigning this seminar as a
part of the curriculum.

In the beginning of the report I want to give my thanks to Dr. Krishan Kumar Saini ,Asst. Pro. &
Head, Department of Civil Engineering JECRC for all the encouragement and appreciations that I
have received from them.

I would like to express my gratitude towards my esteemed faculty Mr.Teekam Singh, Assistant
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,JECRC for being more than willing to share their
treasure of knowledge with me.

I would like to express my gratitude toward my all esteemed Faculties and Staff Members of
Department of Civil Engineering, JECRC for being more than willing to impound their treasure of
knowledge with me.
Once again, I am also thankful to people who were the part of this work in various way direct or
indirect, people who gave unending support from the beginning.

Deepak Meena
19EJCCE030

iii
 ABSTRACT

A review of representative research on tuned massed dampers (TMD) reported in journals in recent years is
presented. TMDs are divided into four categories: conventional TMDs, pendulum TMDs (PTMDs), bi-
directional TMDs (BTMDs), and tuned liquid column dampers (TLCDs). Tuned Mass Damper (TMD) has
been found to be most effective for controlling the structural responses for harmonic and wind excitations. In
the present paper, the effectiveness of TMD in controlling the seismic response of structures and the
influence of various ground motion parameters on the seismic effectiveness of TMD have been investigated.
The structure considered is an idealized single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) structure characterized by its
natural period of vibration and damping ratio. Various structures subjected to different actual recorded
earthquake ground motions and artificially generated ground motions are considered. It is observed that TMD
is effective in controlling earthquake response of lightly damped structures, both for actual recorded and
artificially generated earthquake ground motions. The effectiveness of TMD for a given structure depends on
the frequency content, bandwidth and duration of strong motion, however the seismic effectiveness of TMD
is not affected by the intensity of ground motion.

iv
 LIST OF CONTENT

Page no.

Candidate Declaration i

Certificate ii

Acknowledgement iii

Abstract iv

List of figures v

List of content Vi

1: INTRODUCTION 1

2: BACKGROUND STUDY 2-3

3: COMPARATIVE STUDY 4-13

4: CONCLUSION 14-15

5.REFERENCE 16

v
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Name of Figure Page no.

Figure 1.1 SDOF System With TMD 8

Figure 1.2 101 high-rise building (Courtesy of Tina Hsu) 10

Figure 1.3 The Aspire Tower (Courtesy of Travis Hydzik) 12

Figure 1.4 The Crystal Tower in Osaka, Japan (Courtesy of Takashi Kassai) 14

The 48-story OneWall Centre in Vancouver, Canada

Figure 1.5 16

1
 ABSTRACT

Bricks are a popular building and construction material used all over the world. Historic bricks are made
of clay and fired at high temperatures, or from ordinary Portland cement (OPC) concrete, and have a
high embodied energy and a huge carbon footprint. There is already a scarcity of natural source material
for the production of traditional bricks in many parts of the world. Extensive study on the bricks made
from waste materials has been performed for environmental protection and sustainable development.
This document provides an up-to-date review of research on the use of waste materials to make bricks.
Although a wide range of waste materials have been investigated for use in the production of bricks
using various processes, commercial production of bricks from waste materials is still quite limited. The
methods for creating bricks from waste materials, the potential contamination from the waste materials
utilized, and the lack of necessary information are all possible factors. However, commercial production
of waste-derived bricks is currently quite limited. The processes for creating waste-based bricks, the
potential contamination from the waste materials utilized, the lack of applicable standards, and the tardy
acceptance of trash-based bricks by industry and the general public are all possible explanations. Further
research and development is required for widespread production and application of waste-derived bricks,
not only in terms of technical, economic, and environmental aspects, but also in terms of standardization,
government policy, and public education related to waste recycling and sustainable development.

2
 INTRODUCTION

The increase in the popularity of using environmental friendly, low cost and lightweight construction
materials in building industry has brought about the need to investigate how this can be achieved by
benefiting the environment as well as maintaining the material requirements affirmed in the standard.
Recycling of waste generated from industrial and agricultural activities as building materials appears to
be viable solution not only to such pollution problem but also to the problem of economic design of
buildings (Perez JA et al, 1996). Brick belongs to the wide family of construction materials since it is
mainly used for the construction of outer and inner walls in buildings. The brick industry is the most
indicated technological activity sector to absorb solid waste due to the large quantity of raw material
used by the sector as well as by the large volume of final products in construction (Andreola et. al, 2005)
Various attempts were made to incorporate various waste material in bricks production such as natural
fibers, textile laundry wastewater sludge, foundry sand, granite sawing waste, perlite, processed waste
tea, sewage sludge, structural glass waste, PC and TV waste, fly ash, sugar cane baggase ash, organic
residue, steel dust, bottom ash, rice husk ash, silica fume, marble and granite waste, municipal solid
incineration fly ash slag (Chee-Ming, 2011- Raut et al, 2011). This review highlights the effects of
various waste material on the bricks property like physical and mechanical properties as well as thermal
insulation.

3
 Development Of Bricks From Industrial Waste

(Chee Ming, 2011) examined the mechanical properties of clay brick made by adding two natural fibers
like oil palm fruit (OF), and pineapple eaves (PF) to clay-water mixture with baked and non baked
conditions. Compressive strength, water absorption and efflorescence were performed according to
British standard BS3921:1985, and Malaysian Standards MS 76:1972. Results indicated that the
compressive strength of the bricks were fulfilled the minimum requirement of BS3921:1985 for
compressive strength which is 5.2 MPa for conventional bricks. Efflorescence was only feasible for
baked samples as the non baked ones formed severe deterioration while testing. The prevailing benefit of
the fiber inclusion was more benefit for baked specimen where the strength get surpassed that of non
baked added only specimen. (Paki et al. 2012) investigated the potential use of crumb rubber–concrete
combination for producing a low cost and lightweight composite brick with improved thermal resistance.
The obtained compressive strength, flexural strength, splitting strength, freezing–thawing resistance, unit
weight and water absorption values satisfy with the relevant international standards. The experimental
observations reveal that high level replacement of crumb rubber with conventional sand aggregate does
not exhibit a sudden brittle fracture even beyond the failure loads, indicates high energy absorption
capacity, reduces the unit weight dramatically and introduces smoother surface compared to the current
concrete bricks in the market. Thermal insulation performance is improved by introducing various
amount of crumb rubber into the ordinary cementitious mixes. (Luciana C.S et al., 2012), proposed
mixing of textile laundry wastewater sludge with clay to produce bricks for civil construction. All bricks
were fabricated by extrusion method, dried at 100°C and then fired at 900°C. Mechanical properties of
ceramics as flexural strength and water absorption were satisfactory within the Brazilian legislation. The
obtained results showed that sludge can be incorporate bricks until a concentration of Aust. J. Basic &
Appl. Sci., 7(8): 812-818, 2013 813 20% (mass basis) producing suitable bricks in terms of its
mechanical properties. Besides, the produced brick are safe and inert according to the applied leaching a
solubilization tests. (Hanifi et al., 2005) presented an earthquake-resistant material with high
compressive strength. He elaborated the compressive strength of fiber reinforced mud bricks made out of
clay, cement, basaltic pumice, lime and gypsum using plastic fiber, straw, polystyrene fabric as fibrous
ingredients, each at a time. It was demonstrated that the fiber reinforced mud brick fulfill the
compressive strength requirement of Turkish codes, whereby reducing the weight and material handling
cost for housing. Furthermore, it can store more elastic energy compare to the other type of mud brick
which renders it more resistance to earthquake. (Alonso et al., 2012) developed a comparative study to
4
produce ceramic bricks from clay with two types of foundry sand (green and core sand). Clay/green sand
bricks with 35 % green core and 25 % green sand fired at 1050°C have the better physical properties
values, while the mineralogy is not significantly affected. It was shown that foundry sand is
recommended as raw material in the manufacture of ceramic product, whereby saving in costs of brick
production. (Romualdo et al., 2005) investigated the possibilities of using the granite sawing waste as
alternative ceramic raw materials in the production of ceramic bricks and tile. Samples were uni axially
pressed and then fired at 850 °C. Results for tests on ceramic compositions showed that samples with
(10-30) % granite waste have physical and mineralogical characteristics similar to those of conventional
ceramic raw materials. Ceramic compositions with the addition of those waste produced water
absorption lower than 3%, it was proved that recycling sludge in the production of ceramic bricks and
tiles was feasible. (Kay and Volker, 2002) conducted a pilot experiment at a full-scale in recycling the
harbour sediments mixed with waste brick and clay. Bricks were produced according to German
industrial standards. The leaching of the bricks was not hazardous to soil or groundwater neither by their
use, for example, in masonry, nor afterwards, when they will be deposited as mineral demolition mass.
(lker et al., 2007) had investigated the production of high heat conductivity resistance bricks from perlite
and clay with some binding materials such as cement, gypsum, lime, bitumen and clay were used for
manufacturing perlite brick. Samples were dried in 200°C and then fired at 950°C. It was demonstrated
that the compressive strength of bricks was decrease, shrinkage and heat conductivity resistance were
increased with the increase of perlite dose. It was proved that perlite brick is good insulator according to
bricks standards and the best mixture content was determined as containing 30% of perlite. Faria et al.
(14) recycled the sugarcane bagasse ash waste through replacement of natural clay, samples were
prepared by uni axial pressing at 21 MPa, dried at 110°C and then fired at 1000°C. Results for scanning
electro microscope (SEM) showed that the sugarcane bagasse ash waste is mainly composed by
crystalline silica particles and it could be used as a filler in clay bricks, thus enhancing the possibility of
recycling it in a safe and sustainable way. Recycling of sugarcane baggase ash in clay brick showed
highly positive results in terms of environmental protection, waste management and saving of raw
material. (Taner, 2006) studied the feasibility of utilizing the clay waste (CW) and fine waste of boron
(FW) as a fluxing agent in production of red mud (RM) brick. Bricks were dried in a room temperature
and then fired at 1000°C. The mineralogical and mechanical tests confirmed the possibility of recycling
the boron waste as a fluxing agent in the production of RM bricks . (J.A. Cusido´et al. 2003) developed
lighter, more thermal and acoustic insulating clay brick, compared with conventional clay-bricks by
mixing clay with sewage sludge, and forest debris. Bricks were dried at 100°C and then fired at 1000°C.
5
It was shown that level of emissions of green house gas was 20 times higher than the conventional
ceramic firing even though they are still legally allowed within the limitation of Environmental
Protection Agency recommendations. (Carretero, 2003) produced clay brick from very different clay,
calcareous and non-calcareous. Samples were obtained by three processes pressing, extrusion and firing
at 110°C. The mechanical resistance, pore size distribution and critical pore diameter did not clearly
reflect the influence of shaping techniques. (Vorrada et al., 2009) recycled wasted glasses from structural
glass walls into clay mixtures. The compressive of bricks was as high as (26–41) MPa and water
absorption as low as (2–3) % were achieved for bricks containing (15–30) % by weight of glass content
and fired at 1100°C. When the glass waste content was 45 % by weight, apparent porosity and water
absorption was rapidly increased. (Martínez et al., 2012) replaced clay in a ceramic body with different
proportions of sludge. Results for mechanical properties as water absorption, compressive strength and
water suction showed that the bricks incorporated 5% of sludge showed good mechanical properties.
(Michele et. al., 2010) studied the potential utilization of tionite as coloring agent in clay bricks. Samples
were dried at 100°C and then fired at 1000°C. Additions over of 5% of tionite induced significant
variations, such as increase of working moisture and water absorption, decrease of bulk density and
bending strength. Therefore, the optimum proportion of tionite was found to be 3 %. (Dondi et al., 2009)
investigated the utilization of funnel and panel glass of TV and PC glass waste mixed with clay, sample
was dried at 100°C and then fired at 900°C. It was demonstrated that adding of 2% of glass waste to clay
body doesn’t bring about significant changes in the technological performance of fired bricks. However,
adding more than 5% of the waste may have deleterious on mechanical properties and efflorescence.
Results for leaching test demonstrated Aust. J. Basic & Appl. Sci., 7(8): 812-818, 2013 814 no
significant environmental pollutant emission. (Kae Long, 2006) investigated the addition of municipal
solid waste incineration fly ash slag (MSWI) on fired clay bricks, bricks were fired at 1000°C. Results
for leachates test met the current thresholds. Results for the mechanical properties met the Chinese
National Standard (CNS) for building requirements for second-class brick. It was shown that the
increasing of MSWI decreased the water absorption and increased the compressive strength of the
sintered bricks. (Eliche et al., 2006) recycled various industrial wastes such as urban sewage sludge,
bagasse, and sludge from the brewing industry, olive mil wastewater, and coffee ground residue were
blended with clay to produce bricks. It was shown that the compressive strength increased with the
increase of sintering temperature. The incorporation of coffee grounds and olive mill wastewater of clay
was more beneficial, compressive strength values were similar to bricks without waste and with a 19%
improvement in thermal conductivity; the bricks met the required specifications for the water absorption
6
and compressive strength. (Ismail et al., 2003) studied the addition of waste-brick material to clay bricks.
The results showed that the reuse of this material in bricks industry would contribute to the protection of
farmland and the environment. (Pai-Haung et al., 2004) manufactured bricks from clay and steel slag.
Results showed that when the firing temperature was greater than 1050°C and the slag addition less than
10 %, the bricks met the Chinese National Standards for third-class brick for builders. (Eduardo et al.,
1996) tested the use of clay in the formulation of ceramic body incorporated steel dust. The bricks met
the standard commercial regulations being inert to leaching tests and ceramic process had law emission
of dangerous gases. The addition of steel dust reduced the firing temperature of the ceramic process in
which meeting the recycling Environmental Protection Agency requirement for the disposal of hazardous
waste. (Abdul et al. 2004) recycled the sewage sludge as a raw material in clay brick making. Results for
the physical and mechanical properties of bricks were capable of meeting the relevant technical
standards. However, bricks with more than 30% sludge addition were not recommended for use since
they were brittle and easily broken even when handled gently. Therefore, sludge bricks of this nature
were only suitable for use as ceramic bricks which are normally not exposed to view because of poor
surface finishing. (Acosta et al., 2002) developed red mud brick by mixing sterile clay deposit with
IGCC slag. Results for this experimentation suggested that the IGCC can be applied to the ceramic
process. Moreover, it had exhibited other advantages as water savings and improvements on the
properties of the final products. In the finished product, IGCC slag increases the water absorption as well
as frost resistance and vitreous sound. The bricks manufactured from IGCC slag can be classified as
rugged and face view. (Geiza et al., 2004) recycled the solid waste generated by the steel work in Brazil
for manufacturing claybased structural products. Tests results for mechanical properties and leaching
indicated that the solid generated by steel works can be used in construction materials, thereby reusing
those waste in environmentally safe manner. (Chihpin et al., 2005) did a study on recycling the water
treatment residual (WTR) and the excavated soil, the ceramic bodies were prepared and sintered to
formulate into building bricks and artificial aggregates. The sintering temperature requirement by WTR
was higher than normally practiced in brick works due to the higher Al2O3 and lower SiO2 content. Test
results of specific gravity, water absorption, and compressive strength of the ceramic bodies confirmed
its applicability in construction. (Rania et al., 2011) recycled marble and granite waste of different sizes
in the manufacturing of concrete bricks, with full replacement of conventional coarse and fine aggregates
with marble waste scrapes and slurry powder. Results on the physical and mechanical properties of
bricks qualified them to be used in the building sector as non load bearing spacing construction
materials, where all cement brick samples tested in this study complied with the Egyptian code
7
requirement for structural bricks. (Chin et al., 1998) developed a technology for reusing the paper sludge
and co-generation ashes generated by the paper industry in producing bricks, bricks were fired at
1000°C. The constructional bricks made from co-generation ashes and other raw material had a water
absorption rate lower than 15 %, and compressive strength greater than 150 kg/cm2 , conformed to the
relevant specifications and the bricks can be used as non load bearing spacing construction material.
(Quintilio et al., 2011) produced an earthen brick from straw fibers and coarse sand by manual
compaction. Mechanical properties had been investigated by a combined experimental and theoretical
approach. Results were discordant because of the lack of more statistically relevant data. (Cheng et al.,
2006) investigated the properties of water permeable bricks made of water treatment sludge and bottom
ash (BA) without involving an artificial aggregate step. The mechanical properties of the sintered bricks
were examined with respect to relevant standards. It was found that 20 % by weight content of bottom
ash under a sintering condition of 1150°C could generate a brick with a compressive strength of 256
kg/cm2 , a water absorption ratio of 2.78 % and a permeability of 0.016 cm/s. Bricks developed in this
study could be used as water permeable, environmentally friend product as pavement brick in an urban
area. (Chiang et al., 2000) produced novel light weight bricks by sintering mixes of dried water treatment
plant sludge and agricultural waste with rice husk ash. Bricks containing 40 % by weight rice husk
sintered at 1100ºC produced low bulk density and relatively high strength that were compliant with
relevant Taiwan standards for use as lightweight bricks in future green building. Results for toxic
characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) concentration Aust. J. Basic & Appl. Sci., 7(8): 812-818, 2013
815 indicated that TCLP concentrations of Cu, Zn, Cr, Cd, and Pb in the sintered products were lower
than regulation thresholds. (Kidsarin et al., 2001) developed a new approach in making bricks from 100
% lingnite fly ash. The fly ash bricks developed in this study showed superior mechanical strength
especially compressive strength compared with red-fired clay brick, facing bricks and other types of fly
ash bricks. (Badr et al., 2012) investigated the complete substitution of clay brick by sludge mixed with
rice husk ash (RHA) and silica fume (SF). Bricks were fired at 1000°C. Bricks contained 25% SF and
50% sludge showed superior mechanical properties as compared with conventional bricks and with those
available in the Egyptian code. (Weng et al., 2003) developed bricks from dried sludge collected from an
industrial wastewater treatment plant. The bricks incorporated sludge conformed to the Chinese National
Standards for building bricks. (Malhotra and Tehri,1996) developed bricks from granulated blast furnace
slag. The study revealed good quality bricks can be produced from a slag-lime mixture and sand by
pressing the mix at 50 kg/cm2 pressure. Compressive strength of final products ranged in (80-150)
kg/cm2 , it was evidenced that the slag consumes less energy as compared with conventional burnt clay
8
or calcium silicate brick. (Oti et al., 2009) produced unfired clay brick by recycling a ground granulated
blast furnace Slag (GGBS) activated with an alkaline lime and Portland cement combined with clay soil.
The mixed materials were manually pressed with 140 bar. Mechanical properties and durability
assessment were all within the acceptable engineering standards for clay masonry units. (Yin sung, 2003)
produced bricks from reservoir harbor sediment mixed with fly ash. The mixed materials were pressed
by 15000psi. (Sivakumar et al., 2012) manufactured bricks from thermal power plant bottom ash, fly ash
mixed along with water and cement. The bricks were produced by making flow-able mix with high w/c
ranged in (1.5-5.5). Results for compressive strength ranged in (5-10) MPa, water absorption varied from
7 to14 %, ultra sonic pulse velocity fell in range between (2.556- 2.819) km/s. Unlike the conventional
method for producing bricks, the new procedure neither used clay and shale nor required high
temperature kiln firing, having significant environmental and ecological benefits (Saeed and Lianyang,
2012) investigated the feasibility of utilizing copper mine tailings for producing ecofriendly bricks based
on the geo-polymerization technology. The mixed material was placed in a miniature compaction
cylindrical mould with minor compaction. The compacted specimens were then compressed with a Geo-
test compression machine at different loading rates ranged from (0.5-30) MPa. Physical and mechanical
properties of copper mine tailings-based geo-polymer bricks were investigated using water absorption
and unconfined compression tests. Results showed that copper mine tailings can be used to produce eco-
friendly bricks based on the geo-polymerization technology to meet the American Society Testing
Material (ASTM) requirements. (Raut et al., 2011) did a review study in developing bricks from various
industrial and agricultural waste material like paper processed residues, cigarettes buts, fly ash- lime
gypsum, cotton waste, limestone powder waste, textile effluent treatment plant, Organic residue, kraft
pulp residue, petroleum effluent treatment plant sludge and recycled sludge welding flux. Water
absorption and compressive strength of bricks developed from those waste were reviewed. It was
concluded that the bricks developed from paper processing residues and waste paper pulp showed the
highest compressive strength greater than 12 times from the minimum recommended by Indian Standard
IS1007:1992.

9
 Review of research on utilization of waste materials to produce bricks

Many researchers have studied the production of bricks from waste materials to achieve sustainability:
Gencel, O, et al (2015) [4], Production of porous and lightweight clay bricks with enhanced thermal
conductivity was studied. Pumice was used as an additive to an earthenware brick to produce the pores.
SEM-EDS, XRD, XRF and TG-DTA analysis of the raw materials were initially performed. Mixtures
containing brick raw materials and pumice were prepared at different proportions (up to 40 wt %). The
semi-dry mixtures were compressed by a hydraulic press under 20 MPa pressure into the mould, and the
green bodies were dried, and then fired at 900 and 1000°C for 2 hours. The loss on ignition values of
fired samples were investigated, as well as, the bulk density, apparent porosity and water absorption
measurements by Archimedes method. Thermal conductivities and mechanical strengths of the fired
samples were also measured. Results showed that the use of pumice decreased the fired density of the
bricks. Thermal conductivity of the brick with added 40 % pumice produced

Saleem, et al (2017) [5], studied the clay bricks produced by the addition of the two agricultural waste
materials i.e. sugarcane bagasse and rice husk ash. Disposing off these waste materials is a very
challenging task and is a hazard to environment. The sugarcane bagasse and rice husk ash were collected
locally from the cities of Peshawar and Wazirabad, respectively. These were mixed with the clay for
brick manufacturing in three different proportions i.e. 5, 10 and 15% by weight of clay. Mechanical i.e.
compressive strength and modulus of rupture and durability properties i.e. water absorption; freeze-thaw
and sulphate resistance of these bricks were evaluated. Test results indicated that the sulphate attack
resistance and efflorescence of clay bricks incorporating sugarcane bagasse and rice husk ash were
increased significantly. However, no significant effect on mechanical properties was observed.
Furthermore, the additions of wastes were reduced the unit weight of bricks which decrease the overall
weight of the structure leading to economical construction. Therefore, it can be concluded that the
addition of waste materials in brick manufacturing can minimize the environmental burden leading
towards more economical and sustainable construction.

Sarat Chandra V and Lingeshwaran N ( 2020)[6], studied the load-bearing walls. In order to beautify the
splendid of building and its sustainability besides sacrificing strength, stability, performance, the
existence of the structure and environmentally fine properties, the utilization of unique eco-friendly
materials is viewed in a load-bearing masonry structure. Later as an introduction of framed constructions

10
and improvement of working stress method and limit state method has been constructed. But the modern
find out about reintroduces load-bearing partitions with a hollow brick wall which will be carrying more
load-bearing potential with reasonable economy when in contrast to that of the framed structure of the
identical load.

Munir et al ( 2018) [7], studied the development of eco-friendly burnt clay bricks incorporating recycled
waste marble powder (WMP). Waste marble powder was collected from the local marble industry and
used to manufacture brick specimens at a local brick manufacturing facility with dosages ranging from 5
to 25% by clay weight. The mechanical and durability performance of bricks incorporating WMP were
investigated. The WMP produced lighter weight bricks with reduced linear shrinkage. It also decreased
the compressive strength of bricks because of enhanced porosity, as shown by scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) analysis. However, bricks incorporating up to 10% of WMP achieved compressive
strength values within the specified limits of the local building code. All tested bricks satisfied the
minimum standard flexural strength requirements. Using 5% WMP in fired clay bricks yielded similar
efflorescence and resistance to sulfate attack compared with control bricks without WMP. Leaching tests
on brick specimens indicated that leached species from WMP-modified bricks were well below
regulatory thresholds. Full-scale implementation of WMP in burnt clay brick manufacturing could
mitigate the landfilling of this by-product and lead to the development of ecofriendly, nonhazardous and
economical masonry construction.

Gencel, O. et al (2020)[8], studied focuses on evaluation of concrete waste in the production of fired clay
brick. Ground concrete waste powder was replaced with the clay up to 15% by weight. Samples were
shaped in the form of cylinder pellets in uniaxial press and then fired in oven at 1000 and 1100°C for 2 h.
Loss on ignition, bulk density, apparent porosity, water absorption capacity, compressive strength,
thermal conductivity, dilatometric, leach analysis and efflorescence analysis were done on 983 the fired
brick samples in addition to microstructure investigations. It was observed that loss on ignition, porosity
and water absorption values slightly increase while compressive strength and thermal conductivity
values decrease by depending on the increment in concrete waste content. Even though the brick
containing 2.5% concrete waste gives better results, the bricks containing concrete waste up to 15%
present compressive strength above 7 MPa which is the minimum limit. The efflorescence levels of
bricks are in the slight level. It can be concluded that concrete waste can be used in the fired clay brick
production.

11
Loryuenyong, V.et al (2009)[9], studied wasted glasses from structural glass walls up to 45 wt.% were
added into clay mixtures in brick manufacturing process. Physical and mechanical properties of clay
bricks were investigated as functions of the wasted glass content and the firing temperature. The results
indicated that with proper amount of wasted glasses and firing temperature, clay bricks with suitable
physical and mechanical properties could be obtained. The compressive strength as high as 26–41 MPa
and water absorption as low as 2–3% were achieved for bricks containing 15–30 wt.% of glass content
and fired at 1100° C. When the glass waste content was 45 wt.%, apparent porosity and water absorption
was rapidly increased.

Hassan, K. et al (2014)[10], used the arsenic–iron sludge in making bricks and to analyze the
corresponding effects on brick properties. The water treatment plant sludge is extremely close to brick
clay in chemical composition. So, the sludge could be a potential substitute for brick clay. This study
involved the addition of sludge with ratios 3%, 6%, 9% and 12% of the total weight of sludge–clay
mixture. The physical and chemical properties of the produced bricks were then determined and
evaluated and compared to control brick made entirely from clay. Results of different tests indicated that
the sludge proportion and firing temperature were the two key factors in determining the quality of
bricks. The compressive strength of 3%, 6%, 9% and 12% sludge containing brick samples were found
to be 14.1 MPa, 15.1 MPa, 9.4 MPa and 7.1 MPa, respectively. These results indicate that the
compressive strength of prepared bricks initially increased and then decreased with the increase of
sludge proportion. Leaching characteristics of burnt bricks were determined with the variation of pH at a
constant temperature. The optimum amount of sludge that could be mixed with clay to produce good
bonding of clay–sludge bricks was found to be 6% (safely maximum) by weight.

S.E. Chidiac and L.M. Federico (2007)[11],studied The optimization of the production of fired clay brick
is essential for the sustainability of the clay brick industry. While there exist areas for improvement of
these bricks’ properties when they are used in severe climates, concerns — including nonrenewable
resource depletion, increasing energy costs, and waste management — have become increasingly
important in Canadian and global industries. One strategy to address these concerns is to use waste
additives as fluxing agents in bricks. Use of these additives can decrease the dependency of the industry
on nonrenewable resources and can improve brick strength and durability. The effect nonrecycled waste

12
glass additives have on fired brick durability and mechanical and transport properties was investigated in
these study. The variables studied were waste glass particle size and percentage added by mass.
Microstructure was investigated using mercury intrusion porosimetry to determine the effect on pore
structure. The results yielded an optimal percentage addition of waste glass.

Cusidó, J. A & Cremades, L. V. (2012)[12], showed some leachability and toxicity tests (outgassing and
offgassing) which demonstrate the environmental compatibility of these ceramic products to be used as
building materials and even in deconstruction of the building once its useful life is ended. Rezaie et al
(2019) [13], investigated the effect of the axial load and shear span ratio on the wall behaviour, notably
on the wall stiffness, strength, and drift capacity where shear compression tests. It was found that the
drift at crack onset is only half of that in previous campaigns on stone masonry walls, likely because one
face of each wall was plastered, making the damage more visible. Additionally, splitting cracks opening
between the wall leaves appear to play a key role in the collapse mechanism. Finally, testing the walls up
to the loss of their axial-load-bearing capacity provides new input for the collapse risk analysis of stone
masonry buildings.

Kazmi, S. et al (2016) [14], used waste materials (rice husk ash and bagasse ash) for brick production has
been attempted. Clay bricks were prepared incorporating 5% by clay weight of rice husk ash (RHA) and
sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA) to investigate the mechanical and durability properties. It was observed
compressive strength and modulus of rupture decreased with incorporation of RHA and SBA in burnt
clay brick. However, compressive strength and modulus of rupture satisfied the requirements of building
bricks according to Pakistan building code and ASTM standard guidelines. Furthermore, clay bricks
incorporating RHA and SBA can be potentially used in the production of lighter bricks. Lighter weight
of bricks can result in reduction of structural loads and helpful in achieving economy. Test results
confirmed the use of clay bricks incorporating RHA and SBA as moderate weather resistive bricks.
Moreover, resistance against efflorescence was improved after incorporating RHA and SBA. The
microstructure was examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and found that burnt clay bricks
incorporating RHA and SBA were more porous than burnt clay bricks. Based on that study, it can be
concluded that the addition of 2 RHA and SBA is not only helpful in controlling environmental pollution
but also results into a more sustainable and economical

13
Kazmi, S. et al (2016) [14], used waste materials (rice husk ash and bagasse ash) for brick production has
been attempted. Clay bricks were prepared incorporating 5% by clay weight of rice husk ash (RHA) and
sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA) to investigate the mechanical and durability properties. It was observed
compressive strength and modulus of rupture decreased with incorporation of RHA and SBA in burnt
clay brick. However, compressive strength and modulus of rupture satisfied the requirements of building
bricks according to Pakistan building code and ASTM standard guidelines. Furthermore, clay bricks
incorporating RHA and SBA can be potentially used in the production of lighter bricks. Lighter weight
of bricks can result in reduction of structural loads and helpful in achieving economy. Test results
confirmed the use of clay bricks incorporating RHA and SBA as moderate weather resistive bricks.
Moreover, resistance against efflorescence was improved after incorporating RHA and SBA. The
microstructure was examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and found that burnt clay bricks
incorporating RHA and SBA were more porous than burnt clay bricks. Based on that study, it can be
concluded that the addition of 2 RHA and SBA is not only helpful in controlling environmental pollution
but also results into a more sustainable and economical

Gencel, O. et al (2021) [15], studied the global generation of millions of tonnes of water treatment sludge
(WTS) per day is triggering waste management problems and the up-cycling of WTS in masonry bricks
is an eco-friendly solution. Effect of different dosages of WTS on the performance of clay bricks was
studied. Scant work is available regarding the performance of no-clay bricks i.e. bricks made exclusively
with the WTS. It was investigated the engineering performance of no-clay bricks having WTS, glass, and
marble wastes. For this reason, WTS bricks are manufactured with different dosages of glass and marble
14
wastes (i.e. 0–15%). Empirical relationships were derived between the compressive strength, thermal
conductivity, porosity, and density of brick specimens developed in this study can be used to predict the
performance of WTS bricks. Therefore, no-clay WTS bricks having glass and marble wastes can be used
to produce strong, durable, and sustainable buildings leading towards a cleaner environment and natural
clay conservation.

Muñoz, P et al (2020)[16], explored the mineral and technological properties of brick made by using
different percentages of paper pulp residues and fired at 900 °C. Results indicate that by increasing the
replacement ratio, blend requires larger amounts of water which leads to a proportional increasing of
shrinkage during drying. In spite of mineral transformations are not influenced by paper pulp 985
residue, the porosity is linearly increased which leads to reduce compressive strength and thermal
conductivity up to 30% for 20% of replacement ratio, in both cases. Thus, it was concluded that series
made by replacing up to 10% show compressive strength above 5 MPa, water absorption beyond 20%
and toxicity indexes meet the mandatory requirements.

Abbas O et a l(2021)[17], focused on unfired clay brick where the clay is the main material. To ensure
that the clay is pure and clean, it was excavated from the depth of 2 m below the natural ground level.
Different types of unfired clay bricks produced by adding different materials to the clay to improve its
properties and especially large deformation due to shrinkage. The added materials are classified into
three concepts, the first additives are the natural fibers (straw, sawdust, and rice husk) and they are used
to improve the tensile strength of brick and reduce the cracking due to shrinkage. The second additives
included added the fine and coarse sand as a stabilizer to reduce the volumetric changes. The third
additives are adding cement to increase the adhesive and cohesion of the mud matrix. The measurements
included compressive strength of brick, mortar, and masonry and the flexural strength of bricks alone.
The behaviour of unfired masonry prisms was also compared to the traditionally fired clay brick prisms.
The results indicate that higher compressive strength of bricks was got for the mix that included clay,
coarse sand and straw. The maximum flexural strength of bricks was got for the mix that included clay
and sawdust, while for unfired masonry prism the higher compressive strength was obtained with a mix
that included clay, coarse sand and straw. Finally, a proposed formula to obtain the compressive strength
of unfired brick masonry from the compressive strength of brick

KHITAB, Anwar, et al (2021)[18], studied the feasibility of using a composite mixture of waste brick

15
powder (WBP) and waste ceramic powder (WCP) as a replacement for depleting natural resource “clay”
in brick manufacturing. Based upon the previous studies, the replacement levels were kept as (4 + 5)%,
(8 + 10)%, and (12 + 15)% of WCP and WBP, respectively. The brick specimens were evaluated in
terms of compressive strength, modulus of rupture, density, water absorption, efflorescence, apparent
porosity, resistance to chemical attack and sulfate attack, and freeze-thaw resistance. The study revealed
that about 27% of clay can be replaced with ceramic waste powder and waste brick powder, which can
preserve a massive amount of natural clay without compromising the quality of the bricks.

Kazmi, S. M et al (2016)[19], aimed to evaluate the effect of the waste addition produced from two
major crops: sugarcane and rice in clay bricks manufacturing. It was, sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA) and
rice husk ash (RHA) were collected locally from a sugar mill and bull’s trench kiln, respectively. Brick
specimens were manufactured at an industrial brick kiln plant using various dosages (5%, 10% and 15%
by clay weight) of SBA and RHA. Mechanical and durability properties of those bricks were studied. It
was observed that clay bricks incorporating SBA and RHA exhibited lower compressive strength
compared to that of clay bricks without SBA and RHA. However, compressive strength of bricks with
5% of SBA and RHA satisfied the Pakistan Building Code requirements (i.e. >5 MPa). Scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) analysis confirms the porous microstructure of the brick specimens
incorporating SBA and RHA, which resulted into lesser unit weight leading to lighter and economical
structures. Furthermore, resistance against efflorescence was improved in all the tested

Pinto et al in 2020[20], studied the mechanical characterization of eight rubble stone masonry walls from
different structures of a Portuguese monument and on the assessment of their quality using the Masonry
Quality Index (MQI) and the Italian Building Code Commentary [7]. Rebound hammer tests were used
to evaluate the quality of stone units and mortar joints, and flat-jack tests to assess the mechanical
properties of masonry walls. The results allowed to propose new quantitative criteria to rate the quality
of mortars and stones in MQI and to support the decision of applying the multiplication factor
concerning the quality of mortars in IBCC 2019 methodology. Image processing was used to quantify
several features of masonry walls and introduce new quantitative criteria on MQI. The results identified
the amount of mortar, the mortar quality, the shape features of stone units and the horizontal alignment
of joints as key parameters in the mechanical resistance of rubble masonry made of irregular hard stone
and lime-based mortars. The mechanical properties obtained by IBCC 2019, MQI and double flat-jacks
tests showed good correlations, highlighting the advantages that come from the quality assessment of

16
masonry to estimate masonry mechanical properties.

Ukwatta, A, et al (2015)[21], investigated to assess their suitability as a partial replacement material for
the clay in fired-clay bricks. The results of classification tests including liquid limit, plastic limit and
sieve analysis indicated that the three biosolids samples were clayey sand and poorly graded silty sand.
The linear shrinkage of the biosolids samples varied from 10% to 15% and the organic content varied
from 6% to 14%. Control clay bricks with 0% biosolids and clay–biosolids bricks with 25% by weight of
biosolids were made and the properties including the compressive strength, shrinkage, density, Initial
Rate of Absorption (IRA), and water absorption were determined whereas thermal conductivity was
estimated from an empirical model. Furthermore, the effect of adding biosolids on the microstructure of
the fired-clay bricks was evaluated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results showed that the
compressive strength of clay–biosolids bricks were 25.9, 17.4 and 16.2 MPa for the bricks with the three
different biosolids samples used in the study. This was mainly because of the addition of biosolids
samples with different organic content, which resulted in fired-bricks with higher apparent porosity and
thus lower density and compressive strength. The compressive strength of the control fired-clay bricks
was 36.1 MPa.

Chen, Y, et al (2011)[22], investigated besides hematite tailings, the additives of clay and fly ash were
added to the raw materials to improve the brick quality. Through the process of mixing, forming, drying
and firing, the bricks were produced. The optimum conditions were found to be that the hematite tailings
content were as high as 84%, forming water content and forming pressure were respectively in the range
of 12.5–15% and 20–25 MPa, and the suitable firing temperature was ranged from 980 to 1030 C for 2 h.
Under these conditions, the mechanical strength and water absorption of the reddish fired specimens
were 20.03–22.92 MPa and 16.54–17.93%, respectively, and the other physical properties and durability
were well conformed to Chinese Fired Common Bricks Standard (GB/T5101-2003). The phases and
morphologies of the green tailings and fired specimen were characterized by XRD and SEM. The results
showed that the main mineral phases of the product

Chen, Y, et al (2011)[22], investigated besides hematite tailings, the additives of clay and fly ash were
added to the raw materials to improve the brick quality. Through the process of mixing, forming, drying
and firing, the bricks were produced. The optimum conditions were found to be that the hematite tailings
content were as high as 84%, forming water content and forming pressure were respectively in the range

17
of 12.5–15% and 20–25 MPa, and the suitable firing temperature was ranged from 980 to 1030 C for 2 h.
Under these conditions, the mechanical strength and water absorption of the reddish fired specimens
were 20.03–22.92 MPa and 16.54–17.93%, respectively, and the other physical properties and durability
were well conformed to Chinese Fired Common Bricks Standard (GB/T5101-2003). The phases and
morphologies of the green tailings and fired specimen were characterized by XRD and SEM. The results
showed that the main mineral phases of the product

Abbas, S, et al in (2017)[23], studied, bricks were manufactured using fly ash (by-product of coal) and
conventional earthen materials. Fly ash was acquired from the coal power plant. Manufacturing of brick
specimens was done in a local brick industry. The main variable it was the percentage of fly ash (i.e. 0 to
25% of clay). Results indicate that the compressive strength of bricks incorporating fly ash was lower as
compared to that of clay bricks without fly ash. However, compressive strength of bricks incorporating
up to 20% of fly ash satisfied the minimum requirements of the Pakistan Building Code. Reduction in
weight was also observed in the fly ash bricks which would lead to overall weight reduction of the
structures. Furthermore, less efflorescence was observed in bricks incorporating fly ash. Therefore, it can
be concluded that clay bricks incorporating fly ash can be helpful in producing more sustainable bricks
leading to economical solution. Gencel, O, et al (2013)[24], studied the effect of ferrochromium slag,
zeolite and combinations on physical, mechanical, thermal conductivity and microstructure properties of
bricks was investigated. They were substituted to brick raw material. Semi-dry mixtures were
compressed with 20 MPa. Samples were fired at rate of 5 °C/min until 900 °C for 2 h. Characterization
of fired bricks, density, porosity, water absorption, weight loss, compressive and bending strength,
thermal conductivity properties and microstructural and phase analysis of bricks were determined.
Mechanical strengths of bricks were higher than 7 MPa. Thermal conductivity of samples decreases
42.3%. Results showed that bricks with zeolite and slag could be used as construction material. Sutcu,
M, et al (2019)[25] , studied on the properties of bricks containing clay, fly ash (FA), and bottom ash
(BA). A total of 12 batches of bricks were manufactured and experimental tests were conducted 6 at two
firing temperature of 950 and 1050 °C to determine the apparent porosity, water absorption, apparent
specific gravity, bulk density, compressive strength, and thermal conductivity. Microstructural analysis
was undertaken to describe the reasons for the obtained experimental results. The results showed that the
bricks fired at 1050 °C exhibit slightly lower apparent porosity and water absorption but slightly higher
bulk density and thermal conductivity than those fired at 950 °C. The results also show that an increase
in the FA content leads to an increase in the apparent porosity and water absorption but a decrease in
18
bulk density and thermal conductivity of the bricks. BA content does not have any significant influence
of the properties of the bricks. It is also shown that bricks containing 5% FA, 5% BA, and 10% BA
exhibit a similar compressive strength to those containing only clay. The leaching results showed that the
leaching of heavy metals from fired bricks is significantly lower than that of the limit concentrations.
The leaching concentrations of the samples show that the heavy metals were immobilized in the ceramic
structures of all fired bricks. These highly promising findings suggest that up to 30% replacement of
wastes with ashes can provide bricks to reduce the environmental impact of abundant waste products and
conserve non-renewable natural

Munir, M. J, et al (2021)[27], studied burnt clay bricks are prepared to investigate the synergistic and
individual effect of glass sludge (GS), marble sludge (MS), and rice husk (RH) on the physical,
mechanical, durability, and thermal properties of brick samples. Results showed that the addition of
waste materials (GS, MS, and RH) reduces the shrinkage, weight per unit area, and thermal conductivity
of brick samples. All the brick samples incorporating different waste materials show efflorescence much
lower than 10%. Furthermore, no brick sample faced any cracking even after 50 freeze-thaw cycles. The
mass loss of brick samples incorporating 25% of GS is observed lower than the specified limit of ASTM
C67 and are classified as freeze-thaw resistant brick samples. All the brick samples incorporating
different waste materials satisfy the minimum compressive strength and modulus of rupture requirements
for building bricks and can be used in a moderate weather-resistant environment, leading to sustainable
masonry construction. Furthermore, all the brick samples showed leaching toxicity values much lower
than the specified limits of the Environmental Protection Agency. The scanning electron microscopic
images also support the results of porosity and water absorption of brick samples observed in this study.
Based on the results, all the combinations of waste materials considered in this study for making brick
samples can be used for masonry construction leading

Phonphuak, N et al (2016)[28], investigated the enhancement of physical- mechanical properties of fired

clay brick by incorporating waste glass in order to reduce the firing temperature. The ground waste glass
was incorporated to the clay body at the dosages of 0, 5 and 10% by weight. Three temperatures viz.,
900, 950 and 1000 °C were used for firing. Compressive strength, water absorption, density, and porosity
of the fired clay bricks were tested. The study showed that the incorporation of up to 10 wt.% of waste

19
glass to clay bricks and fired at the temperatures of 900-1000 °C enhanced the properties of fired clay
bricks. The SEM micrographs showed the increased glass phase and reduced porosity with waste glass
addition. The use of 10 wt.% waste glass and firing at 900 °C yielded bricks with similar
strength ;compared to that of normal clay brick fired at 1000 °C. This allowed the use of low firing
temperature of 900 °C instead of the normally used 1000°C. The study also revealed that in addition to
the glass phase fused-bond with the clay brick bodies, the fusion of crystalline quartz in clay also played
an important role in enhancing the properties of clay bricks. As a conclusion, waste glass can be utilized
in making brick to enhance the physical-mechanical properties of the fired clay brick or to lower the
firing temperature.

20
 Discussion

Tables show that different types of waste materials were used in varied proportions and that different
procedures were used to make bricks. Various tests were performed on manufactured bricks to evaluate
their qualities in accordance with the various relevant standards. Most studies consider compressive
strength and water absorption to be two common criteria that are required by many standards. The
process of making bricks from waste materials and burning them is quite similar to the process of
making clay bricks. As a result, this technology can be simply implemented without requiring large
adjustments to the traditional clay brick manufacturing process. However, pollutants in the waste
material may be released during the firing process, resulting in fresh pollution. Furthermore, firing bricks
uses a huge amount of energy and emits a large amount of greenhouse emissions. As a result, in terms of
energy and environmental issues, technologies for creating bricks without firing appear to be the way to
go. Because most waste products contain pollutants, whichever procedure is used to make bricks from
waste materials, It's crucial to make sure that the pollutants in the original trash are efficiently and safely
immobilized.

21
 Conclusions

Based on the review of the various studies on the production of bricks from waste materials, the
following conclusions can be drawn:

A wide variety of waste materials have been studied for the production of bricks.

 The different methods studied for producing bricks from waste materials can be divided into
three general categories: firing, cementing and geopolymerization. The firing and cementing
1006 (especially cementing based on added cementing materials) methods for producing bricks
from waste materials still have the drawbacks of high energy consumption and large carbon
footprint as the conventional brick production methods. The method for producing bricks from
waste materials through geopolymerization seems to be the trend to follow in terms of energy and
environmental concerns.

 Although much research has been conducted, the commercial production of bricks from waste
materials is still very limited. The possible reasons are related to the methods for producing
bricks from waste materials, the potential contamination from the waste materials used, the
absence of relevant standards, and the slow acceptance of waste materials-based bricks by
industry and public

 For wide production and utilization of bricks from waste materials, further research and
development is needed, not only on the technical, economic and environmental aspects but also
on standardization, government policy and public education.

22
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3. Sieffert, Y., Huygen, J. M., & Daudon, D. (2014). Sustainable construction with repurposed
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4. Gencel, O. (2015). Characteristics of fired clay bricks with pumice additive. Energy and
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