A

Project report on
“STRENTHENING OF COLUMN WITH FERROCEMENT
TECHNOLOGY USING GEOPOLYMER MORTAR”
In the partial fulfillment of the requirement for
Bachelor Degree In Civil Engineering
Submitted By,
MR.DAHALE AKASH MANOJ (B-150120041)
MISS.GAIKWAD VAISHNAVI SANJAY (B-150120051)
MISS. GAJRE PRAMILA KACHARULAL (B-150120052)
MR. GANORKAR CHINMAY NARESH (B-150120053)
Guided By,
Prof. A.V. Ghogare

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SANJIVANI RURAL EDUCATION SOCIETY’S
SANJIVANI COLLAGE OF ENGINEERING, KOPARGAON-423 603
Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune.
2021-22

I
 SANJIVANI RURAL EDUCATION SOCIETY’S
SANJIVANI COLLAGE OF ENGINEERING, KOPARGAON-423 603
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
(SAVITRIBAI PHULE PUNE UNIVERSITY, PUNE.)

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that following Students have satisfactorily carried out final
year project work entitled “Strengthening of column with Ferrocement Technology
using Geopolymer Mortar ” This work is being submitted for the award of degree of
Bachelor of Civil Engineering. It is submitted in partial fulfilment of the prescribed
syllabus of Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune for the academic year 2021-22.
Name of student Examination seat no.
MR.DAHALE AKASH MANOJ (B-150120041)
MISS. GAIKWAD VAISHNAVI SANJAY (B-150120051)
MISS. GAJRE PRAMILA KACHARULAL (B-150120052)
MR. GANORKAR CHINMAY NARESH (B-150120053)

Prof. A. V. Ghogare Dr. M. S. Purkar

Guide (H.O.D. Civil)

Dr. A. G. Thakur
(Principal) (External Examiner)

II
 PROGRAM OUTCOMES
Engineering Graduates will be able to:
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,
engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of
complex engineering problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified
needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the
cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge
and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation
of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources,
and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to
complex engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual
knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the
consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
8. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a
member or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
9. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities
with the engineering community and with society.
10. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
the engineering and management principles and apply these to one's own work, as
a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary
environments.

III
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, we are indebted to the Department of Civil Engineering of Sanjivani

college of Engineering for giving us an opportunity to express our efforts to complete this
project on this topic. We are extremely grateful to HOD of Civil Department, Dr.M.S.Purkar
Sir, Assistant Professors and IT resources for their help to the successful completion of our
project.

Our heartfelt gratitude to our project guide Prof. A.V. Ghogare Sir, for his valuable
suggestions and guidance in the preparation of this project report. We also express our thanks
to friends for all the help and co-ordination extended in bringing out this project successfully
in time. We will be failing in duty if we do not acknowledge with grateful thanks to the
authors of the references and other literatures referred to in this seminar. Last but not the least,
we are very much thankful to our parents who guided us in every step which we took.

Yours Thankful
MR.DAHALE AKASH MANOJ(B-150120041)
MISS. GAIKWAD VAISHNAVI SANJAY(B-150120051)
MISS. GAJRE PRAMILA KACHARULAL (B-150120052)
MR. GANORKAR CHINMAY NARESH (B-150120053)

IV
 ABSTRACT
Retrofitting of the existing structures has become a large part of the
construction activity. Columns are the most authoritative structural element in any
structure that transfers the entire loads to the foundation. Therefore, the strengthening
of deficient columns is necessary to increase the load carrying capacity, ductility and
energy absorption capacity that can be achieved by external confinement of column.
External confinement can be done by using different materials such as ferrocement,
fibre reinforced polymers (FRP), steel jacketing.
Ferrocement confinement is one of the oldest, efficient and cost effective
techniques of re-strengthening of deteriorated and weak columns. Ferrocement is a
form of thin wall reinforced concrete using wire mesh and high strength mortar. Small
diameter of wires used as reinforcement, leads to a higher specific surface, providing
homogeneity to the ferrocement. Closely spaced wires provide more ductility and
energy absorption capacity. The structures confined with ferrocement undergo
deformation above elastic point, unlike conventional concrete structures that undergo
brittle failure.
Considering all these points in view, the present study focused on the behaviour
of RCC columns with different slenderness ratios on the unconfined columns and
ferrocement confined columns. Column is confined with two different types wire
mesh. Columns were casted with M30 grade of concrete. Various tests were
performed on materials as well as concrete. very first aim of study is to do
comparative study column confined with geopolymer mortar , column confined with
cement mortar and conventional column which can be the alternative option for
strengthening of column.

V
 Contents
Front Cover Page 01
Certificate 02
Acknowledgement 03
Abstract 04
1. Introduction 10
.2 Introduction of Project Work 10
1.1.1 Ferrocement Technique and its advantages 13
1.1.2 Geopolymer mortar 14
1.2 Problem Statement 16
1.3 Objectives 16
2. Literature Review 17
3. Methodology 39
3.1 Materials 39
3.2 Testing of Material 40
3.3Steel Design 44
3.4Concrete Mix Design 44
3.5Test On Concrete 47
3.6 Cement Mortar 49
3.7 Geopolymer mortar 50
3.8 Casting of Column 51
3.9Testing of Core Column 52
3.10 Strengthening of Column 54
4. Result and Conclusion 57
5. Scope of Project Work 58
6. Case Study 59
7. References 61

VI
 LIST OF ABBREVIATION

RC Reinforced Concrete

FRP Fibre Reinforced Polymer

OPC Ordinary Portland Cement

GGBS Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag

CM Cement mortar

SFM Self-Flowing Mortar

UC Unconfined Column

HYSD High Yield Strength Deform Bar

CTM Compression Testing Machine

CO2 Carbon Dioxide

NaOH Sodium hydroxide

C Confined Column

H2SO4 Sulphuric Acid

SL Single Layer

DL Double Layer

SLTL Square jacketing with SL wire mesh and two extra

layers mesh at each corner

ASTM American society of testing of material

Na2SiO3 Sodium silicate

GPM Geopolymer Mortar

FGFM Fibre glass fly mesh

WM Wire mesh

FAS Binder with 50% fly ash and 50%ggbs

FASS Binder with 50% fly ash ,35% ggbs ,15 % silicate fume

VII
 LIST OF TABLES

Tabl Name of table Page

e no. no.

1.1 History of geopolymer 15

3.1 Observation for fineness of the cement 40

3.2 Observation table for fineness modulus of sand 41

3.3 Observation table for specific gravity of the 41

sand.

3.4 Properties of sand 42

3.5 Observation table for the specific gravity of the 42

aggregate

3.6 sieve analysis 43

3.7 Properties of the coarse aggregate 43

3.8 Requirement of water in concrete 44

3.9 Characteristics of Material 45

3.10 Relation between workability and slump 47

3.11 Compression test of concrete (3 days test) 48

3.12 Compression test of concrete (7 days test) 48

Compression test of concrete (28 days test) 48

3.13

3.14 Compressive Test On CM 49

3.15 Compressive Test On Geopolymer Mortar 50

3.16 Strength of Square C/S Core Column 52

VIII
3.17 Strength of Circular C/S Core Column 52

3.18 Strength of Square C/S Column with SL CM Jacketing 54

3.19 Strength of Square C/S Column with DL CM Jacketing 54

3.20 Strength of Circular C/S Column with SL CM Jacketing 54

3.21 Strength of Circular C/S Column with DL CM Jacketing 54

3.22 Strength of Square C/S Column with SL Geopolymer 55

mortar Jacketing

3.23 Strength of Square C/S Column with DL Geopolymer 55

mortar Jacketing

3.24 Strength of Circular C/S Column with SL Geopolymer 55

mortar Jacketing

3.25 Strength of Circular C/S Column with DL Geopolymer 55

mortar Jacketing

4.1 Results of Square C/S Column` 57

4.2 Results of Circular C/S Column 57

IX
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No Name of table Page No

3.1 Sieve Analysis 42

3.2 Slump cone test 47

3.3 Compressive test on concrete cube 49

3.4 Compressive test on CM cubes 50

3.5 reinforcement detailing of column 51

3.6 Column Reinforcement 51

3.7 Column Formwork 51

3.8 Column Casting 52

3.9 Testing of Square C/S Core column 53

3.10 Testing of Circular C/S Core column 53

3.11 Casting and Testing of Confined column 56

X
 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 General

Columns are very important structural element of a building, as the column

has to with stand the entire load and transfer it to foundation. The strength as well as
ductility is of same important in a column. Various techniques are applied till date to
provide sufficient ductility to column and still the process is in continuation. The
strengthening of reinforced concrete columns through ferrocement jacketing is a
commonly used effective technique because of its availability of raw material and low
cost. Retrofitting with ferrocement confinement is the oldest and cost-effective
technique used to strengthen the concrete structures. The unique properties of
ferrocement such as fire resistant, durability, low self-weight, water proof and crack
resistant make it an ideal material for wider applications. Use of ferrocement also
increases the ductility of columns. Ferrocement is a form of reinforced concrete using
closely spaced multiple layers of mesh and/or small diameter rods completely
infiltrated with, or encapsulated, in mortar. The most common type of reinforcement is
steel mesh. Other materials such as selected organic, natural, or synthetic fibers may
be combined with metallic mesh. It is well known fact that the RC Jacketing technique
is one of the efficient techniques for repair and rehabilitation of the damaged RC
columns. Confinement with the ferrocement encasement improves the ultimate load
carrying capacity and increases the axial and lateral deflection of RC column. It is
investigated that in column confined with jacketed specimens shows increase in load
carrying capacity and ductility performance. The external confinement using
ferrocement resulted in enhanced stiffness, ductility, and strength and energy
dissipation capacity. The mode of failure could be changed from brittle shear failure to
ductile flexural failure. Increase in the concrete strength results in reduced
displacement ductility and drift capacities for a given curvature ductility. To achieve
the same level of displacement ductility or drift capacity in a high strength concrete
column, the use of a larger amount of confining reinforcement is required. The
relationships between various ductility parameters (curvature ductility, displacement
ductility and drift capacity) are affected by the level of axial load. A Ferrocement
shell, with high particle strength mortar between Ferro cement layers is an effective

1
way of providing additional confinement of concrete in axial compression and has the
advantage over lateral tie confinement of improving material performance under large
deformations. The additional confinement with the Ferro cement shell improved the
ultimate strength, the strain at ultimate strength and the ductility of concrete increases
with the increase of confinement. The ductility of a structural member is obtained
from the idealization of the experimental or theoretical diagram response. The
ductility factor is obtained as the ratio between the ultimate value and the yielding
value. The ductility factor in curvatures does not always decrease with the axial load.
It decreases with the strength of concrete, the reinforcement ratio and the relative
cover of the longitudinal reinforcement and it increases with confinement level.
Experimental investigations have shown that under severe conditions columns can fail
with different modes of failure. These failure modes range from: large shear cracks,
sapling of cover concrete due to debonding of longitudinal reinforcement in lap-splice
regions at potential plastic hinge areas, confinement failure leading to buckling of
longitudinal bars between widely spaced transverse reinforcement. The decrease in the
design ductility factor can be prevented by controlling the variability of the actual
yield stress versus the nominal yield stress of steels used in seismic design. The load
carrying capacity, ductility and serviceability of unreinforced masonry columns can
substantially be improved if encased by ferrocement. The parameters such as CM
thickness, gage- wire spacing and bond at the interface of ferrocement and brick
columns have effects on overall behavior. The structural design of the vast majority of
reinforced concrete civil engineering structures relies on the inherent ductility of the
members to accommodate changes in load patterns, to absorb energy and to give prior
warning of failure. Most of the rehabilitation works consist of repairing old
deteriorating structures, and structures damaged by earthquakes and natural disasters.
Hence the development of cost-effective and long-lasting construction methods can
greatly reduce maintenance requirements, increase life safety and increase the service
life of concrete structures. Ferrocement jacket can be used as strengthening techniques
as well as after ferrocement jacket columns fails in ductile manner. Many of the
existing short columns have poor seismic detailing. Due to short dowels and little
transverse reinforcement, risk of brittle shear failure in such members is very high.
Premature shear failure prevents formation of flexural plastic hinges and decreases
ductility capacity. It is very important to develop efficient techniques to retrofit shear

2
critical columns and increase their ductility capacity. Wrapping concrete columns with
a proper strengthening material can be an effective solution. Reinforced concrete, steel
plates, steel straps and fiber-reinforced polymer, FRP, composites are common retrofit
techniques. The main objectives of this experimental work are to investigate the
effectiveness of providing ferromesh as confinement reinforcement in addition to
stirrups & without using stirrups. The results of all on one third-scale reinforced
concrete square columns are coMPared with each other to study the behavior of
columns, in terms of axial strength, axial and lateral displacement, stress-strain
ductility, cracking pattern and failure modes. Also, OPC is the most used building
material in the construction industry and has a wide application area. During the
production of cement, 5–8% greenhouse gas is released to the atmosphere. Worldwide
cement production has grown incredibly in recent years. After fossil fuels and land-
use change, it is the third biggest basis of anthropogenic emissions of CO2 (carbon
dioxide). A future challenge to the construction industry is to use alternative materials
to replace cement with industrial by-products. At the same time, ground granulated
blast furnace slag (GGBS) and fly ash, which are industrial by-products, constitute the
environmental pollution due to the storage and disposal problems. According to the
last statistical data, there are 750 million tones fly ash and 500 million tones blast
furnace slag over the world .In order to achieve both strengthening of column and use
of geopolymer in ferrocement confinement for eco-friendly construction The
development of innovative rehabilitation and strengthening technique is required to
extend the life expectancy of many concrete structures .The present study is performed
to analyze the various properties of RC column by using ferrocement confinement
with geopolymer mortar, cost effectiveness and other properties are studied.

1.1.1 Ferrocement technology and its advantages

Ferrocement is a composite construction material that consists of closely

spaced single or multiple layers of steel mesh with or without skeletal steel support.
This material is either completely infiltrated by or is encapsulated in mortar
ferrocement as RC in the guise of high-performing, thin elements with reference to the
resistance of ferrocement to elongation, ductility and iMPact load. This composite
material is sometimes referred to as thin-shell concrete.
Ferrocement was introduced as a construction material in 1848 by
Frenchman Joseph Louis Lambot, who constructed a ferrocement boat. Although this
3
composite material was created in Europe, it was enhanced further in developing
countries owing to its low material cost and labor-intensive construction procedure.
No formwork is required for ferrocement construction, and it can be constructed as an
extremely thin wall. The tools required for manufacturing ferrocement are also
particularly simple. Utilizing this material in construction is advantageous because of
its various improved engineering properties, such as high tensile and in-plain shear
strength, toughness, ductility, crack bridging capability and fatigue and impact
resistance. This material also exhibits unique fire- and corrosion-resistant properties.
The advantages of using ferrocement as a strengthening material are discussed briefly
in the subsequent section.

1.1.2 Advantages of ferrocement as a confinement material over other

confinement materials
 Ferrocement may be a cost-competitive solution for infrastructure rehabilitation.
 The use of ferrocement requires minimum skilled labour. This simple requirement
there by enhances the cost-effectiveness of this material over FRP jacketing, which
needs highly skilled labour.
 No particular measures must be taken to ensure the bond between ferrocement and
the underlying substrate (concrete or masonry).
 Ferrocement displays significantly higher in-plain shear strength capacity.
 Ferrocement exhibits a considerably higher moment capacity.
 The ductility of ferrocement-jacketed columns is higher.
 The shear strength capacity of ferrocement-confined RC columns that are
subjected to cyclic loading is higher.
 Fabricated into any desired shape.

1.1.3 Geopolymer
Geopolymers are framework structures produced by condensation of tetrahedral
aluminosilicate units, with alkali metal ions balancing the charge associated with
tetrahedral Al. Conventionally, geopolymers are synthesized from a two-part mix,
consisting of an alkaline solution (often soluble silicate) and solid aluminosilicate
materials. Geopolymerization occurs at ambient or slightly elevated temperature,
where the leaching of solid aluminosilicate raw materials in alkaline solutions leads to
the transfer of leached species from the solid surfaces into a growing gel phase,

4
followed by nucleation and condensation of the gel phase to form a solid binder.
Geopolymers, generally obtained from activation of solid aluminosilicate
using hydroxide or silicates of alkali metals, are inorganic materials whose chemical
structure consists of an aluminosilicate gel where aluminum and silicon are
tetrahedrally bonded by sharing of oxygen atoms.
The materials which are used in Geopolymer are as follows
1. Fly ash
Fly ash is a residue generated in combustion and comprises the fine particles that rise
with the flue gases. Ash that does not rise is called bottom ash. In an industrial
context, fly ash usually refers to ash produced during combustion of coal. Fly ash is a
heterogeneous material. The main chemical components present in fly ash are:
 Silicon dioxide
 Aluminum oxide
 Ferric oxide
 Calcium oxide (occasionally)
Fly ash material solidifies while suspended in the exhaust gases and is collected by
electrostatic precipitators or filter bags. Since the particles solidify rapidly while
suspended in the exhaust gases, fly ash particles are generally spherical in shape and
range in size from 0.5 µm to 300 µm.
Fly ash significantly improves concrete performance and also provides many benefits
in cement and non-cement applications. Also, when treated with sodium hydroxide,
fly ash appears to function well as a catalyst for converting polyethylene into a
substance similar to crude oil in a high-temperature process called pyrolysis.

Fig. 1.1 Flyash

5
2. GGBS
Ground-granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS or GGBFS) is obtained by quenching
molten iron slag (a by-product of iron and steel-making) from a blast furnace in water
or steam, to produce a glassy, granular product that is then dried and ground into a fine
powder. Ground-granulated blast furnace slag is highly cementitious and high in
calcium silicate hydrates (CSH) which is a strength enhancing compound which
improves the strength, durability and appearance of the concrete.
In contrast to the stony grey of concrete made with Portland cement, the near-white
color of GGBS cement permits architects to achieve a lighter color for exposed fair-
faced concrete finishes, at no extra cost. To achieve a lighter color finish, GGBS is
usually specified at between 50% to 70% replacement levels, although levels as high
as 85% can be used. GGBS cement also produces a smoother, more defect-free
surface, due to the fineness of the GGBS particles. Dirt does not adhere to GGBS
concrete as easily as concrete made with Portland cement, reducing maintenance
costs. GGBS cement prevents the occurrence of efflorescence, the staining of concrete
surfaces by calcium carbonate deposits. Due to its much lower lime content and lower
permeability, GGBS is effective in preventing efflorescence when used at replacement
levels of 50% to 60%.

Fig 1.2 Ground-granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS)

3. Sodium Hydroxide (NAOH)
It is alkaline binder used in geopolymer. The use of high concentration of sodium
hydroxide leads to greater dissolution of the initial solid materials and increases
geopolymerization reaction and hence higher compressive strength is achieved
Sodium hydroxide will react with acids to produce a water and an ionic compound. In
this type of reaction, the hydroxide from sodium hydroxide reacts with the hydrogen
6
ion in the acid, making water. The rest of the acid combines with the sodium ion from
sodium hydroxide to make an ionic compound.

Fig 1.3 Sodium Hydroxide Crystal

4. Sodium Silicate
Sodium Silicate (Na2SiO3) are usually used as a alkaline activator in
geopolymerization process. Na2SiO3 comprises a fundamental process in
geopolymerization technology.
Sodium silicate is effectively a solution of silica in sodium hydroxide. If the sodium
hydroxide is neutralized with an acidic material the silica will precipitate. The form of
the precipitated silica is influenced by the nature of the neutralizing material. Silica
also may be precipitated by the addition of strong electrolytes (e.g. concentrated
solutions of calcium chloride). Indeed, the first chemical grouting process, the Joosten
process developed in 1925, involved the separate injection of sodium silicate and
calcium chloride so that they mixed and gelled in the ground.

Fig 1.4 Sodium Silicate Solution

7
1.1.4. Advantages of geopolymer
 High compressive strength and tensile strength.
 Low creep and drying shrinkage.
 Resistant to heat, cold and chemical.
 Highly durable
 Fire proof
 Eco-friendly

.3 Problem Statement
There are several problems that Structural members experience and needed to be
tackled among them some common problems include
 Structural Cracks
 Damage to Structural member
 Excessive Loading
 Errors in design and construction
 Modification of the structural system
 Sesmic damage
 Corrosion due to penetration-honeycombs.

Replacement of particular structural element may lead to the integrity of the

connecting member and it is also difficult and expensive task. Retrofitting of
damaged structural element is one of the best increased to a significant amount

1.3 Objectives of study

 To investigate change in load carrying capacity of column through external
confinement.
 To Study the mode of failure of specimen.
 To Study the failure pattern of RC short Column. (Aspect Ratio 4.33)
 To investigate the effect of ferrocement confinement by replacing CM with
geopolymer mortar.

1.4. Scope of Project Work

 One of the greatest assets of ferrocement is its relatively low unit cost of materials
but in countries which demand higher cost of labour, the usage of ferrocement is
not economical.
8
 For countries where unskilled, low-cost labour is available and can be trained, and
as long as a standard type of construction is adhered to, the efficiency of labour
will improve considerably, resulting in a reduced unit cost.
 With these conditions, ferrocement proves to be a more favourable option than
other materials used in construction, all of which have a higher unit material cost
and require greater inputs of skilled labour.
 The primary worldwide applications of ferrocement construction to date have been
for tanks, roofs, silos and mostly boats
 The cracking behaviour and ultimate load carrying capacity will be highlighted

9
 Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction to literature review

Literature Review of Geopolymer mortar , Ferrocement Confinement and retrofitting
to the Column is carried out for finding gap in literature and deciding objectives of
work.

Singh and Kaushik studied the effectiveness of ferrocement confinement in repairing

concrete columns. These researchers tested 200 circular and square short concrete
columns under axial compression after confining them in external ferrocement jackets.
Singh and Kaushik studied the effects of wire mesh layers and the strength of core
concrete. The results showed that the jacketed specimens display enhanced strength
and ductility. Vertical cracks are observed in the ferrocement jackets at 80–90% of the
ultimate load on these specimens. The yielding of the horizontal mesh wires is
observed as well. On the basis of the failure mode of ferrocement jackets, the
researchers concluded that the concrete cores are subjected to radial compression in
the horizontal direction whereas the ferrocement jackets are subjected to hoop tension
because of axial compression

Shinde and Bhusari examined the confinement behaviour of ferrocement-encased,

cylindrical concrete specimens that were120 mm in diameter and 600 mm in height.
The effect of wire mesh layer and its orientation was considered. According to the
results, the enhancement in strength of double-layered specimens is nearly double that
of single-layer specimens. The strength of confined concrete also increases with the
change in mesh orientation from 90o to 45o. The effect of this orientation is more
dominant in single-layer wire mesh (36% higher) than in double-layer wire mesh

Hafez E. Elyamany, AbdElmoaty M. AbdElmoaty etal (2018) In this paper they

have studied various parameters related to geopolymer mortar with respect to various
types of binder materials with varying amount of alkaline solution. study was carried
out for 7- day strength and other parameters geopolymer is alternative to OPC as it has
various advantages over OPC. Objective of study was to investigate setting time and
strength properties with the help of curing temperature required NaOH molarity
alkaline solution to binder ratio and they have checked compressive strength, flexural
strength and microstructure of specimen. For experiment the have taken FAS (50% fly
10
ash and 50% ggbs),FA (100% fly ash ), FASS (50% fly ash ,35% ggbs ,15 % silicate
fume) for each mix used different curing temperature ,NaOH molarity and other
parameters they found that with increase in curing temperature compressive strength
also increases ,also with increase in NaOH molarity improves dissolution rate of
aluminosilicate and improves geopolymerization process ,50% ggbs content in FAS
mixes affects compressive strength positively but has negative effect on flexural
strength because mix with more slag content behaves like opc which develops
microcracks on surface this is the reason flexural strength get decreases . Also
established relation between compressive strength and flexural strength (ft=.70
(fc)^1/2) concluded that most of the properties of geopolymer is depend NaOH
molarity, curing type and temperature, slag content etc.

Sinasi Bingol, etal (2019) Studied durability property of geopolymer mortar which
contains slag by conducting various tests such as high temperature, abrasion, rapid
chloride permeability and wetting drying cycle were performed. These tests were
performed at different conditions (curing in oven curing for one day at 75 °C(CO),
cured in water at 21±1 °C up to 28 days (CW), cured in air for 28 days (CA)) with
different concentration of Na in sodium metasilicate (slag activator) and used cement
and geopolymer mortar for coMParative study. With 8 % Na concentration for CW
condition of curing we can get more compressive strength coMPared to other also
higher flexural strength. Better results seen for same Na concentration of alkali
activator and curing condition.

Ramamohana Reddy Bellum (2019) This paper presents scanning electron

microscope (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis of factory by-products (i.e.,
fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS)). The mix design process
for the manufacture of alkali-activated geopolymer binders synthesized by fly ash and
GGBFS is presented. The mechanical properties (compression, split tensile and
flexural strength, bond strength) of geopolymer concrete at different mix proportions
and at dissimilar curing conditions were also investigated. Geopolymer concrete
synthesized with 30% fly ash and 70% GGBFS has better properties at 14 M of NaOH
and cured in an oven for 24 hours at 70 ˚C.

Mini Soman and Jebin Mohan (2018) In this study various experiments done on the
effectiveness of ferrocement jacketing for rehabilitation of rc column of square and
rectangular shape particularly. for improvement in effectiveness of confinement
11
corners of column were rounded. study was carried out on the basis of number of
layers of ferrocement mesh and amount of preloading. Total 20 column were casted
and tested which were grouped in A and B group. Each group included two control
columns without jacketing and 8 columns were rehabilitated with 2 and 3 layers of
wrapping. column were preloaded at 70% and 100% of its ultimate capacity except
control column and then observed that the confinement effectiveness and load
carrying capacity of column improves with number of layer of wrapping but reduce
with aspect ratio and preloading rate.

G.J. Xiong and X.H. Chen (2002) studied the behaviour of a soluble glass-polyvinyl
acetate hybrid modified ferrocement under sustained flexural load was investigated in
flowing sulphuric acid solution to better simulate the site condition. Test results
showed that corrosion in flowing sulphuric acid was much more severe than in
stagnant one, and the behaviour of the hybrid modified ferrocement under sustained
load and flowing sulphuric acid solution was noticeably better than that of control
specimens.

Guide for the Design, Construction, and Repair of Ferrocement ACI committee
given certain guidelines and information for design, construction, repair work of
ferrocement construction. Various tests, maintenance, fabrication, materials
terminologies are given in this literature.

G.J. Xiong (2010) In this paper load carrying capacity and ductility of circular
column which was confined by ferrocement with steel bars experimental study on
uniaxial compression behaviours of concrete columns wrap with three different
confining systems, namely bar mat-mortar (BM), FS, and fibre reinforced polymer
(FRP), was carried out. Fifty-one specimens were produced. The load–strain
responses, failure modes, ultimate loads and ductility of various strengthened columns
were investigated. The experiment results showed that the mortar cover crack spaces
of FS columns were basically equal to the wire mesh spacing, leading to the
occurrence of much more cracks coMPared with that of BM columns. As a result, on
the premise that the concrete compressive strength of the FS columns increased 30%
coMPared with that of the BM columns, the ductility of the former reached about
twice as that of the latter. When the confined concrete strength of FRP strengthened
columns was similar to that of FS strengthened columns, the ductility, energy
absorption capacity and deformation capacity of the former were obviously lower than
12
those of the latter. The strength ,ductility and energy absorption capacity of existing
concrete column can be simultaneously enhanced significantly by constructing
additional ferrocement cage including steel bar.

Rami A. Hawileh etal (2017) This paper represents the study of effect of using
Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS) as a partial replacement to cement in
reinforced concrete (RC) beams. In this paper, eight RC beams were cast with
different percentage of GGBS as cement replacement of 0%, 50%, 70% and 90%,
respectively. The different concrete mixes were designed to achieve a concrete
compressive strength of about 30MPa. Cylinders, cubes, prisms and beams were cast
from each mix design. Simply supported beams were designed to fail in flexure. The
performance of the beams cast using different mixes was coMPared with a RC beam
cast with 100% OPC (0% GGBS). The results that include the load-midspan
displacement response curves, load carrying capacity, ductility and failure mode
(concrete crushing with steel yielding) were evaluated and coMPared. In addition,
standard tests were conducted to examine the concrete's compressive and tensile
strength for each mix. The compressive strength of the concrete mixtures cast with
100% OPC and different percentages of GGBS replacement was tested at 28 days and
56 days, respectively. The compressive and tensile strength of the different mixes
found close to each other. The trend of the load-midspan deflection response curves of
the specimens of different percentages of GGBS replacement is quite similar to that
without GGBS. The ultimate load capacity of the beam specimens with 50% and 70%
GGBS replacement are higher than that of the control specimen without GGBS (0%
GGBS) by 3% and 9% respectively. However, the stiffness and strength for the beam
specimen with 90% GGBS were lower than that without GGBS by 16% and 6%
respectively. Reinforced concrete beams cast with up to 70 % GGBS replacement to
cement would behave in a similar fashion to beams cast with conventional concrete
mixtures without GGBS. So, utilizing high percentage of GGBS replacement to
cement up to 70% in concrete mixes would be practical in construction. Thus, massive
use of GGBS instead of cement can highly affect reduction of CO 2 emission which
results from production of cement. Thus, an important element that concerns with
environmental issue of global warming can be solved to a large degree.

Maniarasan S Karuppannan et.al (2020) In this investigation, the concrete is

substituted by fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) as total
13
replacement to cement. The compressive strength test has been carried out to find out
the optimum mix on the test specimens having varying proportions of fly ash and
GGBS. The materials used are fly ash, GGBS, fine aggregate, sodium hydroxide,
sodium silicate and water. GGBS is used as base material which acts as strength
enhancing component. The solution combination of sodium silicate and sodium
hydroxide is used as the alkaline solution. In order to determine the strength and
performance of the geopolymer matrix, the cubes of varying proportions of fly ash and
GGBS has been casted and the specimens were subjected to oven curing for 24 hours
and then tested to determine optimum mix. The results under compressive strength test
have been seen varying for various proportions of fly ash and GGBS. the specimen
with total replacement of cement with total replacement of cement with fly ash has a
minimum strength. Specimen having 100% GGBS has compressive strength 17.65
N/mm2. The maximum strength of the specimen, 21.35 N/mm 2 is attained at a
geopolymer mix having 80% GGBS + 20% fly ash. Based on results this paper
concludes that; the proportion of binders influence the strength of the specimen. The
geopolymer cured at 800C in oven provides better result than the ambient cured
specimens.

Abdullah and Katsuki (2001) presented behavior and strength of reinforced concrete
(RC) columns strengthened with ferrocement jackets. A total of six identical reference
columns were prepared and tested after being strengthened with circular or square
ferrocement jackets. Other than the ratio of axial load, parameters studied include the
jacketing schemes, and the number of layers of wire mesh. Unless failure occurred at
an earlier stage of loading, the columns were tested under cyclic lateral forces and
constant axial load. Test results show that by providing external confinement over the
entire length of the RC columns, the ductility is enhanced tremendously. Also, test
results of this investigation revealed that the design method, proposed earlier by the
authors, is very effective.

M. Jamil et.al (2018) Investigated the retrofitting and strengthening of concrete

structures are becoming integral parts in construction and structural engineering
practices owing to various situations that necessitate the enhancement in the capacity
of structural members. Ferrocement composites are widely used for structural
strengthening and rehabilitation in developing countries. The uniform distribution and
high surface area-to-volume ratio of the reinforcement (wire mesh) of such composites
14
improve the crack-arresting mechanism. Given these properties, ferrocement is an
ideal material for repairing and strengthening old and deteriorated structures or
structural members. Ferrocement composite has also been used as a jacketing material
to strengthen axially loaded reinforced concrete (RC) members. Strengthening of
concrete structures is an essential part of construction activities at present because
these structures often suffer damage as a result of numerous environmental factors.
The significance of these activities also increases with the insufficient capacity of
structures that have been designed using old design codes. However, no codes have
been developed for ferrocement composites as jacketing material to date. Moreover, a
well defined method for confining RC columns using ferrocement has not been
established because of the lack of adequate research in this field. Thus, this study
aggregates the current state of knowledge by reviewing available literature on the
ferrocement jacketing of concrete columns and on ferrocement confinement effects.
This study also determines research gaps in this field and suggests directions for future
research to establish ferrocement composites as a feasible material for strengthening
axially loaded concrete members.

Mohammad Taghi (2005) presented results of an experimental study to evaluate a

retrofit technique for strengthening shear deficient short concrete columns. In this
technique a ferrocement jacket reinforced with expanded steel meshes is used for
retrofitting. Six short concrete columns, including four strengthened specimens, were
tested. Specimens were under a constant compressive axial force of 15% of column
axial load capacity based on original concrete gross and the concrete compressive
strength, Main variables were the spacing of ties in original specimens and the volume
fraction of expanded metal in jackets. Original specimens failed before reaching their
nominal calculated flexural strength and had very poor ductility. Strengthened
specimens reached nominal flexural strength and had a ductility capacity factor of up
to 5.5. Based on the test results, it can be concluded that ferrocement jackets
reinforced with expanded steel meshes can be used effectively to strengthen shear
deficient concrete columns.

Hani H. Nassif, Husam Najm (2003) This paper presents the results of an
experimental and analytical study done on composite beams made of reinforced
concrete overlaid on a thin section of ferrocement. It has been studied the behavior of
ferrocement concrete composite beams and the required area of steel mesh in the
15
ferrocement layer to ensure overall adequate flexural response in coMParison with a
similar concrete section. This paper presents the results of beam tests performed to
investigate the method of shear transfer between the two composite layers. Various
types of beam specimens with various mesh types (hexagonal and square) are tested
under a two-point loading system up to failure. Results from experimental data are
coMPared to those from nonlinear analysis as well as a finite element study to model
the overall non-linear behavior. Results show that the proposed composite beam has
good ductility, cracking strength and ultimate capacity.

Shamir Sakir et.al (2016) Ferrocement is a thin-shell mortar system reinforced with
single or multiple layers of wire mesh. Ferrocement technology is becoming more and
more important nowadays for strengthening and retrofitting of concrete structures
mainly due to its inherent strength properties. In most cases of ferrocement
construction, mortar is placed by hand-troweling, which makes standardized.
placement a challenge. Another method is by plastering the wire mesh with CM
manually in several stages that makes it labour intensive. Therefore, the quality of the
end product becomes non-uniform and at the same time it become both time and
labour consuming. In narrow spaces, strengthening with conventional ferrocement is
very critical and also time consuming. Self-flowing mortar (SFM) can easily eliminate
these problems. Another advantage of SFM is that the time and manpower required to
place large sections is considerably reduced. This type of mortar mix also reduces the
chance of void formation caused by the bad workmanship and ensures proper
coMPaction. Low viscosity and particle homogeneity are required for the adequate
fluidity of fresh mix. Under compression, when the core concrete undergoes lateral
bulging, the external ferrocement jacket provides a passive confinement. Ferrocement
is used in circular sections without any problems. But as square or rectangular sections
are considered the confinement required is not similar everywhere, at the corners we
required to give extra strengthen. Ferrocement jacketing in rectangular done with (a)
extra reinforcement at corners; (b) rounded corners; and (c) shear keys. Self-flowing
mortar (SFM) could be used in ferrocement jacketing system for strengthening
applications of different structural systems. Constituent materials of SFM dictate the
strength and flowability of SFM. Therefore, an optimization is required in selecting
the constituent materials of SFM. for such applications. For effective industrial
application, high strength flowable mortar should be designed using low-cost and

16
locally available materials. Although, a significant amount of researches have been
done on SFM for different kinds of application, research on SFM for strengthening
applications are very few. Therefore, more studies should be carried out on SFM for
strengthening applications.

Uday Kiran Danda et.al (2020) Geopolymer concrete (GPC) is concrete produced by
using industrial bi-products such as ground granulated blast surface (GGBS), fly ash,
metakaolin and silica fumes etc. as binding materials. In this study the reinforced gpc
column casted using GGBS as binding material the column size is kept 1000x150x150
mm and having HYSD 4 nos. of bars. The load-deflection test was taken for results
and conclusion. The construction industry forms important role in economy. So as to
reduce economy & pollution the use of industrial waste in construction can reduce
cost and pollution. In regard this the GGBS, fly ash based binding materials are
undergoing various research and development. The OPC is required very high
internal energy can causes greenhouse effect, it caused depletion of natural sources ,
as electricity demand increased the wastages from thermal power stations also
increased this waste cause pollution which we can use for production of GPC. The
GPC formed by using different NaOH materials were formed and tests were
conducted. The GGBS converted to powder form, increasing the CaO strength,
durability and other construction properties. The fine aggregates of Krishna river used,
the local course aggregates of 10mm size used. But the main component Sodium
Hydroxide of different conc. Of 8, 10, 12, 14, 16 were formed 24 hours before casting.
Sodium Silicate in form of gel is used. Steel HYSD 0.2 proof stress 500MPa&12mm
dia. are used. The NaOH solution and Sodium Silicate solution prepared separately
and mixing together at the time of casting. The ratio of NaOH :Na2SiO3is 1:2.5,
mixing in this proportion kept for 5 to 10 minutes. The mixing of concrete is very
important as it still in trial and error. Using this materials column is casted and kept
for curing. The cubes were tested under CTM and load of failure and deflection values
were checked for 28 and 56 days. From the stress-strain relationship we can find that
as the NaOH conc. Increased the strength is increased and deflection were decreased.
Compressive strength of GPC cubes are increased by 20% when coMPared to 28 days
com. Strength, so that the strength of GPC increase with the time. The load carrying
capacity also increases by increase in NaOH molarity. The theoretical load value and
observed load value are not so diffrerent. It also seen from load deflection curve that

17
the deflection also decreased and stiffness in column is increased by increasing
molarity. It is finally conducted that RGPC columns using GGBS can be used for
construction activity.

M.J. Shannag and S.M. Mourad (2012) The matrix used in ferrocement primarily
consists of mortar made with Portland cement, water, and aggregate, with a sand
tocement ratio of about 1–2.5 by weight, and water to cement ratio of about 0.4–0.6 by
weight. Recently there has been a growing trend towards the use of supplementary
cementitious materials, such as silica fume, fly ash, natural pozzolona, and blast
furnace slag in the production of composite cements because of economical, technical
and environmental benefits. A high strength cementitious matrix intended for use in
ferrocement applications should meet several performance criteria, including
flowability and strength in addition to impermeability, sulfate resistance, corrosion
protection and in some cases frost durability. The deterioration of existing concrete
structures in many countries necessitates the need for developing cost-effective and
long term repair and retrofit solutions that can be implemented in practice. A practical
method of repair should take into consideration, the amount of damage, the shape of
the member, materials of repair, construction cost, time and practicality. Several
repair/retrofit techniques were used for restoring the load carrying capacity of
damaged concrete structural elements. These involve strengthening beams and
columns by epoxy bonding of steel plates, external fixing of high performance fiber
reinforced concrete jackets, or ferrocement laminates, and bonding of fiber reinforced
polymer sheets to existing damaged concrete.

Ajay Kumar Singh (2016) Nowdays concrete plays major role in the development of
world, Concrete is second most used material after water. In last two decades
environmental issues in concrete are hugely increased. The OPC cement production
and usage emits 13.5 billion ton. CO2 in environment, which is also used 1400*C
temp to produce OPC which requires fuels and natural resources. So to overcome that
we need to find alternate solutions , so that flyash and GGBS based cement can be
used. GPC is alternate to OPC, Geopolymer is inorganic alumina-silicate polymer
synthesized from predominantly silicon and aluminium material such as fly ash and
ggbs.. The binders could be produced by a polymeric reaction of alkaline solutions
with materials containing silicon and aluminium by geological origin or by-product
materials such as fly ash and GGBS. Mix design of geopolymer concrete is calculated
18
from IS 10262:2009.the design of geopolymer concrete the aggregates takes 75% of
entire mix by mass. The design of geopolymer concrete the coarse aggregates take
50% of entire mix by mass.The fine aggregates takes 25.75%.the average density of
flyash and ggbs based geopolymer concrete is similar to the OPC 2400 kg/m3. The
appropriate proportions of these flyash, GGBS, aggregates, along with change in the
Alkaline solution to the flyash ratio has been taken, it is taken as 0.45,0.40,0.35,0.30.
Also the flyash is 60% &GGBS is taken 40%. There is no mix code design available,
So it is taken as an trial and error basis. So as the concrete cubes and cylinder is casted
and cured for 28 days. After that the compressive strength test was performed the
compressive strength after 28 days is found to be 47.40 MPa. Also split tensile
strength of the cylindrical specimen is also found, almost equal in all proportions as
concrete is weak in tension. For durability test the specimen the specimen after 28
days curing is immersed in 3% HCL, 3% H2SO4, 3% HNO3 and tested in CTM. The
acid attack study was done by immersing the specimen in acid solution and initial
mass and mass body measurements are taken at 3,7,14 and 28 days. After 28 days
compressive strength test is performed. In result it is found that as the acid durability
factor increases by increasing by alkaline/binder ratio. The geoploymer concrete is
light in colour and surface are more smooth than OPC. With the addition of 40%
GGBS there is increase in compressive strength of geoploymer concrete. The specific
gravity of GPC is low as coMPared to OPC. Compressive strength increases with
increase in Alkaline to binder ratio Geopolymer concrete shows greater resistance to
acid environment as coMPared to OPC. The addition of Geopolymer concrete gives
good result in compressive strength.

P Rathish Kumar et.al (2004) The sophisticated arrangement of confinement

incolumns using closely spaced stirrups not only interrupts the continuity and creates a
plane of weakness between core and concrete cover, but also adds to the problem of
congestion. This is the reason why most of the time it may not be possible to confine
the structure sufficiently by providing laterals alone, and supplementary confinement
such as ferrocement composites may be necessary. The success of the ferrocement
technology is attributed to the ready availability of its component materials, low level
of technology needed for construction and low cost. In the past decades, ferrocement
has emerged as a very good rehabilitating/restrengthening material because of its
superior mechanical properties, high in-plane strength and mouldability. In the present

19
paper a review of the research on ferrocement confinement of plain and reinforced
concrete with applications to column retrofitting is presented studies on confinement
of low-, normal- and higher strength concrete with ferrocement have revealed that
ferrocement is an effective method of confinement and has an advantage over
confinement with lateral ties in improving material properties such as dimensional
stability, integrity and ductility. The dimensionless stress–strain curve and the stress
block parameters in compression can be used to determine the ultimate moment and
the corresponding curvature of ferrocement-confined concrete. The use of high-
performance mortars with the introduction of additives such as superplasticizers and
the use of active or inactive fillers such as silica fume, use of polymer additions, etc.
can ensure high performance ferrocement which in turn can increase the market
penetration of this ‘wonder material’. The combination of ferrocement and fibre
reinforced concrete can ensure an equivalent lower level of confinement coMPared
with fibre-reinforced concrete confinement alone. This will ease situations such as
seismic-resistant beam column junctions where the high confinement requirement
leads to congestion of steel.

A. Masood et.al (2002) To exploit the potential of ferrocement as a construction

material, a proper understanding of material behaviour under different environmental
conditions is essential. The main objective of this investigation is to study the
performance of ferrocement panels under normal, moderate, and hostile environments.
These conditions were created using potable and saline water for mixing and curing.
Fly ash, a waste material, was also used as partial replacement of cement. The
ferrocement slab panels cast with varying number of woven and hexagonal mesh
layers were tested under flexure. Compressive and tensile strength of control
specimens and load-carrying capacity of the panels under flexure with and without fly
ash were investigated. Addition of fly ash in different environments affects the
flexural strength of panel for both woven and hexagonal wire fabric. Scanned images
of specimens provide an insight into the texture for virgin and distressed states.
Addition of fly ash in different environments affects the load-carrying capacity under
flexure for panel with both woven and hexagonal wire fabric. The strength of panel
increases with fly ash dosage in saline casting and curing condition. There is
considerable deterioration of the wire mesh fabric due to sustained exposure in saline
casting and curing conditions. However, the strength of panels under saline casting

20
and saline curing condition is more as coMPared to panels under normal casting and
saline curing condition because of better pore structure minimizing the ingress of
water, due to the presence of fly ash and the saline water during casting.

M. R. Alam et.al (2012) Conventional square ferrocement jacketing (square jacketing

with single or multiple layers wire mesh) cannot provide lateral confinement
effectively in restrengthening of square RC column due to stresses concentration at the
column corners. Therefore, improvement of conventional square ferrocement
jacketing technique is focused in this study. Three new square ferrocement jacketing
techniques such as square jacketing with SL wire mesh and rounded column corners
(RSL); square jacketing using SL wire mesh with shear keys at the center of each face
of column (SKSL) and square jacketing with SL wire mesh and two extra layers mesh
at each corner (SLTL) are considered f this purpose. Entire study was carried out
experimentally. A total number of 41 scaled down non-jacketed and ferrocement
jacketed column specimens were tested under both concentric and eccentric modes of
loading. Test results and the crack patterns of tested specimens show that all three
improved square ferrocement jacketing techniques are effective to overcome the stress
concentration problem of conventional square ferrocement jacketing. Among all
jacketing techniques considered in this study SLTL type jacketing shows the best
performance in carrying concentric loading, however, in case of eccentric loading,
best performance is found in RSL type ferrocement jacketing. Confinement with the
ferrocement encasement improves the ultimate load carrying capacity and the axial
and lateral deflections of square RC column. All of improved square ferrocement
jacketing schemes introduced in this study are effective to overcome the drawbacks of
conventional square ferrocement jacketing of square RC column and could be used
effectively for restrengthening of square RC column subjected to both concentric and
eccentric loadings after taking proper care in jacketing schemes. Type SLTL jacketing
shows highest load carrying capacity as well as good ductility properties over all other
improved types of jacketing as well as non-jacketed specimens under concentric mode
of loading whereas type RSL jacketing shows best performance under eccentric mode
of loading. Crack patterns of tested column specimens also confirm that type SLTL
and type RSL square ferrocement jacketing schemes are more effective than
conventional SL type jacketing under both concentric and eccentric mode of loadings.

A.B.M.A. Kaish et al investigated effect of Ferro cement jacketing in short square

21
RC column. Disadvantages of conventional square jacketing system are stated and
remedial techniques are proposed. Those are strengthening all corners and reducing
concentration of stresses at corners. Concentration of stresses at corners is reduced by
two methods – a) making the middle zone of each face an effective stress transfer zone
and b) making the column corners round. All specimens were tested under increasing
concentrated load. Load carrying capacity of all retrofitted types of ferrocement
jacketed columns is higher than that of the conventional jacketed column. Failure
patterns of specimens were noted. Among all the specimens the specimen with SL
wire mesh with extra two layers of wire mesh at corner (SCT) exhibited the best
performance. Therefore SCT technique is more feasible.

Baskara Sundararaj J. et al (2017) studied the durability and mechanical strength of

ferrocement made from geopolymer. The matrix durability was studied by ACT
method in this paper. OPC with partial replacement of fly ash and GGBS were taken.
They studied the properties of ferrocement made by geopolymer in terms of strength,
durability, fatigue, temperature resistance, corrosion, etc. They formulated 3 types of
conventional ferrocement and ferrogeopolymer mortar. The combination of Na 2SiO3
and caustic lye (48% NaOH) were used in study as activating solution. They varied
the percentage of OPC and geopolymer material (fly ash &GGBS). Compression
(7,14,28,90 days), tension (28days), water absorption (90 days) tests were conducted
on cylindrical specimens. Ferrocement beams were loaded with two point loads for
measuring ultimate load carrying capacity. Slabs were tested to measure the
deflection. For corrosion test AWD (Alternate wetting & drying cycle) method was
adopted. The ferrogeopolymer shows 25-30% increase in the mechanical strength
property coMPared to that of OPC. The overall result revealed that ferrocement with
geopolymer (fly ash:GGBS, 3:1) showed good performance in engineering aspect.

S. Samantasingar and S.P.Singh This paper presented the compressive strength of

geopolymer binders synthesized from class-F fly ash blended with ground granulated
blast furnace slag by optimizing the influential parameters. They studied the effect of
alkali concentration, solution to solid ratio, curing period and effect of GGBS on the
compressive strength of geopolymer mortar. They tested cylindrical specimens to
determine average compressive strength at the ages of 7 and 28 days. The
concentration of NaOH solution used were 2, 4, 8, 12 &16M. The NaOH solutions of
different concentration were added to solid fly ash-slag mixture by varying the
22
solution to solid ratios. From the tests they concluded that, compressive strength
increases upto8MNaOH concentration. Compressive strength of geopolymer mortar
increased as the GGBS content was increased. The strength improved with increased
curing period from 7 to 28 days. For fly ash rich mixture, maximum compressive
strength was achieved at lower solution to solid ratio coMPared to slag rich mixture.

Raffaele Vinai et al (2016) studied a contribution towards the design development of

AAC synthesized from pulverised fuel ash(60%) and GGBS(40%) activated with a
solution of sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate. Technical issues such as setting
time and workability were highlighted in alkali-activated slag and fly ash systems. The
objective of this study was to analyse the effects of binder content, paste content and
water to solid ratio on fresh and hardened properties of the concrete. They concluded
that, higher the binder content, the higher the compressive strength at 28 days. Mixes
with low w/s ratios set very quickly. Reduction in paste volume had a moderate effect
on strength development. For the given raw materials and activator compositions, a
minimum w/s ratio of 0.37 is needed. Paste content in range of 30-33% determined the
relationship between workability and strength development and w/s ratio & paste
content. Strengths in range of 50-60 MPa were achieved.

Noor Ahmed Memon et al (2007) investigated the performance of high workability

mortar mix applicable for the casting of thin ferrocement elements by using slag as a
cement replacement and superplasticizer as a water reducing agent. They studied the
compressive strength, density, strength development and water absorption properties
of high workability mortars by incorporating different dosage of slag obtained from
local industry as partial replacement of cement and superplasticizer as water reducing
agent. After testing all specimens they concluded that, high workability mortar
1:2(136-+3% flow) with 50% slag as cement replacement and 0.1-0.2%
superplasticizer exhibit high strength. The application of GGBS as partial replacement
of cement does not show any significant effect on the unit weight. The mortar with
0.2% superplasticizer and 50% slag showed 80% strength development, which is little
bit greater than that of OPC mortar. All the mortars with slag showed low water
absorption than that of OPC mortar. Lowest value of water absorption obtained was
2.98% in case of mortar with 50% slag and 0.2% superplasticizer. Curing conditions
influence the compressive strength and strength development of high workability
mortar. The mortars cured under wet condition obtained remarkable higher and
23
consistent strength development coMPared to the mortars of same mix proportions
cured under air and natural weather conditions. Mortar 1:2 with 50% slag and 0.1% &
0.2% superplasticizer could be considered as suitable mortar for casting of thin
ferrocement elements by method of pouring.

Mohammed Arif et.al (1999) gives investigation about In-plane tension, compression
and bending tests were conducted on plain mortar and ferrocement specimens with
woven and welded meshes. Tension tests were also carried out on meshes. Bending
tests were conducted using specimens with centre point loading. The objective of the
study was to investigate the behaviour of material reinforced with varying number of
mesh layers and orientations and to evolve a set of elastic and inelastic material
properties. It is observed that the conventional empirical relations based on mortar
crushing strength overestimate the mortar modulus. The elastic moduli obtained using
the rule of mixtures coMPares well with the values evaluated from the tests on
ferrocement specimens. The 45° orientation emerges as the weakest configuration
both in terms of the Young's modulus and ultimate stress because of the lowest
volume fraction of wire mesh in the direction of loading at this orientation.

Muhammad et.al (2011) a new idea is investigated in this study to reduce the cover
spalling of high-strength concrete columns: installing relatively cheap materials such
as household fly screen and wire mesh in the formwork of RC columns. Three
materials were chosen in this study: fiberglass fly mesh (FGFM), standard aluminium
fly mesh (SAFM), and 12:7 × 12:7 galvanized steel wire mesh (S12.7 WM). A total of
16 cylindrical specimens with a length of 925 mm and a diameter of 205 mm were
cast and tested under concentric, eccentric, and pure bending loading. The testing
results showed that S12.7 WM significantly improved the load- carrying capacity
under both concentric and eccentric loading but did not significantly increase the
ductility of the columns for each load case. FGFM and SAFM significantly improved
the ductility of columns under concentric loading, but the significance decreased with
the increase in eccentricity.

Mahmoud A Wafa and KimioFukuzawa This article focuses on the experimental

investigation carried out on the characteristics of ferrocement thin composite elements
using various reinforcement meshes in flexure. The parameters of this study include:
the effect of the various kinds of reinforcement meshes (stainless steel meshes and E-
fiberglass meshes); number of mesh layers and various mesh diameters with opening
24
size as well as various kinds of mortar materials as matrix (cement grout mortar and
polymer–cement grout mortar) on the first crack load; bending stiffness; ultimate
flexural load; load–deflection behavior; crack characteristics; energy absorption
capacity; and ductility index. The results clarify that the use of stainless steel meshes
as reinforcement system in the ferrocement thin composite elements contributes
significantly to the improvement of bending characteristics in terms of first crack load,
bending stiffness, ultimate flexural load, energy absorption to failure and numerous
fine and well-distributed cracks with a smaller width than while using fiberglass
meshes. The method outlined by ACI Building Code is used to compute ultimate
moment capacities. The results obtained using this method are coMPared with the
experimental results. Increasing the number of mesh layers in the ferrocement thin
composite elements has an appreciable effect in increasing first crack load, bending
stiffness, ultimate flexural load, energy absorption to failure, and numerous fine and
well distributed cracks with smaller width. Maintaining the same number of mesh
layers, using various diameters with opening size of stainless steel reinforcement
meshes has a relatively small favorable effect in both elastic and inelastic ranges of the
ferrocement thin composite elements in flexure.

A. E. Naaman (2012) this paper focuses on the evolution, mostly over the past five
decades, of ferrocement and thin cement-based composites which are defined here as
having less than about 50 mm in thickness. Although conventional reinforcements for
these products are steel wire meshes or metal lath, new forms of reinforcements have
emerged over the years with the objective of improving performance and minimizing
total product cost. They include: (1) fiber reinforced polymeric (FRP) reinforcements
(or textiles or fabrics) which use high performance fibers, such as carbon, Kevlar,
Spectra and the like, (2) new steel unidirectional reinforcing mats made with
extremely high strengths wires or strands, (3) 3D textiles or fabrics using polymeric
fibers, (4) 3D textiles using combination of polymeric fibers and steel, and (5)
reinforcement using shape-memory materials to induce self-stressing. Over the same
period, the cement matrix has evolved enormously in its compressive strength and
durability properties in the hardened state, and flow ability and ease of casting in the
fresh state leading to new qualifications such as high strength or high performance,
ultra high strength or ultra high performance, self-consolidating and self-coMPacting,
etc. Adding fibers or micro-fibers to the cement matrix of ferrocement adds another

25
dimension to the resulting composite as well as potential for improved performance.
After describing the limits so far achieved using the above materials, the paper
presents the current challenges and sets the limits to exceed in future developments.
Although this paper has presented crucial progress in the main materials components
of ferrocement and thin cement composites since their inception, the author hopes that
it will inspire new researchers to take up the challenge and introduce improvements in
order to exceed the limits so far achieved: so we need to exceed a modulus of rupture
of about 125 MPa; we need to find ways to reduce labor cost; we need to produce
optimized 3D reinforcements at least cost; we need to take advantage of self-stressing
reinforcements by inducing internal prestress levels exceeding 7 MPa; and we need to
inform and educate the public and the profession about the advantages and potential
applications of these composites. We need to always keep dreaming at least slightly
beyond the borders of current reality.

Aantoine E. Naaman and Surendra P. Shah(1971) The scope of this investigation

was to better understand ferrocement as an engineering materia I and to predict its
design properties. In spite of growing popularity of this mater·ial basic design
information is scani'. The influence of types, sizes, and volumes of wire meshes on
elastic, crackina, and ultimate behavior of ferrocement in uniaxial tension was studied.
It was observed that the ultimate strength of ferrocement is the same as that of mesh
alone while its modulus of elasticity can be predicted from those of mortar and mesh.
The specific surface of the reinforcement strongly influenced the cracking behavior of
ferrocement. An analytic relation between crack spacing and the specific surface of the
reinforcement was developed. The relatively large specific surface for ferrocement
may account for the combination of very small width of cracks and high tensile
strength. The ultimate load on ferrocement specimens tested was the same as the load
carrying capacity of the reinforcement in the loading direction. The modulus of
elasticity of ferrocement in tension can be approximately predicted by the law of
mixture of composite materials. Increasing the specific surface of reinforcement
increases the stress at the onset of cracking, the number of cracks to failure, the
toughness and the elongation at ultimate load. The maximum value of elongation and
toughness is determined by that of the mesh alone.

Sakthivel P. B. This paper attempts to review the literature on ferrocement and bring
out the salient features of construction, material properties and the special techniques
26
of applying CM on to the reinforcing mesh. This study brings out the importance of
using ferrocement in swimming pools and water tanks, silos, corrugated roofs, shell
and dome structures, and also in the repair of old/deteriorated RCC structures. Also is
discussed in this paper a similar material to ferrocement, termed as Engineered
Cementitious Composite, which uses fibers as reinforcement. The recommendations
of this study include addition of fibers in ferrocement to reduce crack-width. The
present authors recommend that experimental investigation may be conducted on new
reinforcing materials by researchers in the future. The study concludes that
ferrocement will certainly be one of the best structural alternatives for RCC in the
future. This study has brought out that ferrocement is an innovative material and the
ready availability of materials and ease of construction make it suitable in developing
countries for housing, and water and food storage structures. Ferrocement is found to
be a suitable material for repairing or reshaping the defective RCC structural elements
and enhancing its performance.

Ornela Lalajet.al (2015) Ferrocement is the oldest form of the reinforced concrete,
dating back two centuries. It is composed of mortar and galvanized steel wire mesh. It
is used for a wide range of application including construction of boats, water tanks,
slabs and roofs, and lining of tunnels. Nowadays, reinforced concrete is widely known
and used material, whereas ferrocement has limited applications. Properties such as
high strength/weight ratio and good resistance to cracking and iMPact loadings are
bringing ferrocement under the spotlight again. New applications have been developed
in the recent years, such as low cost dwelling buildings and strengthening of a wide
variety of structural elements. However, these applications are still in their first stages.
The aim of this paper is to summarize existing literature on the use of ferrocement and
to discuss new applications of ferrocement. In this study, a review on the properties
and uses of ferrocement is presented. Though ferrocement is an old material, it has
seen little use until the recent decades. It is similar with reinforced concrete, in that it
is composed of mortar and steel wire mesh, as opposed to steel bars and concrete, but
they differ significantly in terms of properties. The strongest feature of reinforced
concrete is compressive strength, while ferrocementhas excellent tensile and flexural
behavior. Conventional reinforced concrete is brittle material, while ferrocement is
very ductile. On the other hand, ferrocement does not have the good durability of
reinforced concrete due to the thin sections and very thin concrete covers.

27
Conventional uses of ferrocement include mostly boats, water tanks, silos and roofing.
New perspectives on the usage of ferrocement have appeared in the last three decades.

Renjith Raju and Vasudev (2018) investigated effect of ferrocement and frp column
jacketing Reinforced concrete is most widely used construction material. Columns are
one of the important structural elements in the structures. Retrofitting refers to the
addition of new technology or features to older systems to restore the required
strength. Jacketing construction is one of the preferred methods of retrofitting.
Ferrocement confinement for retrofitting of structural elements is one of the effective
techniques. As because of the notable properties of ferrocement, wider applications
such as fire resistance, low self-weight, water proof, durability, crack resistance etc
makes it an ideal material. Fiber reinforced polymers (FRP) have been extensively
used in order to strengthen concrete columns. The advantages of FRP technique
coMPared to other similar techniques include of light weight, high strength, good
environmental resistance etc. This paper presents the compilation of the literature
review of ferrocement and FRP jacketing for restrengthening the concrete column. All
the casted specimens are tested by applying load. Axial load, lateral bulging, crack
pattern etc of column will be measured for the effectiveness of all two type jacketing.

V.M. Shinde and J. P. Bhusari analyzed the Response Of Ferrocement Confinement

On Behavior Of Concrete Short Column In recent years, the repair of unstrengthened
and damaged reinforced concrete member by external bonding such as ferrrocement
laminate is increasing which demands need of investigations on behavior of
ferrocement confinements. Significant amount of work has been carried out on
confinement of column with ferrocement laminates considering change in parameter
such as types of meshes with different sizes, concrete grade, height of column, etc. In
this study, use of ferrocement as an external confinement to concrete specimen is
investigated with reference to layers of confinement and orientation of meshes. The
effectiveness of confinement is achieved by coMParing the behavior of confined
specimen with that of unconfined specimen. The experimental program consists of
testing 30 specimens under uniaxial compression. Cylindrical specimen of 120mm dia.
and 600 mm height were used. Results show that the confinement of cylindrical
specimen can improve the ultimate strength with single and DL of mesh coMPared to
unconfined specimen. Ultimate compressive strength increases with the change in
orientation of square mesh from 90º to 45º.
28
Anagha (2017) strengthening of deficient columns incorporating with different
methods to reduce stress concentration at corners. CoMParative study is carried out
with column jacketed with and without steel fiber in mortar mix. In total, twenty seven
reinforced concrete columns were loaded to ultimate loading. From the experimental
investigation it is observed the improvement in ultimate load carrying capacity of the
ferrocement jacketed columns in comparison to non-jacketed columns. Four
techniques and variations in those techniques are proposed to address the problem

2.2 Summary of Literature

 We have found that much researches are focused on either Ferrocement
Technology or Geopolymer concrete, However very few numbers of studies are
reported on strengthening of column using ferrocement technology with
geopolymer mortar
 Temp required for curing of geopolymer mortar is very high (100°C to 110°C)
which is not suitable / possible on construction site
 Information on the behaviour of ferrocement-confined rectangular RC columns is
limited in published literature. The aspect ratio of the cross-section is an important
parameter that influences the behaviour of rectangular columns. However, no
study has observed the effect of this parameter on ferrocement-confined
rectangular RC columns.
 The slenderness ratio of RC columns influences the overall behaviour of confined
columns as well. However, the effect of the slenderness of RC columns on the
confinement behaviour of ferrocement has not yet been investigated.

29
 Chapter 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction
This whole experimental work contains casting of required number of
cylindrical and square short column and confining it with ferrocement and partially
replaced geoploymer mortar as an external strengthening of element.

3.2 Materials
3.2.1Cement
Cement is a dry powdery substance made by calcining lime and clay, mixed with
water to form mortar or mixed with sand, gravel and water to make concrete. It is a
binder material. Once hardened, cement delivers sufficient strength to erect large
industrial structure
There are different Grades of cement but we have used 53 Grade Ordinary Portland
Cement (OPC)

Table3.1 Chemical composition of cement

Ingredient Percentage in cement
Lime 60 to 65
Silica 17 to 25
Alumina 3 to 8
Magnesia 1 to 3
Iron oxide 0.5 to 6
Calcium Sulfate 0.1 to 0.5
Sulfur Trioxide 1 to 3
Alkaline 0 to 1
3.2.1.1 Test on cement
53grade Ordinary Portland cement (Chettinad cement) is used throughout the
experimental work. Cement was tested in the laboratory and results are presented
below.
1. Fineness of cement (IS 269 -197)
 Apparatus:
Standard balance with 100gm. Weighing capacity
IS: 90 micron sieve confirming to and a brush.

30
 Procedure
1. Break down any air-set lumps in the cement sample with fingers.
2. Weight accurately 100 gm of the cement and place it on a standard 90 micron I.S
Sieve.
3. Continuously sieve the sample for 15minutes.
4. Weigh the residue left after 15 minutes of sieving. This completes the test

Table 3.5 : Observation for fineness of the cement

Sr.no. Mass of cement(gm) Mass of residue (gm) Residue (%) Avg
1 100 3.5 3.5 3.25%
2 100 3.0 3.0
Limiting value is 10% hence ok
3.2.2Fine aggregate
Sand is the primary material used in the construction of any building. There are many
types of sand used in construction that provides strength and other properties to
construction materials making the building strong and rigid. Construction Sands and
Gravel are extensively used to prepare concrete that goes into the construction of
buildings.
3.2.2.1 Test on Fine aggregate (IS 383-1970) :
Clear River sand locally available confirming to IS 383:1970
Fineness modulus of Sand- Weight of sample=500gm
As fineness is above 3.50 the given sample is very coarse sand confirms to grading
Zone-1.
Average of fineness modulus of the sand = 3.997
Specific gravity of the sand:
The ratio of the weight of the given volume of sand to the weight of an equal volume
of water is called specific gravity of sand. Pycnometer bottle method is used to
determine specific gravity of sand.
Table 3.7: Observation table for specific gravity of the sand.
Sr. No. Observation Sample wt.(gm)
1 Wt. of the sample taken 500
2 Wt. of Pycnometer + water(a) 1675
3 Wt. of the saturated and surface dry aggregate (b) 502

31
 4 Wt. of the pycnometer + sample + water (c) 1990
5 Wt. of the oven dry sample(d) 490
Specific gravity (g) =2.62
Table 3.8: Properties of sand
Sr.No. Test Result obtained
1 Fineness modulus 3.997
2 Specific gravity 2.62

3.2.3.Coarse Aggregate (IS 383:1970)

Coarse aggregate is stone which are broken into small sizes and irregular in shape. In
construction work the aggregate are used such as limestone and granite or river
aggregate.
Concrete Mix is produced by many ingredients or components but is mostly made up
of a material called Coarse Aggregates and they are one of the essential components
of concrete and occupy large volumes in the concrete mix.
Aggregate which has a size bigger than 4.75 mm or which retrained on 4.75 mm IS
Sieve are known as Coarse aggregate.
The aggregates are generally acquired by blasting in stone quarries or breaking them
by hand or by crusher machines. The aggregates manufactured by machine-crushed
consist of stones of various sizes whereas hand-broken aggregates consist of only
single size stones. Materials that are larger to be retained on 4.75 mm sieve size are
called coarse aggregate, and their maximum size can be up to 63 mm. In coarse
aggregate, foreign materials like coal, lignite, soft fragments, and clay lumps should
not exceed 5 percent of their actual weight.
We have used 20mm & 12.5mm sized crushed aggregate.
3.2.3.1 Test on Coarse aggregate
Locally available crush stone with size 20mm and 12.5mm confirming to IS 383:1970
are used.
1.Specific gravity of the aggregate
Specific gravity of coarse aggregate is determined by density basket method.
Table 3.9: Observation table for the specific gravity of the aggregate
Sr. No. Observation Sample (Kg)
1 Weight of sample 2.000
2 Weight of CA + Density basket + Water 2.685
3 Weight of empty density basket in water 1.480
32
 4 Weight of saturated surface dry aggregate 2.005
5 Weight of oven dried aggregate 1.965
Specific gravity (g) =2.456
2.Fineness modulus of the coarse aggregate
Total mass = 5000 gm
Fineness modulus offers a way to quantify the average size of the aggregate particles
in the concrete mix. The size of the particles, in turn, will greatly affect how easily the
concrete pours and spreads, as well as its strength and durability once cured.

Fig 3.1: Sieve Analysis

Table 3.10 : Sieve Analysis
Sr. No. IS Mass retained Cumulative Cumulative % Percentage
sieve (gm) mass retained retained passing
(mm) (gm)
1 80 0 0 0 100
2 40 2175 2175 43.5 56.5
3 25 330 2505 50.1 49.9
4 20 820 3325 66.5 33.5
5 16 610 3935 78.7 21.3
6 12.5 200 4135 82.7 17.3
7 10 215 4350 87.0 13.0
8 6.3 605 4955 99.1 0.9
9 4.75 15 4970 99.4 0.6
10 Pan 30 5000 100 0

Average of fineness modulus of the sand = 3.98

Table 3.11 : Properties of the coarse aggregate

33
 Sr. No Test Result
1 Specific gravity 2.456
2 Fineness modulus 7.07

3.2.4.Water
Water is an important ingredient of the concrete as it actively participates in chemical
reaction with the cement. The strength of the cement concrete comes mainly from the
binding action for the hydrated cement gel. The requirement of the water should be
reduced to that required for chemical reaction of the anhydrate cement. As the excess
water would end up in only formation of the undesirable voids and or capillaries in
the harden cement paste in concrete.
Properties of water
 pH value should not be less than 6.
 Water used for mixing and curing shall be clean and free from injurious amount of
oils, acids, alkalis, salts, sugars, organic material.
 Potable water is generally considered satisfactory for mixing concrete.
 Mixing and curing with sea water shall not be permitted.

3.2.5.Alkaline solution
 Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
sodium hydroxide is taken in crystal form to make solution for preparation of
solution. For making 13M Flyash Solution 520gm(Molecular wt. of NaOH (40) X
Molarity of Solution (13)) NaOH is taken in flask and water is added up to 1lit. mark.
Fly ash reacts with alkaline solution (e.g., NaOH)
 Sodium Silicate (Na2SiO3 )
Sodium silicate is also the technical and common name for a mixture of such
compounds, chiefly the metasilicate, also called waterglass, water glass, or liquid
glass. The product has a wide variety of uses, including the formulation of cements,
passive fire protection, textile and lumber processing, manufacture of refractory
ceramics, as adhesives, and in the production of silica gel. The commercial product,
available in water solution or in solid form, is often greenish or blue owing to the
presence of iron-containing impurities.

In industry, the various grades of sodium silicate are characterized by their SiO 2:Na2O
weight ratio (which can be converted to molar ratio by multiplication with 1.032). The

34
ratio can vary between 1:2 and 3.75:1. [1] Grades with ratio below 2.85:1 are termed
alkaline. Those with a higher SiO 2:Na2O ratio are described as neutral. Sodium
Silicate (Na2SiO3) to form a gel which binds the fine and coarse aggregates.

3.2.6.Reinforcement steel (IS 456-2000)

Grade of steel- Fe 500
Dimension of RCC Column- 150 x 150 x 650 mm
Therefore, providing 4 numbers of 12 mm diameter bars as main reinforcement and 6
mm stirrups at spacing 150mm c/c.

Fig. 3.5 Steel Reinforcement in Column

3.2.7.Fly ash: -
Fly ash is a fine gray powder consisting mostly of spherical, glassy particles that are
produced as a byproduct in coal-fired power stations. Fly ash has pozzolanic
properties, meaning that it reacts with lime to form cementitious compounds. It is
commonly Known as a supplementary cementitious material.
Table3.2 Chemical composition of Flyash
S.NO. Ingredient Percentage in Flyash

35
 01 Silicon dioxide 60.83

02 Aluminium oxide 26.63

03 Iron Oxide 4.19

04 Magnesium oxide 0.80

05 Calcium oxide 3.03

06 Potassium Oxide 0.90

Table 3.3 Physical Properties of flyash

S.No. Characteristics Values
01 Specific gravity 2.07
02 Fineness 290 m2/kg
03 Bulk Density 1100-1200 kg/m3
04 Colur Grey
05 Porosity 30-65%
06 Lime reactivity(MPa) 1-8

3.2.8.GGBS
Ground Granulated Blast-furnace Slag) is a cementitious material whose main use is
in concrete and is a by-product from the blast-furnaces used to make iron.
Table 3.4 Chemical Composition of GGBS
S.No. Ingredients Percentage in GGBS
01 Silicon oxide 35.47
02 Aluminium Oxide 19.36
03 Iron Oxide 0.8
04 Calcium oxide 33.25
05 Magnesium Oxide 8.69

3.2.9.Ferrocement Mesh –
There are different types of mesh available in market with different gauges but we
have selected chicken mesh of 22 Gauge.

Properties Of Chicken Mesh

36
 Chicken wire for plaster is available in different materials, mesh size, and wire
diameter.
 Materials: galvanized low carbon wire, annealed wire.
 Mesh size (distance between the faces of the hexagon ) from 13 to 50mm.
 The diameter of the wire mesh from 0.6 to 2.0mm.
 Delivered in rolls, roll width 1m to 2.5m and roll length 50m, 100m, 200m.
 Price per square meter woven mesh depends on wire diameter and type of wire
(uncoated steel or galvanized).

Fig 3.2 Chicken Mesh

3.3Experimental work:-
The experimental part of the work consists of procuring the materials, determining the
physical properties and chemical composition, designing a M30 mix, casting of cubes,
preparation of formwork, casting of columns of size 150x150x650 mm, after curing
confining column with ferrocement mesh of different type with geoploymer mortar
and CM .
For Experimental work M30 Grade of concrete is prepared using IS 10262-2019 such
that water to cement ratio taken as 0.45 .

3.3.1 Concrete Mix Design:- Trial- I (IS 10262-2019 )

Design Stipulations
2
a) Characteristic compressive strength 30N/mm
b) Maximum size of aggregate 20 mm
c) Degree of quality control Good
d) Type of exposure Moderate
37
e) Degree of workability High
f) Type of aggregate Crushed Angular

3.13 Characteristics of the Materials

Types of cement OPC 53 Grade
Specific gravity of cement 3.15
Specific gravity of coarse aggregates - 20mm 2.56
-10mm 2.67
Specific gravity of fine aggregates 2.65
Workability of concrete 25-50 mm
Maximum W/C Ratio 0.50
Minimum cement contents 350 kg/m3
Maximum cement contents 450 kg/m3
Fine aggregates Zone I of table 4 of IS 383-1970
Water absorption - Coarse aggregate 0.8%
Fine aggregate 1.2%
Free moisture (surface) - Coarse aggregate Nil
Fine aggregate Nil

1. Target Strength for Mix Design:

Fck = fck + t.s (By ref.Table-1 of Is 10262)
Where,
Fck = Target compressive strength of concrete.
fck = Characteristics compressive strength of concrete at 28 days. t = risk factor
s = standard deviation
Fck =30 + 1.65X5
2
Fck =38.25 N/mm

2. water cement ratio:

Water/cement = 0.48
3. Selection of water content
Maximum water content= 186 liter for 25 to 50 mm slump for 20 mm aggregate
Adopting water content – 186 liters for workable concrete

Calculation for cement content

W/c ratio =0.48
38
Cement= (186/0.48) = 387.5 kg/m3
From table 5 of IS 456, minimum cement content for severe exposure = 320kg/m3
387.5 > 320 kg/m3

5. Percentage of coarse aggregates and fine aggregates

From Table 3 ,volume of coarse aggregate corresponding to 20 mm size aggregate
and fine aggregate (Zone I) for water-cement ratio of 0.50 =0.60. In the present case
water-cement ratio is 0.40. Therefore volume of coarse aggregate is required to be
increased to decrease the fine aggregate content. As the water-cement ratio is lower
by 0.10. the proportion of volume of coarse aggregate is increased by 0.02 (at the rate
of -/+ 0.01 for every ± 0.05 change in water-cement ratio). Therefore, corrected
proportion of volume of coarse aggregate for the water-cement ratio of 0.48 = 0.64.
Therefore, volume of coarse aggregate = 0.64
Volume of fine aggregate content =1 - 0.62 =0.36.

6) Mix calculations
The mix calculations per unit volume of concrete shall be as follows:
Volume of concrete=1m³
Volume of cement = (Mass of cement / Specific gravity of cement) x (1/1000)
= (387.5/3.15) x (1/1000)
=0.123m³
Volume of water = (Mass of water / Specific gravity of water) x (1/1000)
=0.186m³
Volume of all in aggregate=1-(0.123+0.186)
=0.691m³
Mass of coarse aggregate= e x Volume of CA x Specific gravity of CA x1000
= 0.64x0.691x2.72x1000
= 1202.89kg
Mass of fine aggregate = e x Volume of fine aggregate x Specific gravity of F.A
x1000
= 0.36x0.691x2.65x1000
= 659.21kg
Mix proportions
Cement -387.5kg/m³

39
Water -168.47kg/m³
Fine aggregate -667.12 kg/m³
Coarse aggregate -1212.51 kg/m³
Water-cement ratio -0.48
Mix Proportion By weight = 1:1.72:3.12

3.4 Test on concrete

3.4.1 Workability test on concrete by slump cone test
The slump test is conducted to measures the consistency of concrete in that specific
batch. Here, consistency of concrete refers to workability or fluidity of freshly made
concrete, and therefore it is a measure of the ease with which concrete flows.
Table 3.14 Relation between workability and slump
Workability Very Low Low Medium High
Slump (mm) 0 – 25 25 - 50 50 - 100 100 - 175
Slump value for concrete mix is 85.5 mm hence workability is medium.
3.6.2 Compression test on cube
To determine the compressive strength, cube moulds of size 150x150x150 mm were
used.6 cubes were caste. They were cleaned thoroughly using a waste cloth and then
properly oiled along its faces.. Specimens were tested for compression using CTM
and results are as follow
Table 3.15: Compression test of concrete cube 150X150X150mm(3 days test)
Sr no Date of Date of Weight Load Strength Avg
casting testing (Kg ) (KN) N/mm2 strength
1 8.80 300 13.33
2 30/09/21 04/10/21 8.64 290 12.88 12.883
3 8.77 280 12.44

Table 3.16: Compression test of concrete of 150X150X150 mm(7 days test)

Sr no Date of Date of Weight Load Strength Avg
casting testing (Kg ) (KN) N/mm2 strength
1 8.835 490 21.77
2 30/09/21 08/10/21 8.995 420 18.66 20.29
3 8.755 460 20.44

Table 3.13: Compression test of concrete 150X150X150mm (28 days test)

Sr no Date of Date of Weight Load Strength Avg
40
 casting testing (Kg ) (KN) N/mm2 strength
(MPa)
1 8.845 710 31.55
2 30/09/21 29/10/21 8.790 690 30.66 30.22
3 8.935 640 28.44

Fig 3.3: Compressive test on concrete cube.

3.5 Cement Mortar Mix:-
1. Type of cement :- OPC
2. Grade of cement:- 53 grade
3. Standard consistency (Pn):-32 %
4. Mix proportion :- 1:3
5. Weight of Cement (W1) :-1.25 Kg
6. Weight of fine aggregate :- 3.75 Kg
7. Weight of water :- (Pn/4+3) X ( W1+_W2 )/100
= (32/4+3) X ( 1.25+3.75)/100
= 550 gm
8. Size of cubes :- 70x70x70mm
Compressive test were performed on cubes and results are as follow

Table 3.17: compressive test on CM (70.7X70.7X70.7 mm)

Sr no ID Mark Date of Date of Age in Comp Comp. Avg
casting testing days load Strength comp.
(KN) N/mm2 strength
41
 1 A 3 90 18.00
2 B 12/10/21 3 90 18.00 17.667
3 C 3 85 17.00
4 D 7 105 21.00
5 E 08/10/21 16/10/21 7 105 21.00 21.00
6 F 7 105 21.00
7 G 28 160 32.00
8 H 06/11/21 28 165 33.00 32.00
9 I 28 155 31.00

Fig 3.4: Compressive test on CM

3.6 Geoploymer mortar mix :-

Mix proportion: 1:3
NaOH/Na2SiO3=1:1
Concentration of NaOH: 13M
Solution to fly ash ratio=0.35
Water to binder ratio =0.30

Table 3.18: Compressive test on Geopolymer mortar cube (70.7X70.7X70.7mm)

Sr no ID Mark Date of Date of Age in Comp Comp. Avg
casting testing days load Strength comp.
(KN) N/mm2 strength
1 A 3 160 32.00 32.00
42
2 B 12/10/21 3 165 33.00
3 C 3 155 31.00
4 D 7 165 33.00
5 E 08/10/21 16/10/21 7 155 31.00 32.00
6 F 7 160 32.00
7 G 28 165 33.00
8 H 06/11/21 28 165 33.00 32.00
9 I 28 150 30.00

3.7 Casting of columns:-

As ultimate aim of project is to strengthen the column with ferrocement confinement
by using geoploymer mortar for same purpose casted 10 square specimens with size
150 x 150 x 650 mm by conventional concrete and 10 circular specimens with
diameter 150mm and 650mm height.
3.8 Testing of Core Column
The Casted column is tested under Universal Testing Machine after 28 days of curing
And results obtain as follows.

Table 3.19 Strength of Square C/S Core column(150X150X650mm)

Sr No. Date of Date of Weight in Load Strength Avg.

Casting Testing kg (KN) (MPa) Strength
(MPa)
1 37.73 675 30.00
2 02/02/2022 05/03/2022 37.69 710 31.55 30.60
3 37.71 680 30.22

Table 3.20 Strength of Circular C/S Core Column(150X150X650)

Sr No. Date of Date of Weight in Load Strength Avg.

Casting Testing Kg (KN) (MPa) Stength
(MPa)
1 26.07 540 30.55
2 02/02/22 05/03/22 25.98 560 31.70 30.75
3 26.02 530 30.00

3.10 Strengthening of Column

3.10.1Strengthening of column using CM
The ultimate aim of project is to strengthen the column using CM and Geopolymer
mortar Hence Casted Column is first wrapped by chicken mesh (Hexagonal Stainless
Steel Wire) of thickness 22 Gauge and then jacketed with CM in proportion 1:3

Table 3.21 Strength of Square C/S column with SL CM Jacketing

(170X170X650mm)

43
Sr. No. Date of Date of Weight in Load Strength Avg.
Casting testing Kg (KN) (MPa) Strength
(MPa)
01 42.30 720 32.00
02 6/05/2022 20/05/2022 43.10 760 33.77 32.88
03 42.60 740 32.88

Table3.22 Strength of Square C/S column with DL CM Jacketing

(170X170X650mm)
Sr. No. Date of Date of Weight Load Strength Avg.
Casting testing in Kg (KN) (MPa) Strength
(MPa)
01 44.30 745 33.11
02 6/05/2022 21/05/202 45.10 785 34.88 33.92
03 2 44.60 760 33.77

Table 3.23 Strength of Circular C/S column with SL CM Jacketing

(170X170X650mm)
Sr. No. Date of Date of Weight Load Strength Avg.
Casting testing in Kg (KN) (MPa) Strength
(MPa)
01 32.40 602.85 34.11
02 6/05/2022 20/05/202 33.10 586.85 33.20 33.07
03 2 31.80 564.05 31.91

Table 3.24 Strength of Circular C/S column with DL CM Jacketing

(170X170X650mm)
Sr. No. Date of Date of Weight Load Strength Avg.
Casting testing in Kg (KN) (MPa) Strength
(MPa)
01 37.40 620 35.08
02 6/05/2022 21/05/202 37.10 610 34.50 34.32
03 2 36.80 590 33.38

3.10.2 Strengthening of column using Geopolymer mortar

The ultimate aim of project is to strengthen the column using CM and Geopolymer
mortar Hence Casted Column is first wrapped by chicken mesh (Hexagonal Stainless
Steel Wire) of thickness 22 Gauge and then jacketed with Geopolymer mortar with
the proportion described as in design.

Table 3.25 Strength of Square C/S column with SL GPM Jacketing

(170X170X650mm)

44
Sr. No. Date of Date of Weight Load Strength Avg.
Casting testing in Kg (KN) (MPa) Strength
(MPa)
01 42.10 750 33.33
02 6/05/2022 20/05/202 43.20 780 34.66 33.92
03 2 42.60 760 33.77

Table 3.26 Strength of Square C/S column with DL GPM Jacketing

(170X170X650mm)
Sr. No. Date of Date of Weight Load Strength Avg.
Casting testing in Kg (KN) (MPa) Strength
(MPa)
01 46.50 770 34.22
02 6/05/2022 21/05/202 47.20 790 35.11 34.73
03 2 46.80 785 34.88

Table 3.27 Strength of Circular C/S column with SL GM Jacketing

(170X170X650mm)
Sr. No. Date of Date of Weight Load Strength Avg.
Casting testing in Kg (KN) (MPa) Strength
(MPa)
01 32.30 610 34.51
02 6/05/2022 20/05/202 31.60 605 34.23 34.32
03 2 31.60 605 34.23

Table 3.28 Strength of Circular C/S column with DL GM Jacketing

(170X170X650mm)
Sr. No. Date of Date of Weight Load Strength Avg.
Casting testing in Kg (KN) (MPa) Strength
(MPa)
01 37.25 640 36.21
02 6/05/2022 21/05/202 37.50 650 36.78 36.02
03 2 36.30 620 35.08

Chapter 4

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

45
4.1 Result
Table 4.1 Results of Square C/S Column
Description Avg. Strength
(MPa)
Core Column 30.60
Column with SL GPM 33.92
Column with DL GPM 34.73
Column with SL CM 32.88
Column with DL CM 33.92

Table 4.2 Results of Circular C/S Column

Description Avg. Strength
(MPa)
Core Column 30.75
Column with SL GPM 34.32
Column with DL GPM 36.02
Column with SL CM 33.07
Column with DL CM 34.32

36
Results of Square C/S Column
35 34.73

33.92 33.92
34
Avg. Compressive Strength in MPa

33 32.88

32

31 30.6

30

29

28
Core Column Column with SL Column with SL Column with DL Column with DL
and CM and GPM and CM and GPM

Avg Strength in MPa

46
 36
Results of Square C/S Column
35 34.73

33.92 33.92
34

32.88
Avg. Compressive Strength in MPa

33

32

31 30.6

30

29

28
Core Column Column with SL Column with SL Column with DL Column with DL
and CM and GPM and CM and GPM

Avg Strength in MPa

4.2 Discussion
In case of short columns, which fail in compression the first crack load value was
observed just before the ultimate load value. It is because in columns with small
slenderness ratio the full height is involved into the damage. The zone of rupture in
short columns was observed near one-fourth height of the column either from top or
bottom. Typically, in case of unconfined control columns the first crack appeared on
the coner portion and diagonally propagated towards the middle of the width.
With ferrocement confinement, for the first crack load the column behaved in a
similar manner as the control column. It also occurred just before the ultimate failure
but at higher
value of load. The first crack appeared near the corner and propagated vertically,
thereby separating the mortar layer from the wire mesh followed by failure of core
concrete.
In case of long control columns of the failure zone was observed to be above the one-
fourth height, instead of mid height. The crack was horizontal followed by the
rupture. After the confinement, the column showed first crack near the bottom corner
which became wide with increase in load. The crack propagated vertically near the
corners and the ultimate failure was followed by delamination of the ferrocement

47
layer up to mid height. It shows that the confinement is better in the center of the
width and reduced strength of confinement is observed near comers.

Fig.4.1 Failure Pattern Of RC Short Confined Column

48
 Chapter 5

CONCLUSION
 For square column confined with GPM Strength increased by 10.84 % and 13.50%
for SL and DL Column respectively.
 For circular column confined with GPM Strength increased by 11.60 % and 17.13%
for SL and DL Column respectively.
 For Square column confined with CM Strength increased by 7.45% and 10.84% for
SL and DL Column respectively.
 For Circular column confined with CM Strength increased by 7.54% and 11.60% for
SL and DL Column respectively.
 While testing the specimens failed at top zone by crack developed at top of column
and hair cracks developed at middle of column for compressive test

49
 Chapter 6
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