A Sufi Rule For Novices

K
A Sufi Rule for Novices
HARVARD MIDDLE EASTERN STUDIES, 17

A Sufi Rule for Novices
K i t a b A d a h a l - M u n d i n o f
Abu al-Najlb al-Suhrawardi
AN ABRIDGED TRANSLATION
AND INTRODUCTION by
Menahem Milson
Harvard University Press

Cambridge, Massachusetts
and London, England
1975
Copyright © 1975 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College
All rights reserved
Second Printing, 1977
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 742-7750
ISBN 0-674-85400-4 (cloth)
ISBN 0-674-85403-9 (paper)
Printed in the United States of America
Preface
A Sufi Rule for Novices presents an outline of Sufism as seen by

one of the great Sufi masters. This volume consists of two
parts: an abridged translation of Abu al-Najlb al-Suhrawar-
di's Kitab Adab al-Muridln (the book of rules for novices) and
an introduction including a general survey of Sufism and a
study of Suhrawardi's work.
Kitab Adab al-Muridin, which is available in numerous
Arabic manuscripts, has not yet appeared in print. My edi-
tion of the Arabic text is about to be published by the Institute
of Asian and African Studies of the Hebrew University of
Jerusalem. T h e first detailed study of this work is presented
here.
Abu al-Najib al-Suhrawardi may be considered a typical
representative of orthodox Sufism, combining legal and
theological scholarship with mystical devotion, retirement
from the world (as a temporary stage), and constant dedica-
tion to teaching and guiding the many. Thus, through a
detailed study of this individual Sufi master we may grasp
more concretely the nature of orthodox Sufism and its role in
the formation of medieval Islam.
I have attempted to determine the place of Suhrawardi's
book in Sufi literature and the particular purpose of the
author in this composition. My conclusions concerning the
relation between Suhrawardi's Kitab Adab al-Muridln and
other books, both earlier and later, are based on comparative
vi Preface
data which are presented in detail in the apparatus of my

edition of the Arabic text.
The abridged translation is intended primarily for the
reader who does not know Arabic. I hope, however, that it
may also be useful to the reader who will be able to refer to
the Arabic text. The abridgment made in the translation is
minimal. I have omitted only sayings and anecdotes that
do not seem essential for the understanding of the particular
section and that could be omitted without impairing the
structure of Suhrawardi's composition. In each such instance,
the abridgment is indicated by a short notice enclosed in
parentheses. Quotations from the Quran are generally not
translated, and the parenthetical reference cites the chapter
and verse according to the standard Egyptian edition of the
Quran. Parentheses are thus used in a special way to in-
dicate abridgment, in addition to their other conventional
uses. Brackets are used to enclose various types of additions
to the text: words or phrases added in the translation when
the Arabic original seems elliptical, subheadings given in the
translation to various sections, and fuller forms of some names
to facilitate their identification.
In a preliminary stage, this book formed part of a doctoral

dissertation prepared under the supervision of the late Sir
Hamilton A. R. Gibb. I should like to record here my debt
of gratitude to Professor Gibb for his help and encourage-
ment. I am greatly indebted to Professor M. J . Kister of the
Hebrew University of Jerusalem, who called my attention to
Kitab Adab al-Muridin. My indebtedness to Kister goes far
beyond this, for it was he who first taught me to read Arabic
and initiated me in the study of Islam in general and Sufism
in particular.
Menahem Milson
The Hebrew University
Jerusalem, 1975
Contents
Introduction 1
Sufism and Sufi Orders
Abu al-Najlb al-SuhrawardT—A Biographical Note
Kitab Adab al-Murtdin—A Sufi Rule
Rules for the Novice 27

Kitab Adab al-Murtdin, An Abridged Translation
Bibliography 85
Glossary 89
A Sufi Rute for Novices
Introduction
Sufism, Islamic mysticism, has attracted a good deal of

scholarly interest on the part of Western students of Islam,
and consequently a considerable number of books on this
subject, both general surveys and monographic studies, are
available today. Thanks to these works I need not attempt
the impossible task of condensing a description of Sufism into
a few pages of introduction to the present volume. Rather, I
shall present a brief outline to place this book in the necessary
perspective of the history of Sufism and Sufi orders, while
referring the reader to general expositions of this subject for
further information.1
'See t h e relatively short b u t c o m p r e h e n s i v e survey b y M a r i j a n M0I6, Les
Mystiques musulmans ( P a r i s : Presses Universitaires d e F r a n c e , 1965). M o l e
a p p e n d s to e a c h c h a p t e r a very useful b i b l i o g r a p h i c note. See also A. J . A r b e r r y ,
Sufism: An Account of the Mystics of Islam ( L o n d o n : G e o r g e Allen a n d U n w i n , L t d . ,
1950; 2 n d printing, 1956). G . - C . A n a w a t i a n d L . G a r d e t , Mystique musulmane
(Paris: J . V r i n , 1961), provides a m o r e detailed exposition t h a n t h e two books
m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . H . A. R . G i b b , Mohammedanism, 2 n d e d . ( L o n d o n : O x f o r d
University Press, 1964), includes c h a p t e r s o n Sufism a n d t h e Sufi orders t h a t
present a n excellent overall p i c t u r e . A r b e r r y ' s An Introduction to the History of
Sufism ( L o n d o n : L o n g m a n s , G r e e n a n d Co., 1942), is a n a c c o u n t of W e s t e r n
scholarship in t h e field of Sufism until a b o u t 1940; it contains m u c h bibliographic
i n f o r m a t i o n . O n t h e history of Sufi orders see J . Spencer T r i m i n g h a m , The Sufi
Orders in Islam ( O x f o r d : O x f o r d University Press, 1971).
T h e f u n d a m e n t a l reference work o n Islam is The Encyclopaedia of Islam, 4 vols,
a n d s u p p l e m e n t ( L e i d e n : E. J . Brill, a n d L o n d o n : L u z a c & Co., 1913-1938),
h e n c e f o r t h cited EI a n d EISupp., a n d its n e w edition ( 1 9 6 0 - ) . H e n c e f o r t h cited EP.
1
2 A Sufi Rule for Novices
Sufism and Sufi Orders
The Quran and subsequent Islamic thought teach that

God is the transcendental Creator and hence the master
(ial-rabb) and that man is His creature and hence His bond-
servant ('abd). Indeed, so fundamental is the concept of man's
servitude to the divine Master that c a b d is a very common
designation for man in Islamic religious writing. Conscious-
ness of the terrible abyss between the eternal all-powerful
God and man the mortal, placed in this created, perishable
world, is ever present in the Quran. However, the Quran
also confirms that God did not forsake man, for in His bounty
He established a covenant between Himself and man which—
in its final manifestation in history —is the covenant between
Himself and the Islamic community of believers ( a l - u m m a ) .
According to this covenant, the believer, as servant, is
required to obey the Master's commands implicitly, that is,
to observe the divine law ( s h a r i ' a ) as revealed in the Quran
and the subsequent sources of Islamic jurisprudence. This is
the sole means of contact, revealed to all and available to
all, between man and God. 2 Arduous study of the law there-
fore acquires supreme religious importance, for it is through
jurisprudence that one can aspire to learn, as fully and as
exactly as possible, what God requires.
Yet this type of religious attitude could not satisfy all
religious minds, and from the earliest days of Islam we find
those whose religious fervor was manifested in ways which go
beyond the requirements of the shari'a.
To be sure, this does not suggest that those persons neglected
the divine law. Quite the contrary. Being painfully aware of
2
I am greatly indebted for my understanding of the relationship between the
classical prophetic phase of religion and the mystical phase to Gershom G.
Scholem's incisive observations on this matter. See his Major Trends in Jewish
Mysticism (London: Thames & Hudson, 1955), pp. 7-10.
Introduction 3
human imperfection, they held that man could not possibly

go too far in attempting to carry out God's orders. Hence, one
of the characteristics of those early Muslim pietists was their
utmost scrupulosity ( w a r a ' ) in observing the rules of the
sharVa in ritual and social matters. Earnestly impressed with
the Quranic teaching about the impending Day of Judgment
and the imminent doom of this world, early Muslim pietists
directed themselves to prepare for the hereafter. They were
appalled by the worldly attitude of many of the ruling elite
of the Caliphate, who were more preoccupied with the ex-
pansion of Islamic dominion than with their ultimate fate
and who enjoyed the riches which were afforded them. For
their part, those pious men shunned the world and its affairs,
contemptuous of its worthlessness and wary of its temptations.
Asceticism (zuhd) was their way of life.
Sufi doctrine, expounded in its mature form in the fourth
and fifth centuries A . H . , 3 considers zuhd to be one of the
primary stages or, to use Sufi terminology, "stations" ( m a q a -
mat) along the way which every mystic should traverse.4
Sufi masters always count the early ascetics as their pre-
cursors and mentors. Admittedly, asceticism, as such, is not
to be confused with Sufism; however, the connection between
the two can hardly be doubted.
The question of the origins of Sufism has long been debated
by Western scholars, most of whom, until the last generation,
held that the essential ideas of Islamic mysticism had origi-
nated from alien, non-Islamic sources.6 Admittedly, Sufism
absorbed a considerable number of heterogenous elements;
the influence of Neoplatonism was especially significant. It
3
A.H. signifies the Islamic era, counting the years, according to the lunar
calendar, from the time of Muhammad's emigration (hijra) to Medina in 622 A.D.
4
See sees. 49 and 66 below.
5
See a brief account of those views in Arberry's Introduction.
should be recognized, however, that the p r i m a r y sources of

Sufism are Islamic, the Q u r a n being first and foremost among
them. 6
T h e ascetics, who turned their backs on the world, sought
guidance from God by repetitive recitation of His word, the
Q u r a n . Desiring to have some contact with the divine, they
strove to internalize God's words by assiduously pondering
their meaning. This process of internalization of the Q u r a n
must have induced some of those w h o were engaged in it
occasionally to experience the nearness of God and conse-
quently to form mystical concepts associated with the Q u r a n i c
text. 7 I t is in the circles of such pious ascetics that Sufism
evolved.
M u c h in the tradition of Christian monks a n d other ascetics
in Syria and Egypt, m a n y of the Muslim ascetics chose to
wear a frock m a d e of coarse wool (suf) as a m a r k of penitence
a n d renunciation of worldly vanities. T h e term suji (a person
clad in wool) was used as a personal ascriptive appellation
in the second century A.H. T h e plural form sufiyya is attested
in third-century texts in reference to a group. 8 Sufi eventually
became the common designation of mystics in Islam. F r o m the
adjectival form sufl, the verbal n o u n tasawwuj was derived,
meaning " t o be a Sufi" or " t o strive to become a Sufi." I t is
somewhat curious, b u t not inexplicable, that the term which
designates Islamic mysticism {tasawwuj), as distinct from the
earlier asceticism (zuhd), is in fact derived from one of the
characteristic features of the ascetic practice and not f r o m
the sphere of mystical theory. 9
T h e third century A.H. appears to have been the formative
'This view of Sufi origins seems to have been firmly established by L. Mas-
signon in his Essai sur les origines du lexique technique de la mystique musulmane (Paris:
J. Vrin, 1954) and La Passion d'al-Hallaj (Paris: P. Geuthner, 1922).
7
See Massignon, Essai, pp. 45^-9, and idem, Passion, II, 464—467.
8
See Massignon, Essai, pp. 153-155.
T h i s curiosity in the terminology was noted by many Sufi authors.
Introduction 5
period in the development of Sufism, when great Sufi masters

such as Dhu al-Nun al-Misrl, al-Harith al-Muhasibi, Sahl
al-Tustari, Abu Yazid (Bayazid) al-Bistami, Junayd, and
al-Hallaj created the modes of mystical practice and theory
in Islam.
The next stage in the development of Sufism appears in the
Sufi compilations dating from the latter part of the fourth
century and the first half of the fifth century A.H. The most
notable Sufi books of that period are those of Sarraj (d.
378/988), AbQ Talib al-Makki (d. 386/996), Kalab^dhi (d.
390/1000), Sulami (d. 421/1021), Abu Nu'aym al-Isfahani
(d. 430/1038), Qushayri (d. 465/1072), and Hujwirl (fl.
450/1057). Collectively, the works of these authors attest that
something very significant had by then been accomplished,
namely, the formation of a Sufi tradition. By Sufi tradition
I mean a corpus that included an elaborate technical vo-
cabulary, a list of eminent mystics who are recognized as the
founders and authoritative masters of Sufism, a large stock
of hagiographic materials, and a common theory of the
mystical way ( t a r i q a ) .
The Sufi way of spiritual ascent includes a number of
stations in progressive order that the Sufi must traverse under
the guidance of his master. The attainment of each station
(:maqam) is believed to be effected by the individual's en-
deavor. In addition to the stations, there are spiritual states
(ahwal) which inspire the Sufi. These, unlike the stations, do
not result from human action or volition but from God's
favor; they are regarded as divine gifts. There are, of course,
variations in the itinerary of the way, as taught by different
masters: the number and order of stations vary, and there are
different explanations of the interrelation of state and station.
The basic concepts are nonetheless similar.10
I0
See a brief account of the doctrine of stations and states in Arberry, Sufism,
pp. 74-83, and sees. 49-50 below.
T h e emergence of this doctrine of stations and states in the

fourth century A.H. must represent extensive effort in collect-
ing, combining, systematizing, and, to a large extent, syn-
thesizing the teachings of the great mystics of the earlier
generations.
Since the fifth century A.H., Sufism has attracted a large
following in all strata of society. This development appears
to have resulted from the need which many Muslims felt to
enrich emotionally their religious life. Such need was ex-
perienced not only by the uneducated, who were naturally
debarred from the intellectual satisfaction that could be de-
rived from juristic and theological studies, but also by many
of the religious scholars ('ulama')—guardians of the divine
law of shari'a. Laymen and 'ulama' alike adopted Sufism to
satisfy that need.
This is rather remarkable, for the mystical outlook em-
bodied in Sufism is radically different from that religiosity
which, unremittingly mindful of God's transcendence, is
focused on His law. It is the inner mystical aspect of religion
which is the main concern of the Sufi rather than the external
juristic aspect, the esoteric "true reality" ( h a q i q a ) rather than
the exoteric shari'a.
Yet Sufis did not constitute a sect; with few exceptions they
remained within the fold. They have always regarded them-
selves, and have been regarded by most other Muslims, as
part of the orthodox (sunni) community, a concept which is
expressed by the Arabic idiom ahl al-sunna wa-l-jama'a—
"those who adhere to the tradition and the community."
Indeed, the Sufis held that they were the very core of that
community. This idea is expressed in one of the best known
Sufi compendiums in these words: " T h e most excellent of the
Muslim community, who keep their respiration with God
and safeguard their heart from the intrusions of heedlessness,
have singled themselves out with the name of Sufism; and
Introduction 1
this n a m e has b e c o m e f a m o u s in reference to these great m e n

before the year two h u n d r e d A.H." U
T h e r e are, it seems, two characteristics of Sufism which
m a d e it possible for its adherents to avoid schism between
themselves a n d nonmystical traditional I s l a m a n d to attract
a large following. T h e first is Sufi insistence on the observance
of the law: no one could aspire to attain the haqiqa who did
not observe the sharl'a, a n d no Sufi, no matter how elevated
his spiritual station, could b e e x e m p t from the obligations of
the shari'a.12
Another characteristic is the abstruse, esoteric nature of
the Sufi sayings. C o u c h e d in a v o c a b u l a r y derived from the
Q u r a n a n d other traditional sources, Sufi pronouncements
could be interpreted a t different levels. T h e mystical doctrine
was to b e taught only to the initiate a n d only according to
the degree of his preparedness; 1 3 it w a s not to b e divulged to
the vulgar.
T h e expansion of S u f i s m as a p o p u l a r m o v e m e n t is con-
nected with the development of Sufi orders. T h e prominent
Sufi orders ( Q a d i r i y y a , S u h r a w a r d i y y a , M a w l a w i y y a , S h a -
dhiliyya) which, in one form or another, have survived to the
present, a p p e a r e d only in the sixth a n d seventh centuries A.H.
However, the phenomenon of Sufi brotherhoods a n d con-
gregations is considerably older, as it looms large in the Sufi
c o m p e n d i u m s of the fourth a n d fifth centuries, a n d it seems to
go back originally to the early days of Islamic pietism a n d
mysticism.
In Islam, religious life is conceived within a congregation.
T h i s attitude is manifested in the prescription of congregational
prayer on F r i d a y as well as in the special merit generally
"Qushayri, Al-Risala al-Qushayriyya (Cairo: Mustafa al-Babi al-Halabl, 1379/

1959), p. 9.
12 See sec. 21 below.
" S e e sees. 39, 54 below.

attributed to communal prayer. It is quite understandable

that Muslim ascetics and mystics preferred to congregate in
order to worship together with people who shared their
religious tendency. Solitude—although it is regarded by Sufis
as one of the means of self-mortification and moral discipline
—is not held to be permanently desirable.
Sufi congregations were usually formed around some in-
dividual Sufi, famous for his extraordinary spiritual gifts, as
aspirants came to be instructed by him. This affiliation of a
master (shaykh) with his disciple (murld) is the nucleus of all
Sufi associations. The communal life of such Sufi groups was
centered in the shaykh's residence, which thus became a Sufi
convent.
The unmarried members of the Sufi group used to live in
the convent, but those who had families would live with their
families and come to the convent for the communal activities.
Itinerant Sufis, too, would find lodging in such convents.
The members of a Sufi convent would normally perform
the obligatory prayers in common and, in addition, would be
collectively engaged, under the guidance of the shaykh, in the
devotional exercise of remembrance (dhikr). In dhikr gather-
ings, selections from the Quran would be recited or chanted,
and God's names would be repeated in a certain assigned way.
Various shaykhs devised different forms of dhikr exercises, each
prescribing his particular Quranic selections and preferred
formulae of the divine names as well as the fashion in which
they had to be said.
In many Sufi groups, dhikr assemblies developed into a kind
of mystical concert known as sama' (audition); in these sessions
litanies and poems were chanted, and ecstatic dancing often
took place.14
The shaykh would teach his followers the Sufi doctrine of
the mystical way (tariqa) and supervise their spiritual progress.
"See sees. 27-32, 135-151 below.
Introduction 9
I t has already been noted that there were some variations in

the itinerary of the Sufi way as taught by different masters.
T h e term tariqa consequently signifies the way of Sufism in
general as well as any one of the prescribed sequences of the
stations.
Sufis, whether they be associated with a convent or
itinerant, had to accept the rule of poverty ( j a q r ) , for it is one
of the primary stations of the Sufi way. T h e Sufi, or, more
correctly, the aspirant to Sufism, had to renounce his pos-
sessions and occupation. In giving up his source of livelihood,
the Sufi showed his total trust in God (tawakkul, which is
another one of the stations). T h e term jaqir or darwlsh (mean-
ing " a poor m a n " or " m e n d i c a n t " in Arabic and Persian,
respectively) is in fact a most common designation for an
ordinary Sufi (though not for a Sufi shaykh). 1 5
T o be sure, many were attracted to Sufism who did not
accept the rule of poverty to become juqara' (plural of jaqir).
It was customary for such persons to associate themselves with
a convent whose shaykh they admired. T h e y would materially
support the convent with donations and be allowed to attend
dhikr ceremonies held there. T h e y were, so to speak, " l a y
members" of the Sufi brotherhood. 1 6
Initially, Sufi brotherhoods were, by and large, local or-
ganizations. W h e n a disciple of a shaykh had attained to the
station of consummate Sufi, his master could give him per-
mission to instruct others in Sufism. H e might then become a
shaykh in his own right and possibly form another Sufi
brotherhood. M a n y Sufi convents were thus affiliated through
the link of a common original discipleship, but they did not
constitute together one universal order. This ramification of
independent Sufi brotherhoods is characteristic of the ex-
pansion of Sufism until the end of the sixth century A.H.
l6 See sec. 147 below.
16 Cf. pp. 18-19 below.
From the end of the sixth century, the affiliation of kindred

Sufi groups tends to become formalized, in the framework of
all-embracing Sufi orders, by attachment to the particular
way (tariqa) prescribed by the common master. Groups which
are thus affiliated practice the same dhikr exercises and follow
the same system of mystical initiation. In this manner, the
term tariqa comes to signify "a Sufi order."
T h e Suhrawardi way (al-tariqa al-suhrawardiyya), founded
by Abü al-Najlb al-Suhrawardi and by his nephew and dis-
ciple Abü Hafs, appears to be the oldest of these universal
Sufi orders. As originator of the Suhrawardiyya and its many
suborders, Abü al-Najib played an important role in the
development of popular Sufism. 17
Abü al-Najlb al-Suhrawardi—A Biographical Note18

Abü al-Najib 'Abd al-Qähir b. 'Abdallah al-Suhrawardi
was born about 490 A.H. (1097 A.D.)19 in Suhraward, a town
in the Jibäl province in the vicinity of Zanjän, in the north-
17
See EI Supp., s.v. " f a r i l j a . " Abü al-Najib's name also appears in the chain of
spiritual lineage (silsila) of the Mawlawiyya order, and he is regarded by the
Shädhiliyya as the originator of their tariqa. See H. J . Kissling, "Aus der Ges-
chichte des Chalvetijje Ordens," Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesell-
schaft, 103 (1953), Table 1 (opp. p. 282).
I8
See Carl Brockelmann, Geschichte der Arabischen Literatur, 2 vols., 2nd ed.
(Leiden: E. J . Brill, 1943-1949), I, 436, and his Geschichte der Arabischen Literatur,
3 supplementary vols. (Leiden: A. J . Brill, 1937-1949), I, 780. Henceforth cited
GAL and GAL Supp. Both GAL and EI have only short and rather incomplete
biographical notes on Abü al-Najib. I have derived the data for the biographical
note mainly from the following authors: Sam'äni (d. 562/1167), Ibn al-Jawzi
(d. 597/1200), Yäqüt (d. 629/1229), Ibn Khallikän (d. 681/1282), DhahabI
(d. 748/1348), Yäfi'i (d. 768/1367), Subki (d. 771/1370), and Ibn al-'Imäd
(d. 1089/1679). Full details on these sources are given in the bibliography
below. The relative value of these sources for Abü al-Najib's biography, the
interdependence of some of them, and the dependence of some on other earlier
sources is discussed in the introduction to my edition of the Arabic text. (Forth-
coming. )
19
Sam'ani quotes Abü al-Najib as saying that he was born about 490 A.H.;
Ibn Jawzi, Muntaâm, X, 146, also quotes Abu al-Najib to that effect (probably
Introduction 11
western part of Persia. He is said to have been a descendant

of the Caliph Abu Bakr.20 A paternal uncle of Abu al-Najib,
'Umar b. Muhammad (d. 532 A.H.), was a Sufi and the head
of a convent in Baghdad called Sa'adat al-Khadim.21 When
Abu al-Najib became a Sufi, he was invested with the Sufi
habit by this uncle.22
Although there is no information concerning Abu al-Najib's
life and education in his birthplace, it may be assumed that
he received traditional training in Quran and Hadith. Accord-
ing to Ibn 'Asakir (quoted in Dhahabi) and Yaqut, Abu
al-Najib learned Hadith in Isfahan from Abu 'All al-Haddad
who was a leading traditionist in that city. From this it can
be inferred that as a boy in his teens he went to Isfahan, which
was the major city of the Jibal province and a center of
learning. 23 Dhahabi and Subki mention three others under
whom Abu al-Najib studied Hadith: Zahir b. Tahir, the
Qadi Abu Bakr al-Ansari, and Abu 'All b. Nabhan, who was
the leading authority on Hadith in Iraq. Abu al-Najib's
studies under Ibn Nabhan must have taken place after
Abu al-Najib had come to Baghdad. According to one source
his arrival in Baghdad was in 507 A.H., when he was about
on the basis of Sam'anI). Ibn Kahllikan gives the year 490 as the year of his
birth on the basis of a statement by Abu al-Najib's nephew, Abu yaf$. Subki
fixes the date of his birth in 490 in the month of Safar.
20
Sam'ani and Ibn Khallikan each give genealogies which list twelve genera-
tions between Abu al-Najib and Abu Bakr.
21
Ibn Jawzi, Muntazam, X , 75.
22
See Ibn Battuta, RMat Ibn Battuta (Beirut: Dar Sadir, I960), p. 201; Eng.
trans. The Travels of Ibn Battuta, trans. H. A. R. Gibb, vol. II (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1962), p. 297. Cf. Sha'ranI, Al-Anwar al-Qudsiyya
f i Ma'rifat Qawa'id al-Sufiyya, 2 vols. (Cairo: al-Maktaba al-'Ilmiyya, 1962),
I, pp. 31, 50.
23
Nizam al-Mulk, the great Seljuk vizier, founded in Isfahan a madrasa,
which was named after him Nizamiyya like its more famous namesake in Bagh-
dad; see George Makdisi, "Muslim Institutions of Learning in Eleventh Century
Baghdad," Bulletin oj the School of Oriental and African Studies, 24 (1961), 44.
seventeen years old. 24 H a v i n g achieved a certain proficiency

in Hadith, A b u al-Najib studied jurisprudence ( f i q h ) in the
Ni?amiyya u n d e r As'ad al-Mihani. These studies must have
been between 507 and 513 A.H.25 H e completed Mihani's
course in fiqh. I n Baghdad, A b u al-Najib also learned Arabic
g r a m m a r a n d belles-lettres (adab) f r o m al-Fasihi. 26
W h e n A b u al-Najib was about twenty-five, he left his
academic pursuits to lead a life of solitude and wandering.
H e subsequently returned to Isfahan to join the company of
A h m a d al-Ghazali, who became his mentor in Sufism. 27 H e
ranked there as an esteemed and trustworthy disciple of
Ghazali. T h e r e is an account of an instance in which A b u
al-Najib was entrusted by Ghazali to instruct a new postu-
lant. 28 A b u al-Najib eventually returned to Baghdad, where
he also became a disciple of H a m m a d al-Dabbas (d. 525), 29
24
The date 507 A.H. is given by D h a h a b i . T h e other sources do not give the
year of his arrival in Baghdad; Subkl says only that he c a m e to Baghdad as a
young m a n . However, the date of 507 for his arrival in Baghdad fits well with
other d a t a : I b n N a b h a n , from w h o m Abu al-Najib learned Hadith, died in
Baghdad in Shawwal in 511; we are also told that for a whole year before his
death h e was ill and unconscious.
26
As'ad al-Mihani (d. 523 A.H.) was thrice appointed to teach fiqh in the
Nizamiyya madrasa (see Makdisi, " M u s l i m Institutions," pp. 41-43). T h e first
time he taught was from 507 to 513. T h e second time he was appointed was in
517. This was a time of disturbance in the Nizamiyya, a n d it is not clear for how
long, if at all, M i h a n i actually taught there. His third appointment was sometime
between 521 a n d 523. Since Abu al-Najib withdrew from his academic activities
before 520 to become a disciple of A h m a d al-Ghazali, it must be concluded that
he studied with M i h a n i in the period of the latter's first appointment (507-513).
26
Abu al-Hasan 'All b. M u h a m m a d al-Fasihi h a d taught g r a m m a r in the
Nizamiyya for some time, but he was accused of Shi'ite leaning a n d was dis-
missed. H e died in 516. See Yaqut, Mujam al-UdabS, 20 vols, in 10 (Cairo:
D a r al M a ' m u n , 1936-1938), X V , 66.
27
Ahmad al-Ghazali died in 520 A.H., hence the events mentioned here must
have occurred before this year.
28
See Abu Hafs Suhrawardi, 'Awdnjal-Ma'dnj(Beirut: D a r al-Kitab al-'Arabi,
1966), p. 68.
" H a m m a d al-Dabbas was also the shaykh of 'Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani, the
other great Sufi authority in Baghdad, who was t h e contemporary of Abu
al-Najib.
Introduction 13
who was a Sufi shaykh quite different f r o m A h m a d al-Ghazali

a n d f r o m A b u al-Najib himself in that he was not one of the
'ulama' class a n d was even said to have been illiterate. For a
n u m b e r of years, he preferred to live a solitary life of asceticism
a n d self-mortification, earning his living as a water-carrier.
After some years of solitude, he began to p r e a c h Sufism a n d
to hold dhikr assemblies, attracting m a n y followers and
novices. 30 H e founded a convent (ribat) on the western b a n k
of the Tigris, on the site of a ruin in which he h a d lived, a n d
near the ribat he built a madrasa. H e achieved renown both
as an authority in fiqhzl and as a Sufi shaykh. Persons escaping
f r o m the w r a t h of the Sultan or the Caliph sought a n d found
refuge in his convent. According to one source, a n u m b e r of
convents were built in Baghdad for his disciples.
O n 27 M u h a r r a m 545 a.h., A b u al-Najib was appointed
to teach fiqh in the Nizamiyya. 3 2 This was the most prestigious
academic position a Shafi'ite scholar could reach. H e was
dismissed f r o m this office in the m o n t h of R a j a b 547, a n d
his removal should be seen within the context of the contem-
porary political scene: the contest for power in Baghdad
between the Caliph a n d the Seljuq Sultan or his representa-
tive, the shihna. T h e Ni?amiyya was, so to speak, a Seljuqid
institution; its founder, Ni?am al-Mulk, had stipulated that
the a p p o i n t m e n t of the professors of fiqh should be a preroga-
tive of him a n d of his successors. 33 T h e Caliph a l - M u q t a f l
30
Section 40 of Abu al-Najlb's Kitab Adab al-Muridin teaches that when the
Sufi has attained to a high level of Sufi truth, he may return to society and
become active in it; at such a stage, his mingling with other people would not
have an adverse effect on him. This section perhaps reflects the author's own
experience.
"Ibn al-Jawzi, Muntazam, X, 68, records that in 531 A.H. Abu al-Najib gave
public lectures on fiqh which were attended by jurists and Qadis.
32
The date of the appointment is given by Ibn Khallikan and Ibn al-Jawzi,
Munta$am, X , 142.
33
See Asad Talas, VEnseignement chez les Arabes: La Madrasa Nizamiyya et son
histoire (Paris: P. Geuthner, 1939) pp. 34-35; Makdisi, "Muslim Institutions,''
pp. 46, 50, 55.
also tried to exercise some authority over the affairs of the

Ni?amiyya. Formally he could exercise such authority by
refusing to give a new professor o f f i q h permission to begin his
teaching. I n his efforts to regain actual power in Baghdad
at the expense of the Seljuqid military c o m m a n d e r (shihna),
the Caliph a l - M u q t a f i was aided by his talented a n d energetic
vizier, the H a n b a l i t e I b n Hubayra. 3 4 I t m a y be gathered that
thz juqaha' (fiqh scholars) of the Ni?amiyya were opposed to
the Caliph's attempts to control the institution. Although
A b u al-Najib h a d received the Caliph's consent to assume
his office at the Ni?amiyya, he did not have the Caliph's
favor and h a d to rely on the protection of the shihna. W h e n the
Sultan M a s ' u d died, the Caliph succeeded in regaining com-
plete power in Baghdad, a n d the shihna ( M a s ' u d Bilal) h a d
to flee f r o m the city. T h e Caliph then dismissed A b u al-Najib
f r o m his office a n d appointed to it a m a n of his choice.
I n his account of the year 547 A.H., I b n al-Jawzi records
some of the events related to A b u al-Najlb's dismissal. Some
functionaries of the Caliph's administration came to the
Ni?amiyya to take possession of the estate of a certain de-
ceased person. (These were special officials whose function
was to appropriate for the treasury the estates of deceased
persons who h a d no inheritors.) Some juqaha1 prevented t h e m
f r o m carrying out their task and, in turn, appropriated the
possessions for themselves. As a result, two juqaha were
arrested a n d imprisoned as thieves, by order of the Caliph's
court. Consequently, the juqaha' of the Ni?amiyya declared
a strike and publicly demonstrated and protested against the
Caliph's administration. T h e next day, A b u al-Najib apolo-
gized to the Caliph, but, nonetheless, the Caliph suspended
h i m f r o m his teaching. However, u n d e r the protection of the
34
See EP, s.v. " I b n Hubayra"; on the contest of power between Muqtafi and
the Sultan, see A. H. Siddiqi, Caliphate and Sultanate (Karachi: Jamiyat-ul-Falah,
1963), pp. 184-185.
Introduction 15
shihna, Abu al-Najib resumed his teaching in the Ni?amiyya,

in defiance of the Caliph. A few days later, when the shihna
fled from Baghdad, Abu al-Najib was finally dismissed.35
It may be assumed that both before and after his appoint-
ment at the Ni?amiyya, Abu al-Najib taught fiqh and Hadith
in his own madrasa,36 H e was considered an authoritative
mufti. In addition to teaching fiqh and Hadith, Abu al-Najib
was, of course, engaged in teaching the Sufi doctrine. Accord-
ing to a manuscript note, he had already taught his Kitab
Adah al-Murldin by 550 A.H.37 We learn from a note on a
manuscript of Sarraj's Kitab al-Luma' that in 553 Abu al-Najib
conducted a course using this book as text. 38
In 557 A.H., Abu al-Najib left Baghdad, intending to go on
pilgrimage to Jerusalem, but he was unable to continue his
journey beyond Damascus because the two-year armistice
between Nur al-Din Zenki and Baldwin had expired. 39 Nur
al-Din Zenki received Abu al-Najib with great honor in
Damascus, where, according to one source, he arrived in 558.
During his stay in Damascus, he taught Hadith and held
assemblies of dhikr and exhortation. After a short period he
returned to Baghdad.
H e died on Friday, 17 J u m a d a II, 563 A.H. (29 March,
36
See Ibn al-Jawzi, Muntazam, X, 146-147, and cf. Ibn al-Athir, X I , 161-162.
Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi (d. 654-1256), Mir'at al-âman, p. 129, relates that after the
death of Sultan Mas'ud, the Caliph arrested a number of people who had been
publicly deprecating the rights of the Caliph; he mentions two persons by name,
one of whom is Abu al-Najib. We are also told by Ibn al-Jawzi that in the same
week of Abu al-Najib's dismissal, one of his disciples was accused of Shi'ite
leaning and was imprisoned and punished.
36
The sources list a number of persons who transmitted Hadith on his authority,
among them the famous traditionists Sam'anI and Ibn 'Asakir.
"See the description of MS. 'Ayn2, "The Description of the Manuscripts,''
appended to my Arabic edition of Kitab Adab al-Muridtn (forthcoming).
38
Sarraj, Kitab al-Luma' ji al-Tasawwuf, ed. R. A. Nicholson (Leiden: E. J.
Brill, and London: Luzac & Co., 1914), p. xxxix.
39
See K. M. Setton and M. W. Baldwin, eds., A History of the Crusades (Phila-
delphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1958), I, 523.
16 A Sufi RulefiorNovices
1168 A.D.) at the time of the evening prayer a n d was buried

the next m o r n i n g in his convent in Baghdad.
A b û al-Najïb was not a prolific writer. I n addition to Kitäb
Ädäb al-Murïdïn, Brockelmann mentions only one book by him,
Ghanb al-Masäbih, which was a c o m m e n t a r y on Masâbïh al-
Sunna, the popular H a d ï t h collection of A b ü M u h a m m a d
al-Husayn al-Baghawï. 40 D h a h a b ï (quoting I b n al-Najjär)
says t h a t A b ü al-Najïb wrote books, b u t he does not mention
any titles. 41 I t is quite curious that none of the above-quoted
historical sources mentions Kitäb Ädäb al-Murïdïn\ the book
apparently became widely known only with the spread of the
S u h r a w a r d i order after the d e a t h of the author. 4 2 A b ü al-Najïb
was famous not for his writings b u t for his activities as a teacher,
exhorter, a n d the founder of a convent; the composition of
Kitäb Ädäb al-Murïdïn was, in a way, an extension of these
activities.
Kitäb Ädäb al-Murïdïn—A Sufi Rule

Kitäb Ädäb al-Murïdïn is unique among Sufi compositions
known today in that Sufism in its entirety is viewed here f r o m
the standpoint of ädäb (rules of conduct). 4 3 However, a full
exposition of Sufi mystical theory is not included in it. O n e
reason for this omission m a y lie in the fact that the system of
« S e e GAL Supp., I, 620.

4l
Subkï and Yäfi'i make a similar statement (probably also derived from Ibn
al-Najjär). Brockelmann mentions another composition ascribed to Abü al-
Najïb, Sharif al-Asmä' al-Husnä, but this is considered to be a pseudepigraph. He
was also mentioned as the author of a collection of biographies which has been
lost; see George Makdisi, Ibn 'Agit et la résurgence de VIslam traditionaliste au XI'
siècle (Damascus: Institut Français de Damas, 1963), p. 50.
42
The later Sufi writer J ä m i (d. 8 1 7 / 1 4 9 2 ) mentions this book and quotes a
long paragraph from it: almost all of sec. 16 of m y Arabic edition; (Jämi,
Najahät al-Uns [Teheran, 1336/1957], p. 417).
43
See F. Meier, "Ein Knigge für Sufi's," Revista degli Studi Orientali, 32 (1957),
489.
Introduction 17
stations a n d states (maqamat and ahwal) h a d already been

explained by famous Sufi authors in the two centuries pre-
ceding A b u al-Najib. 4 4 A more important reason is that the
mystical theory and, in particular, the m a t t e r of mystical
states {ahwal) constituted the inner aspect of Sufism, whereas
novices, for w h o m the book was primarily intended, were
expected to become versed in the external aspect as a first
step. 45 This is presumably why, except for a brief summary on
the stations a n d states, 46 A b u al-Najib deals with the stations
only insofar as the m a t t e r was required for novices.
T h e book is characterized by a realistic approach to social
necessities and to the moral capabilities of h u m a n nature.
A b u al-Najib believed that the Sufi's sphere of activity is
within society. 47 H e preached that it is better to compromise
some of the ideal principles in order to help others in society
t h a n to preserve p u r e principles by isolating oneself f r o m
society a n d caring only for one's own salvation. 48 Therefore,
A b u al-Najib presents an ethical doctrine that is applicable to
social reality. T h e fourth p a r t of the book, in particular, is
designed to deal realistically with various common practices
which did not conform to the strict rules of conduct required
by Sufi theory. For this purpose, the author makes use of the
traditional concept of rukhsa ( " a n ethical dispensation" or
" a relaxation of the strict rule") which he applies, however, in
a rather new way. 49
I n the concluding chapter of his book, the author says that
the category of rukhas is the lowest level of attainment in Sufism
"Esp., Sarraj, KalabadhI, Makki, and Qushayri.

45
See sections 39-41 below.
"Sections 49-50 below.
4,
See section 76 below.
48
49
The opposite of rukhsa (pi. rukhas) is 'azima (meaning "the strict require-
ment"); see Massignon, Passion, II, 709, n.l.
and that it is especially intended for people whom he desig-

nates by the term "simulators" (mutashabbihun) that is, people
who try to resemble the Sufis. According to Abu al-Najib, this
term is not derogatory, for he holds that these simulators are
truly associated with Sufism. To support this opinion, Abu
al-Najib quotes the saying of the Prophet, "Whoever makes an
effort to resemble a group of people is one of them."
Whereas earlier Sufis used the term mutashabbihun pejora-
tively to signify "those who falsely pretend to be Sufis," 50 Abu
al-Najib uses it to designate the "lay members" of the Sufi
brotherhood. 51 We learn more about the attitude of Abu al-
Najib toward the lay members through his nephew Abu
Hafs al-Suhrawardi, who devotes a special chapter in his
'Awarif al-Maarif to the question of the mutashabbihun and
quotes therein his uncle. In this chapter, Abu al-Najib is
reported to have cited the following Hadith with regard to the
mutashabbihun: " M a n is [associated] with him whom he loves."
H e goes on to explain that the mutashabbihun choose to resemble
the Sufis because of their love for them and that, although they
do not undertake to fulfil all the obligations incumbent upon
the regular Sufis, they are one with them through their aspira-
tion.52 By stressing that it is by virtue of their aspiration
(irada) that the lay members are attached to Sufism, Abu
al-Najib seems to suggest that in this respect they are similar
to regular novices—muridun, a term which literally means
"aspirants." H e states that the mutashabbihun are characterized
by their love (mahabba) for Sufism; indeed, in some instances
60
See Sarraj, p. 2, 1. 18, and p. 3, 1. 15; notice also the derogatory connotation
of the term in a saying of Sahl al-Tustari, sec. 47 below.
51
Since the thirteenth century, this kind of affiliation to Sufism has become
the most common form of religious association in Islam. See Hamilton A. R.
Gibb and Harold Bowen, Islamic Society and the West, vol. I, pt. II (London:
Oxford University Press, 1957), p. 185; and also Gibb, Studies on the Civilization
of Islam, ed. Stanford J. Shaw and William R. Polk (Boston: Beacon Press,
1962), p. 29; Gibb, Mohammedanism, pp. 152-153.
62
See Abu Haf§ Suhrawardl, 'Awarif, p. 65.
Introduction 19
the lay members are referred to as muhibbun "those who are

possessed with love." 83
Although the affiliation of lay members to Sufism was a
phenomenon both very common and of great consequence to
the Sufi orders, this subject is hardly discussed in the Sufi
manuals. Abu al-Najlb seems to have been the first Sufi author
to deal explicitly with this form of association with Sufism and
to propose a doctrine of Sufi ethics that would accommodate it.
T o this effect, Abu al-Najib uses, as was noted above, the
concept of rukhsa. In the Hadith literature, the term rukhsa is
applied to deviations from the strict rule in matters of ritual,
such as fasting or prayer, which are allowed in such special
circumstances as during illness or long trips.54 T h e term
rukhsa is used in this way with regard to matters of ritual in
Ghazali's Ihya! and in JTlani's Ghunya. Ghazali also applied the
term rukhsa to the relaxation, under the pressure of circum-
stances, of certain ethical requirements. 65 Some Sufi writers
utilized the concept of rukhsa to justify the admission of specific
Sufi practices, such as the Sufi audition (sama) and the
mystical dance, which did not constitute part of the estab-
lished custom (sunna) of Islam. 66
Notwithstanding such applications of the term rukhsa as an
acceptable category in law and ethics, in the Sufi sources
there are expressions of objection to rukhas and condemnation
of those who practice them. It seems that certain Sufis or
would-be Sufis availed themselves of the concept of rukhsa and
applied it in a rather arbitrary way. Some leading Sufis were
therefore moved to voice their opposition to such a practice
63
See section 151 below and cf. section 109; cf. also the opinion of Ahmad
al-Ghazali on this matter in James Robson, ed. and trans., Tracts on Listening to
Music (London: Royal Asiatic Society, 1938), p. 126.
H
A. J. Wensinck et al., Concordance et indices de la tradition musulmane (Leiden:
Brill, 1936-), s.v. "rukhsa" and "rakhkhasa."
65
For instance, he permits, by way of rukhsa, visiting an impious Sultan in an
attempt to prevent some act of injustice.
M
Cf. Massignon, Passion, II, 779.
and thereby to safeguard the orthodoxy of Sufism a n d its

moral reputation. Characterizing the Sufis, Sarraj says, " I t
is not their way to practice rukhas or to seek [esoteric] inter-
pretations (tcfwildt)} 7
I n a sentence which is clearly derived from the above-cited
passage of Sarraj, A b u al-Najib says of the Sufis, " I t is not their
way to seek [esoteric] interpretations," 5 8 omitting the phrase
about rukhas. This omission is deliberate and significant for, as
we have seen, A b u al-Najib m a d e the rukhas an integral p a r t
of his system of ethics, albeit its lowest level.
T h e rukhas of A b u al-Najib are intended primarily to m a k e
allowance for practices which deviate f r o m the Sufi ethical
ideal. 59 Even though the author designates the rukhas as suit-
able only for lay members, 6 0 it seems that most of these "relaxa-
tions of the strict rule" reflect customs and practices which
were common among regular Sufis as well. 61 According to
A b u al-Najib, the rukhas m a y be used only u n d e r the con-
straint of necessity, and he defines for each rukhsa the conditions
which would justify its application. In this m a n n e r , A b u al-
N a j i b attempts to preserve ideal principles, while presenting a
doctrine of practical ethics.
T h e great importance which the author himself attached
to his doctrine of rukhas is quite evident; it is further under-
lined by the fact that the chapter on rukhas contains forty such
items, forty being a favorite n u m b e r with A r a b authors. I t
should be noted that although Kitab Adab al-Mundln is intended
57
Sarraj, p. 10, 1. 14. By ta'wilat he means interpretations intended to justify
their deviating opinions or practices.
''Section 36 below.
59
Abu al-Najib's rukhas are not intended to justify Sufi practices which deviate
from the non-Sufi orthodox custom. It is significant that Sufi sama', justified by
earlier Sufi authors as a rukhsa (cf. above n. 56), is included by him among the
standard rules, not among the rukhas.
"Section 207 below.
61
The first two rukhas are proposed to answer the particular problems of lay
members (sees. 167, 168 below).
Introduction 21
primarily for novices, it presents, in fact, an ethical doctrine

for Sufis in general.
M . J . Kister has demonstrated that a good p a r t of the liter-
ary materials of the Sufi adab literature was derived f r o m the
early adab.62 However, the secular elements still contained in
the former were submerged by the H a d l t h material, because
the Prophet h a d come to be regarded by pious Muslims as the
model for right behavior in every respect. 63
T h e r e are notable relations between various parts of Kitab
Adab al-Muridin and earlier Sufi works. T h e statement of the
creed (sections 3-15) has close verbal similarity to the parallel
articles of the creed in K a l a b a d h i ' s Ta'arruf. A b u al-Najlb's
creed is considerably more concise t h a n that of KalabadhI,
and the two creeds differ somewhat in the order of the articles.
M o r e significant is the difference arising f r o m the fact t h a t
the two authors belonged to different schools of theology;
A b u al-Najib was an Ash'arite, whereas K a l a b a d h I was a
Hanafite and, as was the custom of this school, accepted the
formulation of d o g m a according to Maturidl. 6 4 This difference
is manifested, for instance, in their attitude toward the use
of the "conditional expression" (istithna') in the declaration
" I a m really a Believer if Allah will i t " (section 14); A b u
al-Najib, in accordance with the Ash'arite dogma, approves
of the use of istithna1, whereas KalabadhI, following the H a n a -
fite-Maturidite doctrine, does not include such an article. 65
62
See Sulami, Kitab Adab al-Suhba, ed. M . J . Kister (Jerusalem: Israel Oriental
Society, 1954), English introduction, pp. 6 - 7 , and cf. the numerous parallels
adduced by Kister in his apparatus.
M
See Meier, "Ein Knigge fur Sufi's," pp. 489-^90.
"See A. J. Arberry, trans., The Doctrine of the Sufis (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1935), p. xi.
®On this point of difference between the schools of Ash'ari and Maturidl,
see A. J. Wensinck, The Muslim Creed (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1932), pp. 138-139, and Shaykh-Zadeh, Nazm al-Fara'id wa-Jam' al-
Fawa'id (Cairo, n.d.), pp. 64—65. See other such points of difference in sections
11 and 19 below.
It appears that Abu al-Najib did not hesitate to draw upon

the statement of the creed in Kalabadhi's Ta'arruj, even
though its author belonged to a different school, as long as
the formulations were in agreement with the doctrine of his
own school; but in matters which were subject to dispute
between the school of Ash'ari and the school of Maturidi,
Abu al-Najib was, of course, loyal to the Ash'arite doctrine.
When Kitab Adab al-Mundin is compared with Ghazali's
Ihya\ it will be discovered that most of the ethical rules con-
tained in parts I I I and I V cf the former book may be found
in one form or another in the Ihya' (particularly in the Rub'
al-Adat). I n the same way, similarities may be found between
Kitab Adab al-Muridin and Jilani's Ghunya and Makki's Qui
al-Qulub. However, since these rules and customs were the
common stock of Muslim writers, the similarities should not
suggest that Abu al-Najib depends literarily on any of the
above-mentioned books in particular. Most of the Sufi anec-
dotes and sayings in the book are also found in Qushayri's
Risala or Sulaml's Tabaqat. These materials, by their very
nature, belong to the Sufi common stock. So here again the
occurrence of similarities cannot in itself prove literary de-
pendence, although it may be assumed that Abu al-Najib
was indeed familiar with both the Risala and Sulami's
Tabaqat.
Abu al-Najib's chapter on companionship (sections 76-102)
appears to be related to Sulami's Adab al-Suhba. Here there
is similarity not merely in individual sayings and rules but
also in the organization of the material. T h e numerous
parallels between Abu al-Najib's book and Sulami's Jawami'
Adab al-Sufiyya and his lUyub al-Nafs seem to indicate that
Abu al-Najib was familiar with these works and drew upon
them.
Kitab Adab al-Muridln is closely related to Kitab al-Luma' of
Sarraj. T h e similarities between these two works appear not
Introduction 23
only in what has been termed "the Sufi common stock"

(anecdotes and sayings) but also in other points. 66 As there
is evidence that Abu al-Najib taught Kitab al-Luma ,67 one
may safely conclude that the similarities between this book
and Kitab Adab al-Murldin are due to the direct influence of
Sarraj's book on Abu al-Najib.
Most of the Hadlths quoted in Kitab Adab al-Muridin can
be found in the various known Hadlth collections or biog-
raphies of the Prophet; I have not made note of such parallels.
However, it is of some interest to point out, in the apparatus
of my Arabic text, the parallels found in Baghawi's Hadith
collection, Masabih al-Sunna, on which Abu al-Najib had
written a commentary.
Kitab Adab al-Muridin is a book steeped in the Sufi literary
tradition and containing materials from various sources;
however, all the variegated elements were recast by the author
in his own mold.
T h e language of the author is clear and simple, unmarred

by affected rhymed prose. 68 In his statement of the creed, the
author does not use dialectic-scholastic argumentation. In
quoting Hadlths and Sufi sayings, Abu al-Najib does not
adduce the chain of authorities (isnad) but gives only the
name of the earliest authority or, quite often, introduces
the saying simply by "it is said" or "one of them said."
Some elements of older adab literature—quite secular in
origin—are also included in the book. In this respect it
resembles and continues the tradition of Sulami's Adab al-Suhba
which, in the words of its editor, "forms a link between the
66
Note esp. the parallels in sections 34—38, indicated in my edition of the
Arabic text.
"See p. 15 above and n. 38.
68
Abu al-Najib was known for his avoidance of the use of rhyming (tasji') in
his preaching.
24 A Sufi Rule Jor Novices
Adab and Sufi literature." 69 In Abu al-Najïb's composition,

however, the older adab elements are fully blended in the
Islamic-Sufi mold.
These literary and stylistic features make the book easy
to read, which accords with its purpose—to serve as a popular
manual.
The popularity of Kitâb Âdàb al-Murïdïn appears to have

been considerable. The large number of extant manuscripts—
we presently know of thirty-five—may be taken as one measure
of its popularity. The dates of the manuscripts (from the
seventh to the eleventh century A.H.) reflect a continued in-
terest in this book down through the centuries. Copies of the
book are found in various places from India to Tunisia; the
manuscripts were transcribed in such cities as Medina,
Damascus, Jerusalem, and Cairo.70 A Persian translation of
almost the entire Kitâb Âdâb al-Muridïn is incorporated in
t h e Persian m a n u a l of Sufism, Awràd al-Ahbâb wa-Fusûs al-Àdâb
of Abu al-Mafâkhir Yahyà Bâkharzï (d. 736 A.H.).71 A com-
mentary on the book was composed by 'All b. Sultan Mu-
hammad al-Qari' al-Harawi (d. 1014/1605) ;72 a Persian
paraphrase was written by Muhammad b. Yunus al-Husaynî
Gisûderâz (d. 825/1422). 73
Some passages of the book are included in Abu Hafs
al-Suhrawardï's 'Awârij al-Ma ànj. The book seems also to
have been a source for the Âdàb al-Muridïn of Najm al-Dïn al
Kubrâ (d. 618/1221). 74
69
Cf. Sulamï, Âdàb al-Suhba, Eng. intro., pp. 6 - 7 .
™See "The Description of the Manuscripts" in my edition of the Arabic text.
"It should be noted that Bàkharzï's Sufi lineage goes back to Abu al-Najib
al-Suhrawardi; see Bâkharzï, Awràd al-Ahbàb wa-Fusus al-Adâb (Teheran: Pub-
lications de l'Université Téhéran, 1966), "Introduction," pp. 27-28.
,2
See Brockelmann, GAL, II, 394, and H. Ritter, "Philologika I X : Die vier
Suhrawardï," Der Islam, 25 (1939), 36.
"See Brockelmann, G AL, II, 394.
"Cf. F. Meier, "Ein Knigge fur Sufi's." Kubrâ's Sufi lineage goes back through
Introduction 25
Kitab Adah al-Murldin is a relatively short composition. In

the manuscripts it is divided into twenty-six chapters (fusul) of
unequal length, each discussing some particular problem. 75
T h e book contains four major parts, although it is not formally
divided in such a way. T h e four parts are: I, a statement of
fundamental beliefs; II, Sufism as one of the religious sciences;
I I I , Sufi ethics; and IV, special dispensations. For purposes of
reference and textual analysis a more detailed division is
necessary and I have therefore divided the text into 208
sections.
Section 1 is the conventional blessing on the Prophet and
his family.
Section 2 is a brief introduction concerning the purpose of
the book.
Part I. Sections 3-15 are a statement of the Islamic creed.
Sections 16-32 expound the fundamental Sufi beliefs on pov-
erty, miracles, and Sufi audition ( s a m a ).
Part II. Sections 32-38 define the place of Sufism in relation
to the other religious sciences. Sections 39-44 explain that the
Sufis vary in accomplishment and rank: there are novices
(muridun), Sufis of intermediate rank ( m u t a w a s s i t u n ) , and
"knowers" ( r arifun). Sufism has external and internal aspects,
the internal being clearly a higher stage of attainment (sec-
tion 41). Each Sufi should strive to achieve that stage which is
proper for him: the novice should first become accomplished
in the external part of Sufism, which is generally synonymous
with the adab (ethical conduct). Sections 45^18 praise the
ethical qualities. Sections 49-50 list and define briefly the
his teacher 'Ammar al-Bidlisi to Abu al-Najlb al-Suhrawardi; see Meier, Die
Fawa'ih al-Gamal wa-Fawatih al-Galal des Nagm ad-Din al-Kubra (Wiesbaden:
Franz Steiner Verlag, 1957), p. 19.
75
The chapter (fasl) about ecstatic utterances (at the end of section 57 below)
contains only one sentence. It seems that Abu al-Najib devoted a special fast
to this subject, following the example of Sarraj's book which has a lengthy
chapter on that matter.
Sufi stations and states. Section 51 explains that there are

different ways to attain to the Sufi truth and that in each of
these ways the novice should have a master to guide him.
Sections 52-53 emphasize the value of Him, religious learning.
Part III. Section 54 begins a series of chapters on Sufi rules of
conduct. Sections 54-60 discuss the problem of the transmission
and communication of Sufi knowledge. (The author classifies
this material under the heading: "the ethics of conversation.")
Sections 61-75: rules for the novice at the early stages; 76-102:
the ethics of companionship; 103-104: the rules of visiting and
hospitality; 105-113: the rules of traveling; 114-120: the rules
of dress; 121-130: the rules of eating; 131-133: the rules of
sleep; 135-151: the rules of sama' (Sufi audition), including a
detailed discussion of the custom of throwing off the Sufi
mantle ( k h i r q a ) during the sama' (148-151); 152-154: the rules
of marriage; 155-158: the rules of begging; 159: conduct
during illness; 160-162: conduct on the deathbed; 163-165:
conduct in times of trial.
Part IV. Sections 166-206: the rules of ethical dispensa-
tions; 207: a concluding chapter discussing the various levels
of religious and ethical attainment; 208: the author's closing
prayer.
The grouping of sections outlined above corresponds in
general to the division of chapters by Abu al-Najib.
The division into four parts and short sections is based on
criteria of form as well as contents; in part I, for example,
almost all sections begin with the phrase wa-ajmau 'ala anna
(and they unanimously agree that) or wa-anna (and that). In
part IV, every section begins with the word wa-minha (among
them is).
Rules for the Novice
Kitab Adab al-Muridin
AN ABRIDGED T R A N S L A T I O N
1. A blessing on the Prophet and his family.

2. Everyone who seeks a thing should know its essence and
true nature so that his desire for it may be fulfilled. No one
can properly know the way of the Sufis until he knows their
fundamental beliefs, their rules of conduct (adab)/ and their
technical terms.
Because of the great number of false pretenders, the state
of the true Sufis has been ignored. However, the corruption
of the former should not impugn the upright. 2
' T h e word adab (plural of adab) is rendered in this translation as "ethics"or

"rules of conduct."
It is difficult to convey the exact connotations of these terms for they have
different meanings that are interrelated and partially overlapping. Adab means
rules of conduct and adab (sing.) consequently sometimes means proper conduct.
In a different context, adab or adab can mean belles-lettres. One could perhaps
say that either the singular or the plural form can be rendered approximately as
culture in two senses: ( a ) the contents of a certain culture and ( b ) the literature
intended to transmit this cultural content and to educate. Sections 42 and 43
below offer examples of this interrelationship and overlapping. For further
details on these terms, see Meir, "Ein Knigge fur Sufi's."
T h e need to distinguish between genuine Sufis and those who arrogate this
title to themselves is a recurrent theme in Sufi works; see parallels in my edition
of the Arabic text, sec. 2, a.
27
PART I
3. God (allah) is one, having no partner, no rival, no equal.
H e is described by the terms in which H e described Himself.
H e is not a body nor a substance nor an accident. H e cannot
be encompassed by thought, His reality cannot be truly
expressed, and sight cannot perceive H i m . Everything said
in relation to H i m is only by supposition. W e do not say
" H i s being (kawnuhu)" 3 b u t rather " H i s existence" (wujuduhu),
because not every existent (mawjud) is a [generated] being
{ha?in), b u t every generated being is existent. God is unlike
anything that can be imagined or understood. T h e questions
when? how? where? cannot be asked with regard to God, for
H e existed before time; His essence is concealed f r o m descrip-
tion; a n d H e is beyond place. T h e cause of everything is His
creation, b u t there is no cause to His creation. His essence
(idhat) is not like other essences and His attributes (si/at) are
not like other attributes.
4. All that is mentioned in the Q u r a n a n d the y a d i t h
concerning the Face, the H a n d , the Soul, t h e Hearing, a n d
the Sight of God is affirmed. T h e doctrine of the Sufis con-
cerning " G o d ' s sitting on the t h r o n e " is, in conformity with
the dictum of Malik b. Anas on this matter, that belief in it is
obligatory. Such is also their doctrine on the descent of God.
5. T h e Q u r a n is the uncreated speech of God.
6. T h e possibility of the beatific vision ( r i f y a t allah) in p a r a -
dise by eyesight is affirmed. ( H a d l t h is quoted to prove this.)
7. All the details of eschatology included in the Q u r a n a n d
in the H a d i t h are affirmed. T h e list is as follows: paradise,
hell, the tablet, the pen, the basin, intercession, the sirat
bridge, the balance, the trumpet, the punishment in the tomb,
the interrogation by the angels M u n k a r a n d Nakir, the saving
of some people from hell by intercession, the belief that
paradise and hell will exist forever and that their inhabitants
3
Kawn is the A r a b i c equivalent of the philosophical term "generation."
will be in them forever; however, Muslims who have com-

mitted grave sins will not be in hell forever.
8. God creates the actions of men, just as He creates men
themselves. Also, polytheism and disobedience occur by the
judgment and predestination of God. Prayer is permitted
behind any imam, pious or impious.
9. The office of the Caliph belongs to Quraysh [the tribe
of the Prophet]. Revolt is prohibited even if the ruler is unjust.
10. The hierarchy of excellence: prophets are the most
excellent of mankind, Muhammad is the most excellent of
prophets, then [after the prophets] come Abu Bakr, 'Umar,
'Uthman, and 'All in this order, then the rest of the ten
[Companions] about whom Muhammad testified that they
will enter paradise and all others about whom Muhammad
testified, then [the rest of] the generation of the Prophet, then
the *ulama! who observe the law, then those who are the most
useful to others.
11. There is unanimous agreement that the Messengers are
more excellent than angels,4 but there is variance as to the
order of priority between men and angels.
12. It is a religious duty to seek that which is permitted. 6
Whoever appears to be good should not be suspected with
regard to his property and gain.
13. Compete faith (iman)6 consists of confirmation by the
tongue, belief within the heart, and performance of the basic
duties of Islam ( a l - a r k a n ) . He who does not fulfil the first
4
This is the opinion of Ash'ari's school; see on this question Shaykh-Zadeh,
p. 68, and cf. Kalabadhi, Kitab al-Tarruf li-Madhhab Ahl al-Tasawwuf (Cairo,
1960), pp. 68-69, or its English translation in Arberry, Doctrine of the Sufa, p. 53.
Kalabadhi states that it cannot be determined whether the prophets are superior
to the angels or vice versa.
s
This article is rather typical of Abu al-Najlb's approach to ethics in general.
It differs quite radically from the more ascetic Sufi attitude—to shun even what
is permitted.
6
The word "faith" is used here as an approximate rendering of iman, which
signifies the sum total of attributes that qualify a man as a true Muslim (mu'min).
requirement is an unbeliever (kafir)\ he who does not fulfil

the second is a hypocrite (munafiq); he who abandons practice
is a sinner ( f a s i q ) , and whoever does not follow the custom of
the Prophet is an innovator (mubtadi').
14. It is considered proper to use the conditional expression
(;istithna,') in regard to the declaration of belief.7 Hasan
al-Basri was asked, "Are you truly a mu'min (believer)?" He
answered, "If you ask me about that [attribute] by virtue of
which I may not be slain with impunity by another Muslim,
and what I slaughter is lawfully edible, and I may marry a
Muslim woman—then I am truly a believer. If, however,
you ask me about that [attribute] by virtue of which I may
enter paradise and be saved from hell and gain His pleasure—
then I am truly a believer, if Allah will it." 8 (Quran and
Hadith are quoted in support of the use of istithna'.)
15. It is permitted to occupy oneself in commerce and crafts.
The lowest way of earning one's livelihood is begging.
16. Poverty ( f a q r ) is better than riches. Gabriel advised the
Prophet not to accept the treasures of the earth. (Quotations
from Quran and Hadith are adduced to prove the prefera-
bility of poverty.)
17. Poverty is not identical with Sufism ( t a s a w w u j ) ; rather,
the completion of the former stage is the beginning of the
latter. The Sufi is different from the Malamati, for the Mala-
mati is one who would not demonstrate a good work nor con-
ceal a bad one,9 whereas the Sufi does not concern himself at
all with the opinion that other people have of him.
18. It is preferable not to be occupied with commerce and
'See Introduction above and n. 65.
'Hasan al-Basri is making a distinction here between two aspects of iman\
(a) a formal-legal aspect, which is the condition of membership in the com-
munity of Islam, and (b) a mysterious mode of being which involves the final
bliss. Hasan uses the "conditional expression" with respect to the latter aspect
of iman.
3 The Malamati attempts to demonstrate in this manner that he is free from
ostentation.
Rules JOT the Novice 31
crafts but rather to devote oneself to acts of piety; this rule is

applicable to such people who, having complete trust in God's
providence, are not concerned with worldly matters.
19. They all agree that the acts of men are not the cause of
bliss or damnation, because pleasure and wrath irida and
sukht) are eternal attributes of God which are not changed by
the acts of men. 10 God causes man to act according to His
decree, and men should accept the divine decree with pleasure
(rida).n
20. Fear and hope are both necessary to prevent bad
conduct. 12
21. Observance of the laws is necessary. God may remove
the sense of burden arising from the legal duties from him
whose heart becomes pure 13 but not the obligations themselves,
because the human qualities do not cease in anyone. Some
classes of men are freed in various degrees from human
weaknesses; these are, in declining order: siddiqun (saints),
'arijun (knowers, or Sufis who have achieved the esoteric
knowledge), muridun (novices).
22. Love for the sake of God ( a l - h u b b f i allah) and hate for
the sake of God ( a l - b u g h d fi allah) are among the firmest ties of
the faith.14 It is obligatory, within the limits of capability, to
10
It is noteworthy that in the corresponding chapter in Kalabadhi's Taarruf
there is no such statement concerning God's wrath and pleasure. The Maturidites
did not agree that God's pleasure and wrath cannot be affected by the acts of
man. On this difference between the Ash'arites and the Maturidites, see Shaykh-
Zadeh, pp. 62-63.
"The concept of rida has two aspects: when used in reference to God, it
signifies His benevolence; when used in reference to man, it means acceptance
of and contentment with the divine decree.
12
I.e., fear of punishment and hope for reward in the hereafter.
13
He "whose heart becomes pure" is undoubtedly the Sufi. This phrase seems
to allude to the popular etymology of Sufi from safa, i.e., to be pure (cf. Sarraj,
p. 26, and Eng. abstract, p. 9; cf. also Kalabadhi, p. 21, and its Eng. trans.,
Arberry, Doctrine oj the Sufis, p. 5).
"The expression ji allah used here and elsewhere means that social relations
should be motivated not by worldly considerations but by religious motives.
See the use of this expression in sees. 103, 106 below.
commend the good and forbid evil ( a l - a m r bil-ma'ruj wal-nahy

'an al-munkar).15
23. They all agree in affirming the belief in the miracles of
saints. The difference between the miracles of saints ( k a r a m a t )
and the miracles of prophets ( m u ' j i z a t ) is that the prophet is
required to publish the miracle, whereas the saint should con-
ceal the grace (karama) which God vouchsafed to him, unless
God causes it to be publicly known.
24. They disapprove of disputes on matters of theology and
recommend that one be occupied in legal and ethical matters.
25. They all agree on the permissibility of wearing all
clothes except what is prohibited by the sharVa, namely, what
is made mostly of silk. The Sufis prefer worn clothes and
patched frocks (muraqqa'at), and they choose to wear patched
frocks for a number of reasons.
26. The color preferred by the Prophet was green. The
Prophet also said, "Your best clothes are white." But this
means "your most beautiful clothes and those most suitable for
other people." 16
27. They all agree that it is commendable to recite the
Quran in a beautiful voice or melody, as long as this does not
violate the meaning. 17
28. As for listening (in the course of sama') to poems and
songs [one should apply to it the dictum of the Prophet]:
having been asked about poetry, the Prophet said, " I t is a
kind of speech, some of it is (morally) good and hence com-
15
Sections 20-22 are linked to section 19; in the Arabic text this is evident, since
these sections are syntactically dependent on the introductory phrase of section
19, wa-ajmau, "they all agree." Section 19 presents the dogma that all the acts of
man are predestined by God. This theological dogma may have disruptive
effects on moral attitudes; it is therefore counterbalanced in sections 20-22 by
stressing the psychological attitude (fear-hope) and legal and social obligations.
16
This section is intended to justify the Sufi practice of wearing clothes in
special colors, which was considered by some as a deviation from the custom
(sunna) of the Prophet. See parallels in my edition of the Arabic text.
"This section justifies the Sufi practice of mystical audition (sama').
mendable, some is repugnant and hence reprehensible." Po-

etry should therefore be judged on the basis of its subject
matter and classified as commendable, permissible, disap-
proved, or forbidden. He who has divine knowledge may
listen to such poems as are disapproved of for other people,
because he can distinguish between natural inclination and
reprehensible desire, between divine inspiration and satanic
temptation.
29. (A number of sayings on the subject of sama'.)
30. (People who attend the Sufi audition differ as to
their state (hal) while listening. Some are overcome by fear
(khawf) or grief ( h u z n ) or yearning ( s h a w q ) ; it may cause them
to weep and groan and tear their clothes and become un-
conscious. Others are overcome with hope (raja') and joy
{farah) and delight ( i s t i b s h a r ) , and this may induce them to
rejoice and dance and clap their hands.)
31. The sama' may arouse in the participant a desire lor
the Beloved, and consequently he will jump and turn about,
moved by the spirit (ruh) desiring to ascend back to its
heavenly origin.18 Or this dance may be performed by the
Sufis in order to divert or relieve themselves while in the state
of sama'. The latter practice is not forbidden; however it is
not one of the qualities of those who attain to the "reality."
32. Abu 'Abdallah al-Rudhabari on sama': "The secret
(sirr) of him who is truthful in the sama' consists of three
things: knowledge of God, fulfillment of what is required by
his spiritual state, and concentration of religious ambition
19
(jam' al-himma) ," He stipulates three conditions with regard
to the place where the sama may properly be held. The
listeners may be in three inner states: love, fear, and hope
18
This is an interesting explanation of the mental origin of the mystical dance.
See a similar explanation by Ahmad al-Ghazali in Robson, Tracts on Listening to
Music, p. 159 (and Eng. trans., pp. 99-100).
19
On the significance of himma, see F. Meier, Die Fawa'ih al-Gamal, pp. 233ff.
(mahabba, khawf, raja.'). Movement in the course of sama may

be inspired by three inner states: rapture (tarab), ecstatic
yearning (wajd), and fear. Each of these has three character-
istic symptoms: rapture—dancing, clapping, and joy; ecstatic
yearning—absence of selfhood (ghayba),20 loss of personal will
and consciousness (istilam),21 and screaming; fear—weeping,
slapping oneself, and moaning.
P A R T II
33. With regard to the branches of religion and its or-
dinances, the Sufis agree that one should learn the ordinances
of the sharVa so that praxis ('amal) would be in conformity
with the teachings of the religious-legal science ('ilm).22 They
prefer the school of the traditionist jurists, but they do not
disapprove of divergence among the religious scholars ('ultima')
in matters of specific applications.
34. T h e religious scholars are classified in three groups:
traditionists (ashab al-hadith), jurists (Juqaha1), and Sufi 'ultima?.
T h e traditionists are attached to the external meaning of the
Hadlth; they are the watchmen of religion.
35. T h e juqaha', who have received the knowledge of the
traditionists, are distinguished by their understanding of legal
matters and their ability to make legal inferences. They are
the arbiters of religion and its distinguished authorities.
36. T h e Sufis are in agreement with the two former classes
in their inner modes and their outward behavior. It is not
of the Sufi way to seek [arbitrary] esoteric interpretations
(ta'wilat) nor to follow one's desires.
20
Cf. Hujwirl, Kashf al-Mahjub, trans. R. A. Nicholson (Leiden: E.J. Brill, and
London; Luzac & Co., 1911), p. 248.
21
Cf. ibid., p. 390.
22
The requirement of conformity between practice and theory recurs in the
book in various forms. One should notice in this connection the expression
"the 'ulama' who observe the law," in Arabic: al-ulama' al-amilun, literally, "the
'ulama' who practice [what they teach]" (see sections 10 above and 59 below).
37. The Sufis are distinguished by lofty sciences and noble

states (ahwal), and they discuss the science of mutual relations,
the faults of commission and omission, and the noble stations
{maqamat). (Sufi technical terms signifying the various maqa-
mat and ahwal are enumerated here by way of example.) They
also have concepts which are derived [from the Q u r a n and
the Hadith] and which are beyond the understanding of the
jurists. (Another list of Sufi terms is presented.) So they are
the protectors of religion and its eminent leaders.
38. Whoever has difficulty in understanding one of the
three sciences, namely, Hadith, jurisprudence, and Sufism
should refer his questions to those who are experts in that
particular science. Thus, questions relating to the study of
Hadith should be referred to the traditionists, questions on
matters of law, to the jurists, and questions concerning ethical
scrupulosity and the inner states and stations (ahwal and
maqamat), to the masters of Sufism.
39. The answers to questions about Sufism vary according
to the spiritual station of the enquirer: the novice (murid) is
answered with regard to the external aspect of Sufism, that is,
concerning mutual relations (ethics). The Sufi of the middle
rank (mutawassit) is answered with regard to the inner states
{ahwal), and the knower ( c arif) is answered with regard to
the reality (al-haqiqa). The beginning of Sufism is learning
('ilm), the middle is praxis {'amal), and the end is grace.
40. Sufis a r e of t h r e e r a n k s : murid, mutawassit, a n d muntahin
(he who has arrived at the final stage). The murid is a man of
momentary experience (waqt), the Sufi of the middle rank has
inner spiritual states, and the Sufi of the highest rank is a man
of reposeful breathing. The Sufi of the middle rank (muta-
wassit') is in the process of ascending from one state to the next,
but the consummate Sufi (muntahin) is in a position of stability,
and he is immune to the effects of the changeful states of mind
or harsh circumstances. Zulaykha is presented as an example
of one who has reached the position of stability. Zulaykha,

having attained to the position of stability in her love for
Joseph, was not affected like her friends at the sight of Joseph. 23
This is also attested to by the example of the Prophet, who at
first had practiced solitude but afterwards mingled with
people. Likewise, the "people of the portico," when they had
reached the state of stability, became commanders and ad-
ministrators, and mixing with the people did not damage
their religious position.24
41. This school (Sufism) has external and internal aspects
(lahir and batin). The external aspect is to observe the rule of
ethical behavior in relation to mankind, and the inner aspect
is to launch into the ahwal and maqamat in relation to the
Real One ( a l - h a q q ) .
42. When the Prophet saw a man jesting during prayer
he said, "If his heart were humble, his limbs too would be
submissive." Junayd disapproved of the manners practiced
by Abu Hafs al-Haddad [al-Nisaburi] and termed them,
ironically, princely manners. To this Abu Hafs answered,
"External adab reflects the inner adab." It is said that the
whole of Sufism is adab; each moment ( w a q t ) , 2 ' 0 each state, and
each station has its adab. "Adab is the support of the poor and
the decor of the rich."
43. People are divided into three classes with regard to
adab: people of this world, people of religion, and the choicest
of the people of religion. The adab of the people of this world
consist of knowledge of language and rhetoric, sciences, history,
and poetry.
23
ZuIaykha is the name of the wife of Joseph's Egyptian master, according to
post-Quranic Islamic legends. See EI, s.v. "Yusuf b. Ya'kub."
24
The "people of the portico," a group of pious companions of the Prophet,
were considered by the Sufis as the ideal prototype of Islamic piety; see EI2,
s.v. "Ahl al-Suffa."
25
Waqt in the Sufi technical sense signifies the moment of experience. See
QushayrI, p. 33 and Meier, Die Fawa'ih al-Gamal, p. 48.
T h e adab of the people of religion are, in addition to

religious learning: to discipline oneself, to observe the legal
prohibitions, to abstain from morally dubious things, and to
hasten to do good works.
T h e adab of the choicest of the people of religion consist of
preserving the heart and observing the secret (sirr)26 and being
the same both secretly and outwardly.
44. The novices vary in rank with regard to praxis, those
in the middle position vary with regard to their adab, and the
knowers, with regard to their spiritual ambition (himma). T h e
value of each person is according to his himma. (Some sayings
o n nafs (soul) a n d himma.)
45. T h e most noble characteristics of the Sufis are their
moral qualities. 'A'isha said that the ethical nature of the
Prophet was the Quran. T h e Prophet said, " T h e closest to
me on the day of resurrection will be he who is best with
regard to ethics." He also said, "Bad moral nature is a sign
of ill fortune." A saying of Abu Bakr al-Kattani: "Sufism is
ethical disposition, so whoever is better than you in his ethics
is greater than you in Sufism."
46. (A list of some ethical qualities postulated by the Sufis.)
47. When Sahl b. 'Abdallah [al-Tustari] was asked about
good ethical behavior, he said that its minimal requirements
were to suffer evil with forbearance, to abstain from retribu-
tion, and to have compassion for him who wrongs you. It is
these qualities which are characteristic of the Sufis and not
what is said and committed by the simulators (mutashabbihun);
their perverted claims are denounced. 27
48. Abu Yazid al-Bistami saw a man who had made him-
26
Sirr signifies the loftiest element in the spiritual essence of man; the sirr is
the place of the ultimate mystical experience. See Meier, Die Fawa'ih al-Gamal,
pp. 173ff. and passim.
27
It seems that this denouncement is directed against would-be Malamatls
who, under the guise of purposely incurring censure, actually sought to satisfy
their desires.
self famous for his asceticism (zuhd) spitting mucus in the

direction of the Qibla. Abu Yazid said, " H e cannot be
trusted about a rule of the shari'a, so how can he be trusted
about his claim to sainthood?"
49. The stations (maqamat). Maqam signifies the position of
man in worship before God. The stations are: awakening out
of carelessness, repentance (tawba), returning (inaba), moral
scrupulosity (wara'), examination of the soul (muhasabat al-
nafs), aspiration (irada), renunciation (zuhd),28 poverty (jaqr),
veracity (sidq), and forbearance (tasabbur), which is the last
station of novices. Then come patience (sabr), satisfaction
(rida), total sincerity (ikhlas), trust in God (tawakkul). (Each
of the above stations is defined by one sentence.)
50. The states (ahwal) and their definition. Junayd defined
hal as a form of inspiration which comes down to the heart
but does not stay in it permanently. A list of the states: at-
tentive observation (muraqaba), nearness (qurb), love (mahabba),
hope (rajs'), fear (khawf), diffidence (haya'). The last four are
considered to result from the state of nearness, because, while
in the latter state, some people are overcome by fear and
diffidence and others by love and hope. Then come yearning
(shawq), intimacy (uns), serenity (tuma'mna), certainty (yaqln),
and the experience of vision (mushahada), which is the last of
the states. Then come various forms of divine inspiration:
signs (fawatih),29 appearances of light, and graces, all of which
are ineffable.
51. The ways vary, but the goal is one. The ways vary
because of the variation in the states and stations of those who
follow them. Various possible ways are listed: worship, self-
discipline, solitude and retirement, wandering and being
28
In translating the word zuhd, one should distinguish between zuhd as a
general term, signifying the outlook and practice of early Muslim ascetics, and
Zuhd as one particular station in the system of maqamat. In the former sense it is
translated as "asceticism," in the latter as "renunciation."
" O n the meaning of this term see Meier, Die Fawa'ih al-Gamal, p. 50.
remote from one's home, service to the brethren, self-mortifica-

tion, and engagement in the ahwal, forfeiture of one's social
standing, [recognizing one's] weakness and failure, learning
and inquiry. In any one of these ways one should have an
instructor and guide in order to be protected from perplexity
and temptation.
52. The merit of knowledge ('ilm). (Quran 3:18 is quoted.)
In this verse God mentions the people of 'ilm next to Himself
and the angels. The Prophet said, " ' U l a m a ' are the successors
of prophets." He said, " T h e learned man is superior to the
[unlearned] worshiper as I am superior to the least man
among you." He also said, " M e n are of two kinds: the
learned and those who strive to acquire learning, and the
rest are riffraff." It is also said, " 'Ilm is the root and 'amal—
the branch."
53. The majority of the Sufi masters consider 'ilm to be
superior to both ma'rifa (gnosis) and 'aql (intellect or reason),
because Allah has the attribute of 'ilm and because 'ilm has
dominance over reason and not vice versa. (An argument to
prove the preeminence of 'ilm is drawn from the story of King
Solomon and the hoopoe, and Quran 27:22 is quoted.)
PART I I I
54. Sufi ethics in conversation (muhawara) ,30 Their purpose
in conversation should be to offer advice and guidance and
whatever can benefit other people. The Sufi should speak to
people according to their intellectual capacity. (A saying of
the Prophet on the latter point.) The novice should not speak
on any question unless he is asked about it, and his answer
should be suited to [the understanding of] the interrogator.
(A saying of Junayd on this subject.)
55. The novice should ask only questions pertaining to his
30
Under the heading of this term, Suhrawardi deals with matters concerning
the teaching and discussion of Sufi doctrine.
station. He should not speak about what he has not practiced,

but some say that it is permissible. (A saying of the Prophet
in support of the latter view.) Knowledge should be divulged
only to qualified persons, although another view has it that
it may be divulged to others as well. One should not speak in
front of a more learned man.
56. One should not seek to obtain social standing or worldly
goods through his knowledge. Two traditions of the Prophet
on the above subject. One should strive to practice what he
hears and learns. "Whoever hears something of the Sufi
doctrine ( ' u l u m al-qawm) and practices it, it becomes wisdom
in his heart, and those who listen to him will derive benefit
from it; but whoever hears and does not practice, it is mere
talk which he will forget after a few days." It is said: "If
words come out of the heart they will enter the heart, but if
they come from the tongue they will not pass beyond the ears."
57. The merit of speech and silence on different occasions.
Junayd and Ruwaym disagreed on the question of preaching
Sufism before the uninitiated ( a l - ' a m m a ) ; Junayd asserted that
it was worthwhile whereas Ruwaym argued that it was of no
avail. Junayd rebuked Shibll for pronouncing the word allah
on a certain occasion, and another time he rebuked him for
asking a question.
As for the ecstatic utterances ( s h a t h i y y a t ) quoted from Abu
Yazid [al-Bistami] and others, these were uttered under the
compulsion of hal and the power of intoxication, and so they
should be neither accepted nor rejected.
58. Sahl b. 'Abdallah said, "There are three kinds of 'ilm:
'ilm from God which is the science of law, 'ilm with God which
is the science of Sufi states and 'ilm of God which is the
knowledge of His attributes and qualities." The science of
the inner aspect of religion is derived from the science of the
external aspect.
59. [On 'ilm as compared with 'amal (praxis), 'aql (in-
tellect), and ma'rifa (gnosis).] T h e r e is a saying: " H e w h o

listens with his ears will relate [what he has learned], he
who listens with his heart will preach, and he who practices
w h a t he has learned is guided a n d gives guidance." T h e r e is
another saying: Ilm calls out praxis, b u t if the latter does not
respond, 'ilm will go a w a y . "
'Ilm is conception of the object as it is, intellect is capacity
and talent for perception by which one can distinguish between
true and false, commendable, a n d repugnant. T h e learned
m a n ('alim) should be taken as an example for conduct, and
the knower, the m a n of gnosis, should be a source of guidance.
'Ilm is mediated information, whereas gnosis is experience of
the senses.
60. [Some sayings in praise of intellect.] T h e pious would
not deceive and the intelligent m a n cannot be deceived.
Intellect keeps m a n away from destructive things. W h e n
passion becomes supreme, intellect disappears. You can dis-
tinguish between an intelligent m a n and a stupid m a n by the
following rule: a stupid m a n will believe whatever absurdity
he is told.
If you need the knowledge of a man, you should not examine
his faults.
61. T h e rules concerning the stage of beginning. T h e first
thing that the murid should do after awakening f r o m the state
of carelessness (ghafla) is to go to a Sufi shaykh who will guide
him to the Sufi way and teach him his rights a n d obligations.
62. T h e most appropriate thing for the murid is to choose
only p u r e food, drink, and clothes, for thus he will enhance
his inner state. A saying of the Prophet: " T o seek the permitted
things is an obligation after the [explicit] obligations." O n e
of the Sufis said, " T o seek the permitted things is an obliga-
tion for people in general and to renounce the permitted
things is an obligation of this group [the Sufis] except in case
of compelling necessity."
63. T h e next thing is to fulfil the religious duties which he

has neglected, and to correct wrongs which he did to people.
(A saying of the Prophet on the above point.) For physical
injury [which he caused in the past] he should be punished
by retaliation, and for verbal abuses he should ask forgiveness
from those whom he wronged. H e should then recognize the
lower soul (nafs) and discipline it by exercises, hardship,
fasting, prayers, and vigils.
64. O n repentance (tawba). H e will then be one of the
repenters who merit the love of Allah (Quran 2:222 quoted).
A saying of the Prophet: " T h e repenter is the beloved of God."
T h e repenter is one of those whose evil acts God will change
into good ones; 31 (there follows a Hadith on this point).
Repentance is a religious duty for all Muslims. Failure to
repent of a sin is more serious than committing the sin. There
is time to repent until death or until the locking of the Gate
of Repentance.
65. H e should then adhere to moral scrupulosity (wara)
in all circumstances and he should know that God takes
everything into account.
66. When the murid properly achieves the stations of
repentance and scrupulosity and begins the station of re-
nunciation (zuhd), then comes the time for him to wear the
patched frock (muraqqa'a) if he aspires to it. H e should observe
all necessary observances attached to the wearing of the
muraqqa'a. Wearing the muraqqa'a should not be taken lightly.
T h e wearer of muraqqa'a should have disciplined his soul by
the rules and have tamed it, and he should have passed the
stations. Whoever is not thus qualified should not aspire to
the rank of shaykh or murid.
67. O n self-examination. T h e murid should recognize his
own faults and know how to remove them. H e should control
31
This idea and the following Hadith are in reference to Quran 25:70.
his soul by exertions and by examination of conscience. He

should reveal his inner state to his shaykh and constantly ask
for his instruction and advice.
68. The murld should follow the stations (maqamat) ac-
cording to their order, and he should not move from one
station to another before he has properly accomplished its
rules (adab), for example, he should occupy himself with the
station of zuhd only when he has completed that of wara\ He
should follow this course until the actions reach into the heart.
One of the Sufis said, " I t is nobler to engage in the move-
ments of the heart than to perform outward acts [of worship]."
Hadith: the excellence of Abu Bakr's faith came from some-
thing which was in his heart, not from much prayer and
fasting. When the actions come to take place in the heart, the
limbs will be restful.
69. The novice should be heedful of each moment. He
should be constantly occupied outwardly with supererogatory
devotions and inwardly by aspiration, until inspiration de-
scends upon him.
70. To render service to his brethren is more valuable for
the novice than to be engaged in supererogatory prayers.
'A'isha said that the Prophet had always been busy with
some charitable work. Abu 'Arar al-Zujaji said that he had
not merited the blessing of Junayd by his constant worship
but rather by an act of service, when he cleaned his place.
71. The murid should not leave his shaykh before the eye
of his heart opens. The distinctive mark of the murld is "to
listen and obey." Distinctive symptoms are suggested so as
to recognize falseness on the part of murid, mutawassit, and
'arif. Junayd said: "But for the distinctive marks, everyone
would have claimed to be pursuing the Sufi way."
72. He should know that maqam, hal, or any act of worship
can be accomplished only by sincerity, namely by keeping
it pure from any ostentation (a saying of the Prophet on

this). 32 However, if his acts of worship and ahwal become
publicly known without any ostentatious intention on his part,
then this should give no cause for blame. Sincerity can be
achieved only by recognizing the worthlessness of mankind.
73. T h e murid should strive to watch his lower soul (najs)
attentively and recognize its qualities because it is the najs
that commands evil. T h e Prophet used to seek refuge in G o d
from the najs. (A saying of 'All b. Abi T?a.lib on the need to
watch over the soul constantly.) A b u Bakr al-Warraq describes
the soul as being always ostentatious, in most cases hypo-
critical, and sometimes idolatrous. A saying of al-Wasiti: " T h e
soul is an idol, looking at it with sympathy is idolatry whereas
looking at it with scrutiny is worship." If the soul is excused,
it will follow its caprice ( Q u r a n 41:51 is quoted.) T w o similes
on the misleading appearance of the najs: " I t is like a glowing
coal, it is beautiful in color but it scorches." " I t is like clean,
quiet water hiding the dirt under i t . "
74. Najs (the lower soul) is an opposite to God. Najs makes
the same demands of obedience and admiration on m a n as
does God. It is a "delicate m a t t e r " lodged within this mold
[of the body]. T h e soul is the substratum of blameworthy
qualities. T h e spirit (ruh) is the mine of good and the soul is
the mine of evil. T h e intellect is the army of the spirit, and
success which is granted by Allah is its reinforcement. Capri-
cious desire is the army of the soul, and failure is its rein-
forcement. 33
75. All matters are of three kinds: those whose Tightness is
obvious, so they should be followed; those whose error is
"Ostentation is considered here as tantamount to polytheism, because when

a man performs an act of worship wishing to demonstrate it, he is not doing
it exclusively for the sake of God; rather he is associating others with God.
33 By contrast with success, which is granted by God, failure is conceived as a
state of abandonment, that is, failure to gain God's aid.

obvious, so they should be avoided; those which are dubious,

and so should be left aside until the right course becomes
clear. If you are in doubt as to which of two things is the
best, follow the one which is farthest from your desire. The
murid should strive to exchange the blameworthy qualities
of his soul for the opposite praiseworthy qualities.
76. The ethics ( a d a b ) of companionship ( s u h b a ) . It is
better to sit alone than with an evil companion, and it is
better to sit with a worthy companion than to sit alone. Three
sayings of the Prophet on friendship: " M a n is in the religion
of his friend, therefore you should consider carefully whom
you befriend." " A man who mixes with people and endures
their evil is superior to one who does not mix with people."
"There is no benefit in him who does not befriend others and
is not befriended." Abu Hafs al-Nisaburi on the rules of
companionship among the Sufis: to respect the shaykhs, to
have intimate friendship with their peers, to give advice to
younger people, not to associate with people who are not of
their kind, to act with altruism (ithar), not to accumulate
property, and to extend their help to others.
77. The Sufi should associate with people of his kind and
those from whom he can benefit. " T h e man most worthy of
your company is he who agrees with your religious beliefs
and before whom you are ashamed [for your faults]." He
should not associate with people who are opposed to his
religious affiliation even if they are related to him. (The story
of Noah is cited on this point: God told Noah that his scornful
son is not of his family; Quran 11:45-46.)
He should associate with those in whom he has confidence
as regards their religion and trustworthiness.
78. The Sufi should undertake to serve his brethren and
companions ( k h i d m a t al-ikhwan)u and help them in obtaining
" O n the emphasis on the value of khidma in Sufi ethics, see sections 51 and 70
above.
their sustenance. He should endure their offence and should

not rebuke them unless they transgress the law. He should
recognize the value of every man. Sufyan b. 'Uyayna said:
"Whoever is ignorant of the value of other people is more
ignorant of his own value." He also said: "Only he who has
no value whatsoever belittles the value of other people." He
should correct the faults of his companion and try to guide
him to the right way. The Prophet said: "One believer is the
mirror of the other." 'Umar said: "Blessed be the man who
would indicate my faults to me."
79. His association with each person should be according
to his state and what is appropriate for him: with shaykhs
and seniors—with respect and service; with one's peers—with
cheerfulness, informality, agreement, kindness, and spon-
taneity. (Sayings of Abu al-'Abbas b. 'Ata' and Junayd
approving of informality among friends. A Hadith praising
informality on the part of the Prophet toward Abu Bakr and
'Umar.)
80. He should not flatter his fellows in what is contrary to
the religious requirements. He should acquiesce in the truth;
an example cited: 'Umar accepted the criticism of al-'Abbas
b. 'Abd al-Muttalib.
81. Companionship with the young—with compassion,
guidance, and instruction. He should warn them when nec-
essary. God reproved the Rabbis for not warning their
people (Quran 5:63 quoted).
82. Companionship with the master ( u s t a d h ) is by obedi-
ence, so it is not really companionship but service. Complete
obedience and respect toward the master are required. The
master in the midst of his followers is like the prophet in the
midst of his community. Junayd once answered a question
of one of his disciples and the latter expressed objection to
the answer; Junayd then said, "If you do not believe in my
words, dissociate yourselves from me." 35 He should behave

toward the shaykh like the Companions with the Prophet in
following the ethics of the Quran. (Quran 49:1, 49:2, and
24:63 quoted.)
83. Companionship with one's servant. The Sufi should be
kind to his servant and should not rebuke him. (A Hadïth
from Anas b. Malik about the Prophet's behavior toward him
as his servant.)
84. Association with visitors from other places ( g h u r a b â ' ) 3 6
should be with cheerfulness and good manners and respect,
because they honor him by coming to him.
85. Association with ignorant persons should be with pa-
tience, good manners, and sympathy. He should recognize the
favor of God in not making him like them. Offences by the
ignorant should be answered as the prophets did (Quran
quoted: 7:61, 7:67, 28:55, 45:14 and 3:186).
Sha'bi was once reviled by someone, and Sha'bï replied,
" I f what you say of me is true, may God forgive me, and if it
is false, may God forgive you."
86. Companionship with one's wife and children should be
with compassion. One should instruct them in right conduct.
Commentary of Quran 66:6, "Instruct them and teach them
and thereby protect them from Hell." In particular, one
should behave with his wife according to the rule of God
(Quran 2:229 quoted). One should spend upon his family from
his lawful earnings.
87. Companionship with young men is reprehensible be-
cause of the harms involved in it. Whoever is tried by this
experience should safeguard his heart and body from them
35This is a quotation from Quran 44:21.

3e
Ghartb (sing, of ghurabâ') is a person who is away from his home. One of the
Sufi ways of self-mortification was ightiràb, wandering away from one's home;
see section 51 above.
and should prompt them to undertake exercises of self-

discipline ( r i y a d a t ) and ethical training, and he should avoid
informal behavior with them. 37 The desire of the young to
associate with the old is praiseworthy, but the desire of the
old for the company of the young is a sign of weakness and
stupidity.
88. Companionship with brothers involves agreement in
everything, except what is unlawful, and avoiding malice and
envy.
89. Association with the ruler {sultan): one must obey him
except in disobedience to God or violation of traditional law
(Quran 4:59 quoted). One should pray for the ruler and
avoid slandering him. It is meritorious to visit a just ruler; but
one should stay away from an unjust ruler except in case of
necessity or in order to reprove him. He who has to visit them
should pray for them and exhort them and reprove them
according to his capacity. Some eminent Sufis used to ap-
proach the rulers for the welfare of the people. Ibn 'Ata'
said: " I t is more meritorious to be ostentatious [with regard
to one's piety] in order to gain social esteem and thereby be
able to assist another Muslim than to act in total sincerity38
for the sake of one's own salvation."
90. Association with people in general should be according
to the example of Abu Damdam. He used to say: " O Allah,
I give my life and my honor to you, I forfeit my honor for
your sake; whoever reviles me, I shall not revile him and
whoever wrongs me, I shall not wrong him."
91. Every limb has its own special ethics (Quran 17:36
quoted). Good ethics with regard to God is that none of your
limbs should move for any purpose save for the pleasure of
God.
92. The ethics of the tongue. The tongue should always be
"See section 79 above, where informality is recommended among peers.
"On the question of sincerity versus ostentation, see section 72 above.
busy in reciting God's names (dhikr) and in saying good

things of the brethren, praying for them, and giving them
counsel. He should not say to them things which they dislike.
One should not slander nor talk about things which do not
concern him. The tongue was created as an interpreter for
the heart. Silence is praiseworthy because it is "a cover for
the ignorant and adornment for the intelligent."
93. The ethics of hearing. One should not listen to in-
decencies and slander. One should listen to things which are
religiously beneficial. One should listen attentively to the
speaker.
94. The ethics of sight. One should lower one's eyes in
order not to see forbidden things; one should also avoid
looking at the faults of other people and one's brethren
(Quran 40:19 quoted). Immodest glances bring about severe
retribution (three sayings). Sight should be used to achieve
understanding of God's omnipotence, and it should not be
tainted by the desires of the soul. An immodest glance at any
person violates the rights of God, because all creatures are
His slaves.
95. The ethics of the heart are to observe the exalted states
(ahwal) and to reject base thoughts and to think about God's
favors (Quran 3:191 quoted). Hadlth: "Meditation for one
hour is better than ritual worship for a whole year."
It is of the ethics of the heart to think well of God and of
all Muslims and to purify the heart of rancor, deceitfulness,
disloyalty, envy, and wrong religious beliefs. The Prophet
said: "There is a piece of meat in the body; if it is good, the
whole body is good, and if it is corrupt, the whole body is
corrupt; that is the heart."
96. The ethics of the hands: to give charity and serve the
brethren and not use them in acts of disobedience.
97. The ethics of the legs: not to walk in arrogance and not
to use them in acts of disobedience.
98. The first stage of companionship (suhba) is acquaint-

ance, then friendship, then familiarity, then intimacy, then
companionship, then brotherhood. Suhba is realized only by
inward agreement (Quran 59:14 quoted). Suhba is the loftiest
of all modes. The companions of the Prophet were therefore
designated by the attribute of companionship rather than by
other attributes such as ' i l m or fiqh, which they also deserved.
99. Of the ethics of the Sufis: there should not occur in
their speech "that is mine and that is yours" nor "if this had
been so, that would not have happened" nor "perhaps" nor
"why did you do this?", for these are the manners of the
common people ('awamm). There should not be among them
borrowing, lending, competition, rivalry, and slandering;
rather, each of them should be like son to the older, brother
to the equal, father to the younger, and slave to the master.
100. Of their rules of conduct: when they assemble they
give priority to one of them (chosen for his excellence in
various respects) so that they can rely on his authority.
Priority should be given first according to learning and then
according to seniority (Hadith). The Prophet accorded pri-
ority to the people of Badr (Hadith). Priority is also deserved
by those who have met eminent shaykhs.
The most excellent member in the company of Sufis should
serve his brethren. Khidma (service) is the rank which is next
to the rank of shaykh,39 as the Prophet said: " T h e chief of a
people is their servant."
101. Miscellaneous sayings on companionship. When you
associate with a man, you should pay attention to his intellect
more than to his theological doctrines, because his religion
will benefit him and his intellect will benefit him and you.
You should not befriend a man who is primarily concerned
with worldly goods (Quran 53:29 quoted).
39 Here khidma signifies the position of the khadim (steward), the person who is
in charge of managing the material aspects of a Sufi congregation.

One should not mention other people's faults. When asked

about the meaning of suhba, Abu 'Uthman al-Hiri said that
it consisted of acting with generosity, equity, and kindness
toward one's friend without expecting reciprocation.
Al-Zaqqaq on suhba: "Befriend him who would know of
your secrets like God and yet you can trust him [not to betray
your secrets]."
It is harmful to associate with a man before whom one
has no shame.
(Three miscellaneous sayings on companionship.)
102. Of their ethics: to avoid haughtiness and aggressive
behavior. Abu 'All al-Rudhabari said: " T o act aggressively
against one who is above you is impudence, against one who
is your peer, bad manners, and against him who is below you,
weakness." Conceit is a sign of the degeneration of one's
intelligence.
He who adopts the ethical rules should beware of despising
any Muslim. (Two sayings of the Prophet to this effect.) A
Sufi saying: "You should willingly accept as a brother whom-
soever Allah has accepted in His benevolence as a servant."
103. Rules of conduct in visiting and hospitality. When any
of his brethren visit him, the Sufi should give them whatever
food or drink he has. A saying of the Prophet: "The host
should not despise what he has to present nor should the
guest despise whatever is given him." A saying of the Prophet:
" I t is a noble quality to visit one another for the sake of God
( f t allah)." One should give to the guest what is readily
available even if it is only a drink of water. (The story of
Abraham is quoted as an example of hospitality, Quran 11:69
and 51:27.) When Hasan al-Basri had food to serve, he would
receive the guest in his home; if not, he would go out to meet
him. One should not strive to please a guest in an affected or
ceremonious manner. Abu al-Bakhtari tells about the hos-
pitality of Salman and quotes the latter, saying, "The Prophet
forbade us to behave in an affected, forced manner (takalluj)."

Abu Hafs al-Nisaburi visited Junayd in Baghdad and served
him with great attention and much ado. Junayd disapproved
of this conspicuous behavior; Junayd said, "Futuwwa (chivalry)
is the renunciation of takalluj."
104. Yusuf b. al-Husayn asked Dhu al-Nun, "Whom
should I befriend?" Dhu al-Nun answered, "Him who would
visit you when you are ill and who would return to you [in
forgiveness] when you sin [toward him]."
A saying: "He is not a friend who asks, 'Whither?' when you
say to him 'Come along with us!' "
One should avoid foul language, for it stirs up hatred.
A Sufi saying: "Men are of three kinds: one, like food, is
indispensable; another, like medicine, you may need occasion-
ally; and still another, like disease, you should try to avoid."
One should avoid the company of evil persons. (Four maxims
supporting this view.)
105. Their rules of conduct in travels. Abu Hafs al-Nisaburi
said that the traveler should observe three rules: he should not
prepare food for the trip, he should not plan his way nor try
to estimate it and, finally, he should know that God guards
him.
106. The most worthy purposes for traveling are listed in
order of priority: first, Holy War; then, pilgrimage; then, to
visit the Prophet's tomb. Next in rank is to visit the al-Aqsa
mosque. Next comes traveling in search of learning; then, to
visit shaykhs and brethren. The Prophet said: "God affirms
his love for those who love one another for His sake and who
visit one another for His sake;" here follows another saying
of the Prophet on the merit of visiting for the sake of God).40
Then, to repair past wrongs and to ask forgiveness. Then,
to learn the stories of the past, that they may serve as an
"See section 22 above.

example.41 Then, traveling may be practiced as a way of

self-discipline (to tame the desirous soul) and to achieve
anonymity.
107. The Sufi should not travel for amusement, vanity,
ostentation, or to seek worldly things. Abu Turab al-Nakhshabi
said that nothing is more injurious to the novices than to travel
in the pursuit of their caprice.
He should not travel without the consent and permission of
his parents and his master.
If he travels in company, he should walk at the pace of the
weakest and stop when a friend stops. He should try as much
as possible not to postpone prayer beyond its fixed times.
108. The Sufi should prefer walking to riding except in case
of pressing necessity, because his traveling is for self-discipline
and for the sake of enhancing his religious state. (A saying of
the Prophet on the preference of walking on the pilgrimage
rather than riding.) A pious tradition says: " O n the way to
Mecca the angels embrace those who go on foot, they shake
hands with those who have beasts of burden, and they greet
from far away those who ride in litters."
If the traveler is in a company, he should serve his com-
panions as much as possible.
109. When the Sufi enters a town, he should visit the Sufi
shaykh, if there is one. If not, he should go to the meetingplace
of the Sufis. If there are several such places, he should go first
to the most important of them. He should prefer to stay in a
place that has running water [for ritual washing].
If there is no Sufi brotherhood and no Sufi meetingplace in
town, he should stay with one of the people of the town who
loves the Sufis and inclines to them most.
110. When he enters a convent, he should turn aside and
4 l The stories of the past referred to here are anecdotes and traditions about
Sufi saints. The study of such traditions formed an essential part in the edification
of Sufis; see section 165 below.
take off his shoes beginning with the left in taking off and with
the right in putting on.42 Then he should turn to the washing
place [to perform the ritual washing] and then perform a
prayer of two rak'as (bowings). [Only now is he ready to greet
those who are present.] If there is a shaykh there, he should
turn to him and visit him and kiss his head, but if the guest is a
young man, he should kiss the shaykh's hand.
He should sit a while with the shaykh without talking except
when the latter asks him a question. If the visitor is equal to
the shaykh in religious rank or age, he may talk more freely.
After that, the guest should return to his place and the residents
[of the convent] should come to visit and greet him. However,
in Mecca the guest should visit the residents out of reverence
for the sanctuary.
111. The guest should be served whatever food is available
without formality (takalluf). Nice manners with guests are:
to begin with greeting, then to express respect, then to give
food, and after that, conversation. (Abraham is presented as a
model of proper hospitality; Quran 11:69 is quoted.)
In conversation the Sufi should not ask about worldly
affairs but about the shaykhs and the companions and
brethren.
112. The traveling Sufi should have with him a leather
container or a jug for washing, and the leather container is
preferable. One shaykh, when shaking hands with a traveler,
used to look for the marks of carrying the container in his hand
and fingers, and if he found such marks, he would welcome
him and if not, he would disdain him and reject him. One of
them said: "When you see a Sufi without container or jug, you
should know that he is bound to neglect prayer and to uncover
his nakedness whether he wishes it or not." It is recommended
42
That is, in putting on the slippers or sandals which are to be worn inside the
convent; this rule is made more explicit by Najm al-Din al-Kubrä; see Meier,
"Ein Knigge für Sufi's," pp. 28-29, particularly p. 28, n. 2.
for the traveler to carry with him a stick, a needle, a thread,

scissors, a razor, and so on, because the traveler is aided by
these things in performing the religious duties properly.43
113. When the Sufi wants to travel, it is a matter of proper
behavior that he should go around among his brethren and
notify them of his departure and take leave of them.
It is recommended that those who are of his community
should accompany him to see him off.
On his trip he should strive not to overlook any of the super-
erogatory recitations and especially not to omit the obligatory
prayers.
Abu Ya'qub al-SusI: " T h e traveler must have four things,
and if not he should not travel. These are: religious learning
('ilm) to direct him, scrupulosity to restrain him, moral
character to preserve him, and certitude to carry him."
Ruwaym on the rule of the traveler: "His ambition (himma)
should not precede his step and wherever he stops, there should
he make his station." 44
114. Their rules in dress. The Prophet spoke in praise of
such people who did not care about what they wore. 'Umar
used to shorten the sleeves of his garments. "Whatever the
truthful Sufi wears is nice on him, and he will be elegant and
dignified in it."
115. It is part of their ethics on this matter of clothes to be
satisfied with what they have at any given moment without
affectation or preference [of one garment over another]. The
43 The stick should be used presumably as sutra, that is, when setting about to
pray outside, the traveler should thrust the stick in the ground in front of him.
On this point, see EI, s.v. "sutra" and EP, s.v. '"anaza."
Scissors and razor are required for cutting the fingernails and for shaving the
mustache and the hair of armpits and pudenda. These practices were regarded
as commendable customs (sunna) of cleanliness.
" I n the Sufi usage, the term safar (traveling) could signify actual traveling or
wandering, as well as spiritual progress along the Sufi path of maqamat (cf.
Qushayri, p. 143, 1. 10). Hence, Ruwaym's maxim can also be understood as
referring to the inner progress.
Sufis should be content with clothes which will cover their

nakedness and protect them from the cold and the heat. Such
clothes were not considered as worldly goods by the Prophet. 45
The Sufis do not like to have many clothes, and they give
their surplus in charity. The Prophet said: "There are three
who will enter paradise without accounting: a man who,
when he is washing his garment, has no other one; a man
who has no more than one pot on his fireplace; and a man who,
when he asks for a drink, is not asked, 'What kind of drink do
you want?' " 'A'isha said: "The Prophet never prepared two
of anything."
116. They should endeavor to keep clean and to be ele-
gant. The Prophet said: "Cleanliness is part of the Faith." The
Prophet expressed his displeasure when he saw one of the
delegates wearing a dirty garment. He also said: "God detests
an unclean person." The Sufis object to the wearing of con-
spicuous clothes.
117. They seek to derive baraka (divine blessing) from the
clothes of the shaykhs [by kissing them], (A Hadith is told
about Jarlr b. 'Abdallah al-Bajall who kissed a garment of the
Prophet.)
118. A certain Sufi preferred to wear two sheets like a
consecrated pilgrim (muhrim), but the majority of Sufis dis-
approve of this habit, except for a muhrim or one who is in
Mecca, because it is an ostentatious practice and a display of
superiority over one's peers.
They also disapprove of the wearing of a gown except for
those of the rank of shaykh, because it is part of the shaykh's
distinctive outfit, like the hood, the prayer carpet, and the
cap, while the habit of the novice is the mantle.
119. It is recommended to have only one garment. A story
is related by Jurayri about a Sufi who wore the same garment
both in summer and winter because he had seen in his dream
46 See section 207 below.
that Sufis having only one garment were to be especially

honored in paradise.
120. (Various Sufi sayings are quoted expressing the idea
that the Sufi habit in itself does not reflect the real worth of
the person who wears it.)
121. The ethics and manners of eating. (Quran 7:31 is
quoted.) One should give the poor to eat from what one is
eating. One should say at the beginning of the meal "In the
name of God." If one forgets to say "In the name of God" at
the beginning, he should say this when he remembers. One
should eat from the sides of the bowl and not from the middle
"because the baraka (mana) descends in its middle."
122. One should not be concerned about the provisions
of livelihood nor should one be occupied in seeking, gathering,
and storing them. (Quran 29:60 quoted.) The Prophet did
not store anything for the morrow. One should not talk much
about food because this is gluttony. A saying by Ruwaym on
his being unconcerned with what he ate. In eating one should
intend to satisfy hunger and give one's soul its due but not its
pleasure. The Prophet said: "You owe your soul its due."
Food should be taken like medicine [as an unpleasant neces-
sity]. Gluttony should be avoided. One should not find fault in
any food nor should one praise it. The Prophet said: "Dissolve
your food by reciting God's name (dhikr allah) and by prayer,
and do not go to sleep right after the meal lest your heart
become hardened." God revealed to David that those hearts
which were bound to their desires were screened from Him.
123. The Sufis should not have a set time for eating, they
should not make much ado about it and should not prefer
plenty of food which is unclean over little which is clean
(Quran 18:19 quoted). They should not feed each other nor
should anyone of them say to the other "Eat!" except the
shaykh, who may say so to those below his rank in order to
cheer them up and encourage them to overcome their shyness.
However, the custom of the common people is to bring forth

the food and invite those who are present to eat.
124. Sufis eat only food whose source they know. They
avoid eating the food of unjust and sinful people. A Hadlth:
"The Prophet forbade us to accept an invitation to dinner by
sinful persons." The Sufis refuse to accept the gifts of women
and to eat at their meals.
125. The Sufis do not disapprove of conversation during
the meal.46 More of their rules of conduct in eating: to sit on
the left leg, to use the formula " I n the name of God," to eat
with three fingers, to take small bites and chew well, to lick
the fingers and the bowl. One should not look at the morsel
taken by a friend. When he finishes his eating, he should say:
"Praise be to Allah who has made the provisions of our
livelihood more plentiful than our needs." It is not polite to
dip one's hand in the food because one can get soiled with it,
[one should dip only three fingers].
126. [On eating in company.] A Sufi saying: "Eating with
brethren should be with informality (inbisat); with foreigners,
with nice manners; and with the poor (Juqard,), with altruism."
Junayd said: "Eating together is like being nursed together,
so you should carefully consider the persons with whom you
eat." The Sufis prefer to eat in company. (Three Hadiths on
the merit of eating in company.) When one eats in company,
he should not withdraw from eating as long as the others are
eating, especially if he is the head of the group. When the
Prophet was eating in company, he would be the last one to
finish.
127. One Sufi shaykh was asked what kind of eating was
not harmful, and he answered: "For thirty years now I have
not eaten anything in compliance with my desire."
4,
Abu al-Najib is in agreement on this point with both Hujwiri and Ghazali,
but Najm al-Din al-Kubra has the opposite view; see Meier, "Ein Knigge fur
Sufi's," p. 32, esp. n. 8.
128. [On the merit of fasting.] The Prophet rebuked a

man who burped in his presence, saying: "Those of you who
are the most sated in this world will be the most hungry on
the day of resurrection." Hasan [al-Basri] said: "The tempta-
tion of Adam was in eating, and this is also your temptation
until the day of resurrection." (Some sayings in praise of
hunger are adduced here. A Hadith on the religious merit of
being hungry.) It is the advice of the Prophet to consume the
strength of the lower soul by hunger and thirst. It is repre-
hensible to look at food by way of examination. It is also
blameworthy to waste time in eating. One Sufi used to have
for his breakfast some sips of soup and he used to say, "Time
is too precious to be spent on eating."
129. Most Sufis believe that a Sufi should not return any
of the food which has been presented to him to the person
who serves him; this is especially the rule for a guest, because
a guest is not entitled to dispose freely of the food which is
given him except by eating it. There are different views of
scholars on the question: at what moment precisely does the
guest obtain legal possession of the food which is given him.
Junayd said: " B a r a k a descends upon the Sufis at their meals
because they eat only by way of altruism ( i t h a r ) . "
130. Three obligations of the host and three of the guest.
The host should present only licit food, keep the times of
prayer, and should not withhold from the guest whatever
food he is able to give. The guest should sit where he is told
by the host, be pleased with what is given to him, and should
not leave without asking permission of the host. The Prophet
said: " I t is a commendable custom (sunna) to accompany the
guest to the door of the house."
131. Their ethics in sleep. The Prophet disapproved of
prolonged sleep.
One should not sleep in the company of people who are
sitting. One should not get used to sleeping in a prostrate
position. Whoever tends to snore should get used to sleeping

on his side and not on his back.
132. The Sufi should strive to make his sleep for God or in
God and not away from God. He who sleeps for God is that
person who wants to strengthen himself by his sleep for
the performance of the ritual duties (jara'id) and the super-
erogatory prayers (nawafil). The nawafil are particularly ef-
ficacious in the latter part of the night (a Hadith on this
point). He who sleeps in God is the 'arif (knower) who is
occupied by the remembrance of God and is not overtaken
by sleep or slumber, and he would sleep only when sleep
comes to him not by his own choice. He who sleeps away from
God is the one who is heedless of Him.
133. It is one of their rules to go to sleep in a state of ritual
cleanliness and to lie down on the right side. One should then
say: " I n Your name, O God, I lay down my body and in
Your name I raise it up. O God, if You withhold my soul,
have mercy on it, and if You release it, guard it as You guard
Your upright servants. O God, spare me Your punishment
on the day of Resurrection."
One should remember God whenever one wakes up. It is
preferable to perform the ritual washing and to pray two
rak'as before going to sleep. It is objectionable to sleep after
the morning prayer and after the maghrib (sunset) prayer.
He who wishes to have only a little sleep should not drink
water except to calm his thirst. If you are with a company of
people who go to sleep, you should either do as they do or
leave them.
Siesta is recommended to enable one to stay up during
the night. " T o sleep at the beginning of the day is clumsiness,
at the middle of the day, praiseworthy behavior, and at the
end of the day, stupidity."
(Two accounts of Sufis who did not lie down for thirty
years or more.)
134. Abu Yazid [al-Bistami] once stretched out his leg in

his cell. A heavenly voice announced to him: " H e who sits
in the presence of royalty without good manners (bila adab)
risks being executed."
135. The rules concerning the Sufi audition (sama'). (Quran
5:83, 39:18, 30:15 quoted.) 47 The Prophet said: "God did not
listen to anything as He listened to dhikr recitation by a prophet
who has a nice voice." It is told that the Prophet uttered a cry
when Quran 73:12 was read before him. In another instance,
when Quran 4:41 was recited before him, he wept. A Hadith
is told by 'A'isha, that the Prophet, Abu Bakr, and 'Umar
once listened to the singing of her slave girl.
136. Dhu al-Nun on sama': " I t [sama'] is a truthful inspira-
tion which stirs the heart toward the truth, so he who listens
to it in a truthful manner will realize the truth, while he who
listens to it with [the lust of his] lower soul will become a
heretic." 48 Sari [al-Saqati] mentions three different emotional
responses to sama on the part of different classes of people.
The sama' stirs or reveals that which is in the heart.
137. Sama' is beneficial to him whose heart is alive and
whose lower soul is dead. One of the Sufis said that he had
seen al-Khidr in his dream and al-Khidr said: "Sama' is a
slippery stone on which only the feet of the learned men can
stand firmly."
138. It is one of their rules not to behave in an affected
manner in the sama' and not to have a fixed time for it. They
should not listen for the purpose of enjoying or diverting
"These verses are obviously quoted here to prove that it is lawful to give vent
to one's emotions upon hearing a recitation of the Quran. The two traditions
about the Prophet in this section are also adduced for this purpose.
"Translation hardly gives the full range of meaning suggested by the Arabic.
The key word in this saying is haqq, (truth) which is repeated four times; haqq
also means "what is rightfully yours," and in this sense it is the opposite of
(desire or sensual pleasure) which is connected with the lower soul. Used
with the definite article, al-lfaqq is one of the names of God, the Real One.
themselves. They should listen to such things that will prompt

them to pious actions and will rejuvenate their aspiration.
The Sufis must learn the rules pertaining to samä'. Abü
'Arar b. Nujayd said: " T o make one mistake in sama is worse
than to slander people for years.",
139. It is improper to induce deliberately the state of
ecstasy or to constrain oneself to rise up [to dance],49 except
if one is overcome by ecstasy or in order to help by way of
solidarity a fellow who is in a state of ecstasy.
One may also do this by way of cheering himself without
pretending to be intoxicated or affecting ecstasy, but it is
better to avoid this. (A Hadlth is adduced against showing the
emotions which are stirred by listening.)
140. It is disapproved for young men to rise up at the
presence of shaykhs and show their ecstasy. A young disciple
of Junayd used to get into ecstasy whenever he listened to
samä'. Junayd forbade him to give vent to his ecstatic emo-
tions and the young man controlled himself, but one day he
died in a moment of rapture. There is no dispensation ( r u k h s a )
whatever permitting adolescents to rise up and move [to
dance]50 in samä' sessions, and most shaykhs disapprove al-
together of their being present at samä' sessions.
141. When a moment of real ecstasy occurs, the person who
participates by his own effort51 should not enter the dance,
not even by way of solidarity. (A narrative about Dhü al-Nün
and a Sufi who affected ecstasy.)
To remain quiet, yet keep the heart attentive, is better than
constrained participation in the dance because this is the oc-
49
In theory, dancing was acceptable only as a result of ecstasy but not as an
inducement to it; see on this matter Meier, "Der Derwischtanz, Versuch eines
Überblickes," Asiatische Studien 8 (1954), 127.
50
6l
That is, a person who is not spontaneously stirred by the samä
casion of "stability." To listen attentively is one of the rules

of behavior when in the divine presence (Quran 46:29 and
20:108 quoted).
142. The sama' session should begin and close with recita-
tions from the Quran.
143. It is disapproved for the murid to listen to love poems
and erotic descriptions. Only the knower ('arif) can properly
practice sama'. A saying by Junayd: "If a novice is attracted
to sama', you can know that there is still in him a remainder of
falseness." The sama' is [like the] sir at bridge; it may lead some
to the loftiest heights and throw others to the lowest depths.
The sama' is more suitable for shaykhs than for novices.
144. A person who smiles or amuses himself should not be
present at a sama' session. (A narrative by 'Abdallah b. Khafif
about his master Ahmad b. Yahya as an example.)
145. Each mental faculty enjoys something in the sama'-.
the heart, words of wisdom; the spirit, melody; the lower soul,
the mention of sensual pleasures which suit its nature.
146. Affected behavior in sama' may be of two different
kinds. A person may act in an affected way to gain social
respect or some other worldly benefit, and in this case it is
deceit. On the other hand, a man may act in this way in quest
of "the reality" ( a l - h a q i q a ) , seeking ecstasy ( w a j d ) by means
of artificial ecstasy ( t a w a j u d ) . The relationship between wajd
and tawajud is the same as between "weeping" and "trying to
weep"; the Prophet said: "When you see people suffering,
you should weep, and if you do not weep, then try to weep."
147. [Miscellanea on sama'.\ People who participate in
sama' are of three classes. First there are those who refer, when
they are listening, to what is communicated to them from the
Real One ( a l - h a q q ) . Then there are those who refer, when they
are listening, to what is communicated to them by means of
their states, stations, and moments of experience. The third
class are the poor ( f u q a r a ' ) & 2 who have entirely detached
themselves from worldly things; sama' is suitable for them.
It is said that only one whose state is weak needs the sama'
[to arouse his spirit], but the vigorous one does not need it.
One of the Sufis said: "How low is the state of a person who
needs someone to stir him! Upon my life, a bereaved mother
does not need a mourner."
Sama has a different effect on different types of people.
Sama' is like weapons which can serve good or bad purposes,
or it is like the sun which has a good effect on some things and
a bad effect on others.
53
Sama' is [an experience] on the part of the listener. A
Sufi once heard a peddler announcing, "Yd satar barn/"
(Oh, wild thyme), and he fainted. When he was later asked
about this, he answered, " I thought that he was announcing
"Is'a tara birri" (exert yourself and you will see My benev-
olence) .
Subayhi said: "A person who is in a state of true ecstasy
should not be rebuked for what he may utter in his ecstatic
state."
Ecstasy is the secret of the inner qualities, just as obedience
is the secret of the external qualities.
148. Concerning the Sufi mantles (khiraq, pi. of khirqa)
which are thrown off during the sama'.H If they are thrown off
e2
Here juqarS clearly signifies regular Sufis of the lower ranks of initiation;
cf. Introduction above.
"I.e., the influence of sama' depends on the spiritual state of the hearer, hence
it is a subjective experience. This idea is more explicitly stated by Sarraj, see
Sarraj, "Abstract of Contents," p. 76. The Sufis tended to be impressed by
things which they heard accidentally and which they took as referring to them
personally; this is clearly exemplified in the Sufi anecdote mentioned here. On
this question, see Meier, "Der Derwischtanz," p. 118.
"Sections 148-151 are concerned with the custom of taking off the Sufi mantle
{khirqa) and throwing it into the middle of the circle during the sama'. The
custom itself is well known (see Meier, "Der Derwischtanz," p. 125); Abu
al-Najib assumes that this practice is recognized and acceptable, and he dis-
[in a communal session] by way of solidarity [with other Sufis

who are in a state of real ecstasy], they belong to the Sufi
group. If the mantle is thrown off in a state of ecstasy induced
by the recitation of a reciter, not in a communal session, it
should belong to the reciter. However, if it takes place [under
the effect of recitation] in a communal session, there are two
opinions on how to divide the thrown mantles. According to
one opinion, they belong to the reciter; according to another,
they belong to the whole group, with the reciter taking his
share along with the rest of the group. T h e division of the
khiraq is held comparable to the division of booty (a Hadith is
quoted on the equal division of the booty by the Prophet after
the battle of Badr). Some say that if the reciter is himself a
Sufi, he should take a share in the division as one of them.
However, if he is not one of them, he should receive from it
whatever is of value; but the rags of the Sufis belong to the
Sufis.55 Some make a further distinction [in case the reciter is
not one of the Sufi community]: if he is hired, he should not
receive any part of it; but if he is a volunteer, he should get
whichever of the clothes that may be useful to him.
149. When the khiraq which have been thrown belong to
the participants, they should not occupy themselves with the
division until the sama' is over. If an admirer of the Sufis is
present, he may redeem the khiraq by any amount that he
spontaneously feels called upon to give.56 But the khiraq should
not be offered for sale nor auctioned off, because to do so would
cusses in detail the question of how to divide the clothes that were thrown off
and torn.
"The Sufi mantles, which are taken off in the state of ecstasy, are believed to
be impi^gnated with baraka.
56
JIlani set himself most strongly against this custom (of which Suhrawardi
approved), namely, that a rich admirer "redeem" the Sufi clothes for cash and
then give them back to the Sufis. Jllani considered this practice a tricky way of
begging (see Al-Ghunya li-Talibi Tariq al-Haqq, 2 vols, in one (Cairo: Mujtafa
al-Babi al-Halabl, 1375/1956), II, 181, 11. 19ff.).
be to hold cheap the value of the khiraq and to underrate the

worth of the Sufis themselves.
150. If a shaykh is present, he should give judgment on
what to do with the clothes: to tear, exchange, or return to the
owner. T h e Syrians say that each Sufi has a right to receive
back his khirqa, but most of the Sufis disapprove of this opinion.
Some say that it is better to return those garments that were
thrown off by way of solidarity or affectation." Most shaykhs
dislike the throwing of the khirqa by way of solidarity, because
this is constrained behavior, which is removed from the truth.
151. If no shaykh is present there, they themselves should
rule on this matter spontaneously. They approve of tearing
the "patched mantles" (muraqqa'at) only for the purpose of
deriving baraka from them. It is preferable to tear to pieces the
khiraq of the regular Sufis, if they can be used for patching, so
that each one can get his share. These pieces should be
distributed to those who are present in the sama', to the exclu-
sion of the absentees, 68 because booty is divided among those
who are present in the battle. If others [who are not regular
Sufis] are present, then those who are lay members (muhibbun)
should be given a share of the torn pieces.
The opinions of the shaykhs vary on how to divide. Some
hold that they should be divided according to some principle
of preference, like inheritances and booty. Others maintain
that if the division is made by a shaykh, he may divide in
unequal parts, but if they divide among themselves, they
should divide equally.
T h a t which is not suitable for making patches should better
be given without tearing it to a deserving poor man. As for the
clothes of the lay members [which were thrown off in the
samq\ it is better to sell them or give them to the reciter
rather than to tear them to pieces.
" T h e reason being clearly that such garments are not impregnated by the
baraka ( m a n a ) which results from ecstasy.
68
I.e., those members of the Sufi congregation w h o did not attend that session.
152. Their ethics in marriage. One should prefer a woman

who is pious and upright. The Prophet said: "A woman may
be married for her piety, property, and beauty; choose a
pious woman and you will be rich." Another saying of the
Prophet: "The best wife is she who requires the least pro-
vision." 'Umar b. al-Khattab said: "Women are made of
feeble minds and lustful desires; you should treat their feeble
minds by silence and their desires by confining them to the
house."
Their rule in this matter [of marriage] is not to marry for
this-world's reasons nor to marry a rich woman; rather, one's
purpose in marriage should be to comply with the established
custom (sunna) and to preserve one's chastity.
153. The husband should satisfy his wife's needs according
to his capability, but if he is unable to provide for her needs,
or if she demands more than is in his power, he should let
her choose between accepting what he can give her and di-
vorce, following the example of the Prophet. (A Hadith is
cited about the choice proposed by the Prophet to his wives,
quoting Quran 33:28 and 33:52.)
154. In our times it is better to avoid marriage 59 and to
suppress desire by discipline, hunger, vigils, and traveling.
A pious man was once asked why he did not get married, and
he answered, " I have a lower soul which I would repudiate if
I could, so should I add to it another one?" (Four sayings
against marriage, particularly on account of the hardship of
providing for the family.) A wise man should not disclose the
secret faults of his wife nor of a woman he has divorced.
The marriage of 'All b. Abi J alib and Fatima is cited as
an example of virtuous marriage. 'All said: "We possessed
59
Abu al-Najib's opinion on this issue seems to be in agreement with the
opinion of Ghazali, who says that the murid should not get married; see Ghazali,
Ihya' 'Ulum al-Din, 4 vols. (Cairo: Mustafa al-Babi al-Halabi, 1358/1939), III,
98, 1. 3, and 100, 1. 12. By contrast, Jflani considers marriage to be an absolute
obligation (Ghunya, I, 43).
nothing but the skin of a ram on which we used to sleep at

night, and at daytime we would feed the water-carrying
camel on it."
155. A chapter on the ethics of begging. (Quran 2:273 and
93:10 are quoted.) It is obligatory to give to a beggar. On the
other hand, if a person does not need to beg or is strong and
healthy he should not beg. 'Umar said: "A source of earning
which is somewhat dubious is better than begging." Junayd
said: "Any Sufi who has accustomed himself to seek means of
livelihood in times of hardship has not freed himself from the
servitude of his lower soul and is not sustained by forbear-
ance." Abu Hafs [al-Nisaburi] said: "Whoever is in the habit
of begging is afflicted with greed, disloyalty and lying."
156. Their rules in this matter of begging are: to beg only
in time of pressing need and to take only as much as necessary.
A Sufi saying: "When a Sufi is constrained to beg, his atone-
ment is his veracity." One should not reject a beggar.
157. The Sufis detest begging for themselves but consider
it meritorious to beg for one's companions. They do not con-
sider this [begging for others] to be begging, because this is
the seeking of aid for charity and piety. The Prophet used to
beg for his companions. It is meritorious to forfeit one's social
honor for the sake of one's brethren. The rule for whoever is
charged with collecting charity is that he should not think of
himself in either taking or giving but rather should act as an
agent for both parties. An anecdote is told by way of an
example: When people from other places would come to visit
the shaykh Abu al-'Abbas al-Nihawandi, he would go to the
market and gather whatever food was available and would
bring it to them. And he used to say, "For twenty years I
have not taken anything from anyone." He used to detest
begging and disapproved of it.
Junayd said: "Begging should not be practiced except by a
person who likes better to give rather than to take." It is
better for the Steward (khadim)60 to borrow what he needs to

spend on his community, and afterwards he can beg to pay
his debt.
158. Some Sufis allow begging as a dispensation for whoever
intends to humiliate himself in this manner. One shaykh used
to eat only what he received by begging; when asked about it,
he said: " I chose this because my soul inajs) detests it." The
Sufi should beg only in time of need; when he begs, his words
are directed at the people but his heart should be directed
toward the Real One. A saying: "Free men strive for the
sake of their brethren, not for themselves." A saying: " I t is
better to eat by begging than by asking hospitality." Whoever
begs even though he has enough will be asked to account for
it on the Day of Resurrection.
159. Their conduct in illness. The Prophet said: " A fever
for one day is atonement for a year." One of the sages said:
" I n illness there are benefits which the intelligent man should
not ignore: a purging of sin, an opportunity to deserve the
reward for forbearance, an awakening from heedlessness, a
reminder of God's favor in the state of health, a renewal of
repentance, and an inducement to give charity." One shaykh
said: " I would rather be healthy and thank Allah than be
afflicted and endure." The Prophet said that one should seek
medication in case of illness because medication, like illness, is
of God's judgment.
160. Their rules of behavior on the deathbed. The Prophet
said: "Remember the destroyer of pleasure." At his death the
Prophet cried: " O , my grief!" (The meaning of this cry is
explained in various ways because it could not possibly result
from lack of endurance on the part of the Prophet.) Jurayri
describes the conduct of Junayd in his deathbed: he persisted
in reading the Quran to his last moment.
An anecdote on Khayr al-Nassaj. While he was dying he
" O n the meaning of khadim, see section 100, n. 39 above.
said, "You [Death] are a slave charged with orders and I am a

slave charged with orders; what you were ordered to do, you
will not miss, but what I was ordered to do, I may miss." So
he called for water, performed the ritual ablution, and prayed;
then he pronounced the formula allahu akbar (God is the most
great) and died.
'All b. Sahl used to say: " D o you believe that I will die like
those sick people? Rather, I will be called and I shall respond."
As he was sitting one day he suddenly said, "Labbayka," and
he died. 61
161. An anecdote about the death of Ahmad b. Khad-
rawayh: H e did not want to die before paying his debts, and
at the last moment a miraculous messenger paid them.
(A series of anecdotes about famous Sufis in their last hours.)
162. An anecdote on Shibll: he was concerned with meticu-
lous observance of the sunna even as he was dying. An account
by Ibn 'Abbas about 'Amr b. al-'As on his deathbed and his
last conversation with his pious son 'Abdallah. 'Amr described
to his son the agony of dying; his last words were: " O , Allah,
You commanded and I disobeyed. You prohibited and I
committed. I am not innocent so that I might excuse myself
nor am I powerful so that I might vindicate myself, but
'There is no god except Allah!' " (The last words of the Caliph
'Abd al-Malik b. Marwan are quoted.)
163. Their ethics in times of affliction (bald'). (Quran 20:40
is quoted. Four sayings of the Prophet on the worth of bala\)
Their ethics in this matter are not to show grief nor to com-
plain but rather to see the benefit of being afflicted, which is
the prospect of reward for him who endures the trial with
forbearance (Quran 39:10).
164. One must consider that the affliction is brought upon
him by God and then one will not suffer the pain of it. (Quran
61
Labbayka, meaning "at your service," is the phrase pronounced by the
pilgrims upon entering the holy area of Mecca.
52:48 is quoted.) The women in the story of Joseph did not

feel the pain of cutting their hands because they were occupied
in watching him (Quran 12:31 quoted). When one looks at
his beloved, it is easier to endure the pain. (Verses of Majnun
Banl 'Amir [Majnun Layla] and by Abu al-Shis about their
sufferings for the sake of their love.) The true Sufi should also
suffer patiently like them. A saying of Husayn b. 'All (in
reference to another saying by Abu Dharr al-Ghifarl): " H e
who relies on the choice of God does not wish anything for
himself except whatever God may choose for him." (An
anecdote about Shibli when he was confined to an asylum.)
165. The Sufis should endure affliction with strength and
patience. A Hadlth: God prefers a strong Muslim to a weak
one. So you should try to preserve what is beneficial to you
with God's help, but if some evil befalls you, you should say:
"This is God's predestination and whatever He wills He does."
Do not say: "If it were" {law), because law starts the action
of Satan. 62
Ibn 'Ata' said: " I t is in times of trial that you can distinguish
between false claims and true claims." (Quran 29:1-3 and
47:31 are quoted.) Affliction for man is like tanning [to a hide],
it removes all his frivolities and brings him to a state of useful-
ness. Junayd on affliction: " I t is a lamp for the knowers, an
awakening for the novices, and a destruction for the heedless."
Ja'far al-Sadiq used to say when affliction came upon him:
"O, Allah, I pray that this be by way of moral instruction and
not on account of wrath." There can be different purposes for
bald'-. it may come as a purge of sins, as a means of moral
education, as a trial, or as a punishment and a sign of
abandonment. 63
The stories of the Sufis are valuable because only through
62
Law (the particle introducing a rejected condition) implies dissatisfaction
with God's decree. See section 99 above.
M
On the concept of "abandonment," see section 74, n. 33 above.
them can one learn their way of conduct in times of distress.

Junayd upholds the value of Sufi stories for the edification of
novices, quoting Quran 11:120 in support of his opinion.64
PART IV
166. A chapter on the rules on rukhas (dispensations).65
The Prophet said: "God wishes that His dispensations be
practiced just as He wishes that His strict rules ('aza'im) be
observed." In answer to a question by 'Umar b. al-Khattab
on a certain dispensation, the Prophet said: " I t is charity
which God granted you, and you should accept His charity."
The rukhas should be only a temporary repose. The rukhas
form a border area between the licit and the prohibited; who-
ever falls short of the level of rukhas falls into error and igno-
rance.
According to the doctrine of the Sufis, the practice of the
rukhas signifies a withdrawal from the reality of religion to the
externality of religion, and that is a decline in religious state.66
Dhu al-Nun said: " T h e ostentation of the knowers is the
sincerity of the novices."67 An anecdote about Junayd which
teaches the following lesson: the more saintly the man, the
more strictly he will be judged. One of "the people of the
portico" (ahl al-suffa)68 died and left two dirhams; when this
was told to the Prophet, he said: "These are two burns on
M
See section 106 above.
" O n the significance of rukhas, see Introduction above.
66
See Introduction above. It must be noted that in order to understand the
social or ethical significance of each "dispensation" the dispensation should be
considered as an exception or contradiction—ostensibly at least—of a more
general rule or principle. In the apparatus of my edition of the Arabic text
reference to such contrasting parallels is made.
67
The point of this saying is that there are different standards of religious
accomplishment; what would not be acceptable on the part of a knower can be
permitted a novice.
68
See section 40, n. 24 above.
him!" 6 9 When the Prophet said: "Whoever assumes resem-

blance to a group of people is one of them," he intended
assumption of their way of life, not of their dress. He also
said: "Whoever imitates a group of people in his manner of
speech and dress while his acts are incompatible with his
appearance, that person is accursed by Allah and the angels
and by all men."
The Sufis have rules and ethics concerning the rukhas, and
he who wishes to practice the rukhas must know these rules
and hold fast to them. This is necessary in order that he may
follow the customs of the Sufis and be embellished by their
embellishment, until he may reach the stations and the states
of those Sufis who attain to the reality.
167. It is allowed by way of rukhsa70 to possess an estate or to
rely on a regular income.71 Their rule in this matter is that
one should not use all of it for himself, but should dedicate
this to public charities and should take from it only enough
for one year for himself and his family, following the example
of the Prophet.
168. There is a rukhsa allowing one to be occupied in
business; this dispensation is granted to him who has to
support a family. But this should not keep him away from the
regular performance of prayers. He should not consider this
activity as a means of earning his livelihood but as a way of
helping other Muslims. He should try to limit his business
hours to the period between the morning prayer and the noon
69 For, as one of "the people of the portico," this man had a claim to be con-
sidered a complete ascetic; this claim was disproved by the two dirhams which
he left, and hence he could be blamed for falsehood.
70 In the Arabic this section begins with the phrase fa-min rukhasihim (it is one
of their dispensations); the following 39 sections (168-206) all begin with

wa-minha (and one of them is).
71 This is contrary to the rule given by QushayrI: " T h e novice should not
have any regular income, no matter how small." (Qushayri, p. 203, 1. 23).
However, the present dispensation is apparently intended not for the regular
novice but for the "lay member"; cf. Introduction, n. 61 above.
prayer, so that he can pray all five daily prayers with his
companions.
If he gains more than he needs for his family, he should
give it to the members of his brotherhood (ahl suhbatihi) .n
169. There is a rukhsa allowing one to beg. The rules of
this rukhsa are: One should not beg except in time of need
and only as much as is necessary to provide for those who
depend on him.
One should not humiliate himself in begging (some verses
by J a ' f a r al-Sadiq are quoted against humiliating oneself
before other men).
One should not make begging a habit or a regular source
of income.
170. There is a rukhsa according to which one may borrow
money while referring to God as guarantor. However, this
should be done for charitable purposes or for the brethren or
under compelling necessity (darura). One should not fail to
be concerned about returning the debt.
171. There is a rukhsa allowing one to carry food provisions
on travel. The rule is that one should be generous with them
to others in his company.
172. There is a rukhsa according to which one may perform
a pilgrimage on behalf of another person for payment; how-
ever, it is permissible to receive wages for this only in time of
pressing necessity. One should use this payment for his ex-
penses on his way without resorting to begging or to the use
of pious endowments.
173. There is a rukhsa allowing one to travel about the
land. 73 The rule is that the purpose of such traveling should be
to visit one of the brethren or to ask forgiveness or to seek
religious learning.
72It should be noted that the word suhba (companionship) is used also to
signify "a Sufi community" or "brotherhood"; for the same usage, see section
113 above.
"See section 107 above.
174. There is a rukhsa according to which one may rise up

and move in the sama\7i T h e rule in this matter is to behave
in accordance with the spirit of the moment. One should avoid
affected participation [in the dance] when this is [for the other
dancers] a time of earnest ecstasy. However, when this [danc-
ing] is for cheering up, it is permissible [to dance] in order to
help others, without pretending to be intoxicated or affecting
ecstasy.75
175. There is a rukhsa allowing one to joke. T h e rule in
this matter is to avoid slandering, imitation, and nonsense.
'All said: "When the Prophet saw one of his friends dis-
tressed, he would cheer him up by joking."
It is improper, especially for persons of high rank, to do
much jesting. It is said: " D o not jest with a noble man lest
he bear malice against you, and do not jest with a base
person lest he behave impudently toward you."
176. There is a rukhsa allowing one to speak publicly about
aspects of the religious sciences which one has not yet prac-
ticed. T h e condition for this dispensation is that the purpose
of such speaking should be to give counsel and guidance. 76
177. There is a rukhsa according to which Sufis may wear
patched frocks (muraqqa'at) which are artificially made;
however, they should avoid conspicuousness and should not
waste time on this. Whenever the Sufi masters saw a Sufi who
74
This is an allusion to the Sufi dance. Some Sufis objected to applying the
word raqs (dancing) to the Sufi dance, because the word raqs was associated
with a secular, quite reprehensible, type of experience, Cf. Hujwiri, Kashf al-
Mahjub, p. 416.
"See sections 139 and 141 above.
"It was a generally recognized principle that religious knowledge which is
not matched with practice is worthless. Accepting this principle, the Sufis had
to face the question of whether a Sufi should be allowed to speak about those
aspects of the Sufi doctrine which he had not yet experienced. It appears that
there was no unanimity on this matter (see section 55 above), but the general
principle was that a novice should not speak about that which he had not ex-
perienced.
indulged excessively in embellishing his patched frock and

other clothes, they disdained him. It is recommended to
follow the middle way in this matter.
178. There is a rukhsa according to which friends may
embrace and kiss each other upon meeting. The rule is that
it should be only among peers and people who are on intimate
terms. The Prophet said: "Embracing is a way of confirming
love."
179. There is a rukhsa allowing one to love leadership. The
ethics of this matter are that one should know one's own
capability and should not have aspirations beyond it. Ano-
nymity is better for the ignorant than fame. One should not
seek what he cannot obtain lest he lose what he has. One of
the shaykhs said: " T h e fault which is the last to leave the
heart of the righteous is the love of leadership."
180. There is a rukhsa allowing one to associate with Sultans
and to visit them. The rule in this is that the Sufi should not
be deluded by the praise lavished on him, and if he is praised
contrary to what he knows of himself, he should shun that
praise. God rebukes those who like to be praised for what they
have not done (Quran 3:188 is quoted). From this, it can be
inferred that if a person likes to be praised for what he has
done, this is not a sin. However, this is a harmful thing, of
which one should beware. In such an instance [that is, when
being praised] one should say: " O , God, render me better
than what they consider me; forgive me what they do not
know of me and do not blame them for what they say."
181. There is a rukhsa allowing one to revile insolent
persons by disparaging their ancestors. The rule is that one
may resort to this rukhsa only in retort to ill-behavior, and it
should be done by indirect expressions and not by explicit
ones.
182. There is a rukhsa according to which one may exhibit
good works and acts of worship. The rule is that it should be
for the purpose of setting an example. But one should not

pay attention to agreement or objection on the part of people.
When asked about this matter, the Prophet said [quoting
Quran 2:271]: "If you publish your acts of charity, it is
good." This verse refers to supererogatory rituals and good
works,77 but as for the obligatory rituals, there is unanimous
agreement that it is better to display them publicly.
183. There is a rukhsa according to which one may go out
[of society] in order to remove oneself from its evils. If one
chooses to withdraw from society, one should repair to a
solitary place in a cave or a wadi or some other place which
is free from anything evil.78
184. There is a rukhsa allowing one to watch all kinds of
amusement. This is, however, limited by the rule: What you
are forbidden from doing, you are also forbidden from
watching.
185. There is a rukhsa according to which one may attend
sessions in which people are engaged in worthless talk. How-
ever, one should avoid listening to calumny and objectionable
things.
186. There is a rukhsa allowing one to eat tasty food. The
rule of this dispensation is: It should be only between periods
of hunger and exertion. (Four Hadiths are quoted in proof
that the Prophet did not abstain from good food.)79
187. There is a rukhsa allowing one to pledge one's clothes
for food; however, only in time of necessity.
188. There is a rukhsa allowing one to escape abasement
"The rest of this verse, referred to here but not quoted in full by Abu al-Najib,
is "but if you conceal them . . . that is better for you."
78
It is noteworthy that retirement from society is presented by Abu al-Najib
as a "dispensation"; he thereby indicates that the normal way of life for the
Sufi is that of association with other people.
"Two of these traditions praise the eating of meat; they are apparently
adduced in order to take exception to Sufis who abstained from meat, cf. Ibn
al-Jawzi, Talbis Iblis (Cairo: Matba'at al-Sa'ada, 1340 A.H.), p. 223, and p. 226,
1. 16.
and the suffering of offense. This should be done in order to

keep one's mind free from evil thoughts and to avoid enmity.
One of the Sufi masters said: "Escaping from that which
cannot be tolerated is a commendable custom of the proph-
ets" (he then quoted Quran 26:21 as an example). The
Prophet said: " T h e Muslim should not debase himself."
189. There is a rukhsa allowing one to visit friends without
having been invited. [Such visits are characteristic of the
informality which is held to be the standard of behavior
among peers.] They should choose for such informal visits
those who are delighted by this informality and recognize the
honor of it.
190. There is a rukhsa according to which one may repri-
mand one's brethren. However, this should be done for the
purpose of eliminating malice from the heart and not by way
of revenge. Further, one should accept the apology of a
friend. It is better to reprimand frankly than to bear rancor
secretly.
191. There is a rukhsa according to which one may praise
what he previously blamed and blame what he previously
praised.
192. There is a rukhsa allowing one to dissociate himself
from those who rightly should be excommunicated. The rule
of this dispensation is that the purpose of such treatment
should be to reveal the truth and eradicate falsehood and to
show enmity for the sake of God. The Prophet excommuni-
cated Ka'b b. Malik and his two friends for staying away from
the raid on Tabük (Quran 9:118 is quoted).
193. There is a rukhsa according to which one may tear the
patched frock (muraqqaâ) of fake Sufis. The purpose of such
action should be to eradicate their misrepresentation and
deceit (Quran 16:94 is quoted). The muraqqa'a worn by a
fake Sufi is comparable to the false [long] hair worn by one
who fraudulently represents himself as belonging to the house
Rules JOT the Novice 79
of 'All; 80 in both these cases one should expose the falsehood

of such imposters.
T h e Prophet ordered the destruction of the mosque of the
dissenters, because he knew that although it was, in appear-
ance, a mosque, it was, in fact, intended for spreading dissen-
sion and disbelief (Quran 9:108 is quoted). He also ordered
the palm trees of Banu Nadir cut down. Although such
destruction is, as a rule, prohibited, yet this particular act
was allowed by Allah (Quran 59:5 is quoted).
194. There is a rukhsa allowing one to lie in the interest of
worthy causes. T h e story of Abraham (Quran 21:63) and
the story of David (Quran 38:23) are referred to as examples.
An anecdote about a dispute between J a ' f a r al-Sadiq and a
Murji'ite: J a ' f a r al-Sadiq used a lie as a rhetorical device in
order to prove the absurdity and the error of the Murji'ite
position.
195. There is a rukhsa to visit old women. T h e purpose of
such a visit should be to seek God's favor and blessing and to
pray.
196. There is a rukhsa according to which one may behave
with affected politeness with rich and powerful persons.
However, the purpose of this should not be to gain any
material benefit or honor from them.
197. There is a rukhsa allowing one to cry when one is hit
by calamity. However, this should be done without mournful
wailing, nor should it be in a loud voice. T h e Prophet cried
when his son Ibrahim died.
198. There is a rukhsa allowing one to keep company with
young men. T h e rule of this dispensation has been mentioned
above in the chapter on companionship (suhba). sl
199. There is a rukhsa according to which one may show
'"Those who claimed to be of 'Alid descent wore their hair conspicuously long.
See Ghazali, Ihya', I, 139-140.
8 1 See section 87 above.
a smiling face to a person whom he dislikes in his heart. The

purpose of such an affected manner should be the quest of
peace rather than ostentation or hypocrisy.
'A'isha tells the following Hadith: "A certain man asked
permission to enter to see the Prophet while I was with the
Prophet, and the Prophet said, 'What an evil man!' and then
he admitted him and spoke to him in a placatory manner. I
marveled at this behavior, and when the man had left I asked
the Prophet about it and he answered: ' O 'A'isha, the worst
of persons is one whom you treat with respect for fear of his
foul tongue.' "
200. There is a rukhsa allowing one to behave with riffraff
in a manner which is compatible with their worth and
intellectual capacity, in order to keep safe from their dangers.
201. There is a rukhsa according to which one may obtain
the assistance of rude, insolent persons in times of disaster and
in order to ward off harm. The rule in this matter is that the
purpose of such association should be to protect oneself and
one's dignity from confronting persons who are not of his
kind. It is said that Ibn 'Umar liked to have an impudent
person in his company so that this impudent man would
defend him from the insolence of others.
202. There is a rukhsa allowing one to mention the faults
of people. However, one should only mention those defects
which are publicly well known.
203. There is a rukhsa according to which one may placate
poets and others like them by paying them. Such a course of
action may be taken in order to protect one's reputation and
safeguard one's religion from them, so that they do not
slander him. The Prophet said: "Whatever a man spends to
protect his reputation is considered charity."
204. There is a rukhsa according to which one may plunder
the food which is scattered at banquets. 82 One should, however
82
JilanI, too, mentions the custom of scattering food at wedding banquets
do so without gluttony a n d with the intention of delighting

the host. A Iâdith quotes the Prophet saying: " I only forbade
you to plunder armies b u t I did not forbid you to plunder
banquets."
205. T h e r e is a rukhsa according to which one is allowed
to boast a n d to publish his claims [of merit]. If one acts in
this m a n n e r it should be with the intention of revealing the
favors which God has bestowed on him; as H e said [ Q u r a n
93:11]: " A n d as for the grace of your Lord, declare it."
This m a n n e r of boasting is allowed only u n d e r the effect
of ecstasy or in a contest of boasting with some rival.
(Hadiths are quoted to show that the Prophet spoke in a
boastful m a n n e r when he was in a state of ecstasy and when
he was engaged in a contest against adversaries.)
206. T h e r e is a rukhsa allowing one to show annoyance and
exasperation u p o n encountering that which is absurd and
which should not be tolerated. Such annoying things can
be either words or actions. However, one should avoid the
use of foul language a n d a t t e m p t to protect his own right
without transgressing its limits to do injustice [to others],
because when anger gains control, it overcomes reason.
O n e should try not to get angry for one's own rights; rather,
if one gets angry, it should be out of jealousy for the rights of
God and of one's brethren. It is said t h a t the Prophet never
sought to take revenge for a wrong done to him, b u t only took
revenge on those who had violated the prohibitions of God.
207. [The concluding remarks of the author.] T h e rules
of the "dispensations" have been briefly presented here.
Sufism consists of states and stations, ethical qualities, and
rules of conduct, and "dispensations." T h e dispensations are
the lowest of these [three categories]. H e who adheres to the
(Jïlânï, I, 4 9 ) . H e states that there are two opinions o n this matter: one approv-
ing of this practice and the other disapproving. Jïlânï himself opines that it is
better not to scatter the food but to distribute it nicely a m o n g the guests.
totality [of the Sufi doctrine] is one of those who follow the re-
ality. He who adheres to the external aspect, namely, the
ethical qualities and the rules of conduct, is one of those who
follow the external custom. He who adheres to the dispensa-
tions and accepts the rules which govern them is one of the
truthful simulators, about whom the Prophet said: "Whoever
makes the effort to resemble a group of people is one of them."
This is so, if he observes the three essential principles. The
Sufi masters are unanimous in asserting that to violate these
principles or one of them is to transgress the rules of Sufism.
These principles are: to perform the religious duties, to avoid
that which is forbidden, and to relinquish worldly possessions,
except what is absolutely necessary. Such necessities are those
things which the Prophet excluded from the definition of
worldly goods in his saying: "There are four things which are
of this world and yet are not of it: a piece of bread to satisfy
your hunger, a piece of cloth ( k h i r q a ) to cover your nakedness,
a house to shelter you from the cold and the heat, and a
virtuous wife whom you can trust." The Sufi has no right to
possess anything more than these four things. Junayd was
asked, " W h a t do you say about a person whose worldly
possessions are no more than 'a sucking of a date stone'?
Can the name of Sufism be applied to him?" He said: " T h e
mukatab83 is a slave as long as he owes [his master] a single
dirham."
Whoever adopts the dispensations is one of the beginners,
and he should strive to enhance his inner state and ascend to
the heights of the ahwal. Whoever falls below the level of the
"dispensations" thereby renounces Sufism and is forbidden
to enjoy the gifts and endowments which are made for the
Sufis, and the Sufi congregation should excommunicate him.
208. [Final prayer by the author.] May God in His gracious
83
Mukatab is a slave w h o m a d e a contract with his master to buy back his
freedom from him; see EI2, s.v. '"Abd" (vol. I, p. 30).
favor count us among the truthful and join us to those who

seek Reality. May He preserve us from base actions both
outward and inward, and enable us to seek His pleasure, both
hidden and revealed. May He cause us and all Muslims to
benefit from this our compilation, and may He not permit it
to bring harm either to us or to those who study it. In His
gracious compassion, may He not make it our lot to have
compiled and memorized it without practicing and observing
it. He, great is His name, is near and responsive.
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Glossary
The references are given in this Glossary by page for the Introduction and by
section for the Abridged Translation. T h e article (al) is disregarded in the
alphabetic arrangement.
'abd, slave, a c o m m o n designation of m a n in relation to God, p. 2

adab (pi. adab), rule of conduct, proper conduct, ethics, pp. 16, 21, 25,
sees. 2, 42, 44, 68, 76, 134; cultural formation, sec. 43; literature, belles-
lettres, pp. 12, 21, 23, 24
ahl al-suffa, the "people of the portico," sec. 166. See also sec. 40
ahl suhbatihi, members of one's brotherhood, sec. 168. See also suhba
ahl al-sunna wa-l-jamd'a, literally, "those who adhere to the tradition a n d the
c o m m u n i t y , " the orthodox, p. 6
ahwal (see sing, ftal), pp. 5, 17, sees. 37, 38, 39, 41, 50, 51, 72, 95, 207
'alim (pi. 'ulama ), a learned m a n , a m a n of religious learning ('ilm), sec. 59
'amal, praxis (as the c o u n t e r p a r t of religious knowledge, 'ilm), sees. 33, 39,
52, 59
al-amma (pi. al-'awamm), the c o m m o n people, the vulgar, sec. 57
'aql, intellect, sees. 53, 59
'arij (pi. 'arifun), he who knows. In Sufism, the term signifying him who is
possessed oimarifa (mystical knowledge), sees. 39, 71. 132, 143
'arifun (see sing, 'arif), p. 25, sec. 21
al-arkan, " t h e pillars," the five essential duties of Islam, sec. 13
ashab al-hadith, the traditionists, those learned in the science of H a d i t h ,
sec. 34
'awamm (see sing, al-amma), sec. 99
'azaim, pi. of 'azima which signifies " a rule in its strict interpretation,"
the opposite of rukhsa, sec. 166
bala, affliction, trial, sees. 163, 165
89
90 Glossary
baraka, divine blessing or grace, " m a n a , " sees. 117, 121, 129, 151
batin, internal (esoteric) aspect, sec. 41
datura, necessity (which justifies the relaxation of rules), sec. 170
darwlsh (Persian), mendicant, a term signifying an ordinary Sufi, p. 9
dhat, essence, sec. 3
dhikr, remembrance of God, recitation of God's names, sees. 92, 122, 135;
Sufi assemblies dedicated to such recitations, pp. 8, 9, 13, 15
faqlr (pi. fuqara), a poor man, a term signifying an ordinary Sufi, p. 9,

sees. 126, 147
faqr, poverty, sec. 16; poverty, as one of the Sufi stations, p. 9, sec. 49.
See also sec. 17
far alt, joy (occurring as a result of Sufi audition), sec. 30
faraid, obligatory rituals, sec. 132
fasiq, sinner, sec. 13
fawatih, revealed signs, sec. 50
fiqh, Islamic jurisprudence, pp. 12, 13, 14, sec. 98
fuqaha' (sing .faqih), those learned in fiqh (jurisprudence), p. 14, sees. 34, 35
fuqara (see sing.faqir), p. 9, sees. 126, 147
futuwwa, chivalry, sec. 103
ghqfla, headlessness; in Sufism, signifying the state of a person whose spirit

is not religiously awake, sec. 61
ghayba, absence of selfhood, sec. 32
ghurabS (sing, gharlb), those who are away from their home, sec. 84
hal (pi. ahwal), state (a transitory mental state), sees. 30, 57, 72. See also
sec. 50
baqiqa, esoteric true reality, pp. 6, 7, sees. 39, 146
al-haqq, the Real One, one of the names of God especially favored by the
Sufis, sees. 41, 147
haya\ diffidence, one of the Sufi states, sec. 50
himma, ambition; in Sufism, religious ambition, sees. 32, 44, 113
huzn, grief, one of the Sufi states, sec. 30
ikhlas, sincerity, one of the Sufi stations, sec. 49

'ilm, knowledge in general, sec. 59; religious learning, especially learning of
the holy law, p. 26, sees. 33, 39, 52, 53, 58, 59, 98, 113
imam, the leader of public prayer, sec. 8
tman, faith, correct religious belief, sec. 13
Glossary 91
inaba, returning, one of the Sufi stations, sec. 49

inbisat, informality, the opposite of takalluf, sec. 126
irada, aspiration, p. 18; aspiration as one of the Sufi stations, sec. 49
isnad, chain of authorities transmitting a tradition from the Prophet, p. 23
istibshar, delight (occurring as a result of Sufi audition), sec. 30
istilam, loss of consciousness (as a symptom of ecstasy), sec. 32
istithna, the use of the conditional expression "if Allah will it," p. 21, sec. 14
ithar, altruism, sees. 76, 129
jam' al-himma, concentration of religious ambition, sec. 32. See also himma
kafir, unbeliever, sec. 13

kain, generated being, sec. 3
karama (pi. karamat), divine grace, miracle performed by a Sufi saint (divine
grace as demonstrated by such a miracle), sec. 23
khadim, servant, a term signifying the Steward of a Sufi brotherhood, sees.
157, lOOn
khawf, fear, one of the Sufi states, sees. 30, 32, 50
khidma, service, signifying here the office of the khadim, sec. 100
khidmat al-ikhwan, service to one's brethren, sec. 78
khirqa (pi. khiraq), literally, a piece of cloth or a rag; the standard term for
the Sufi mantle, p. 26, sees. 148, 149, 150, 151, 207
madrasa, Islamic college for the study of the holy law, pp. 13, 15
maghrib, the sunset prayer (the first of two prayers performed after sunset),
sec. 133
mahabba, love as a characteristic of lay members, p. 18; love as a Sufi state,
sees. 32, 50
maqam (pi. maqamai), station (in the Sufi way), pp. 3, 5, 17, sees. 37, 38, 41,
49, 68, 72
ma'rifa, mystical knowledge, gnosis, sees. 53, 59
mawjud, existent being, sec. 3
mubtadi, innovator, a person acting not in accordance with the established
practice (sunna), sec. 13
mufti, Muslim jurisconsult, p. 15
muhasabat al-nafs, examination of the soul, one of the Sufi stations, sec. 49
muhawara, conversation, signifying the communication of Sufi doctrine,
sec. 54
muhibbun, lovers, a term applied to lay members, p. 19, sec. 151
muhrim, a consecrated pilgrim, sec. 118
92 Glossary
mu'jizat, miracles of prophets, sec. 23

mii'min, believer, true Muslim, sec. 14
munafiq, hypocrite, sec. 13
muntahin, consummate Sufi, sec. 40
muraqaba, attentive observation, one of the Sufi states, sec. 50
muraqqa'a (pi. muraqqa'at), the patched frock of the Sufi, sees. 25, 66, 151,
177, 193
murtd (pi. murldun), aspirant, a term signifying the novice in Sufism, pp. 8,
18, 25, sees. 39, 40, 61, 62, 66, 67, 68, 71, 73, 75, 143
mushahada, vision of the divine power (as the ultimate Sufi state), sec. 50
mutashabbihun, simulators, those who earnestly try to resemble the Sufis (lay
members), p. 18; false simulators, sec. 47
mutawassif, (pi. mutawassitun), Sufi of intermediate rank, p. 25, sees. 39,40, 71
nafs, the lower soul, sees. 44, 49, 63, 73, 74, 158
nawajil, (sing, nafila), supererogatory prayers, sec. 132
qurb, nearness, one of the Sufi states, sec. 50
al-rabb, God, the Master, p. 2

raja1, hope, one of the Sufi states, sees. 30, 32, 50
rak'a, literally, bowing; a set cycle of movements and recitations forming a
unit in the ritual prayer, each prayer consisting of a certain n u m b e r of
such "bowings," sees. 110, 133
rib at, a Sufi convent, p. 13
rida, pleasure (God's) or satisfaction (man's), sec. 19; satisfaction, one of
the Sufi stations, sec. 49
riyadat, exercises of self-discipline, sec. 87
ruh, spirit (as the opposite of nafs, the lower soul), sees. 31, 74
rukhsa (pi. rukhas), dispensation or relaxation of the strict rule, pp. 17, 19,
20, sees. 140, 166-206
ruyat allah, beatific vision (that is, seeing Allah in paradise), sec. 6
sabr, patience, one of the Sufi stations, sec. 49

soma, Sufi audition, pp. 8, 19, 25, sees. 28,29, 31, 32, 135-138, 140, 142-149,
151, 174
shart'a, the divine law, pp. 2, 3, 6, 7, sees. 25, 33, 48
shathiyyat, ecstatic utterances, sec. 57
shawq, yearning, as one of the Sufi states, sees. 30, 50
Glossary 93
shaykh, Sufi master, p. 8, et passim. (After the first occurrence, set in r o m a n

type)
siddlqün, saints, sec. 21
sidq, veracity, one of the Sufi stations, sec. 49
sifät, the attributes of God, sec. 3
sin, secret, sec. 32; signifying the innermost element of the heart, sec. 43
süf, wool, p. 4
süß (pi. süfiyya), Sufi, p. 4, et passim (set in r o m a n type)
suhba, companionship, sees. 76, 98, 101, 198
sukht, God's w r a t h , sec. 19
sunna, established c o m m e n d a b l e custom (regarded as derived f r o m the
practice of the P r o p h e t ) , p. 19, sees. 130, 152, 162
sunrii, following the sunna, hence orthodox, p. 6
takalluf, affected m a n n e r , formal behavior (the opposite of inbisät), sees.

103, 111
tarab, r a p t u r e (as inspired by sama), sec. 32
tarlqa, the mystical way, pp. 5, 8, 9, 10; a Sufi order, p. 10
tasabbur, forbearance, one of the Sufi stations, sec. 49
tasawwuf, Sufism, p. 4, sec. 17
tawäjud, artificial ecstasy, sec. 146
tawakkul, trust in God, p. 9; as one of the Sufi stations, sec. 49
tawba, repentance, sees. 49, 64
tawilät, esoteric interpretations, p. 20, sec. 36
tuma'nina, serenity, one of the Sufi states, sec. 50
'ulamä' (see sing, 'älim), pp. 6, 13, sees. 10, 33, 52

al-umma, the c o m m u n i t y of Islam, p. 2
uns, intimacy, one of the Sufi states, sec. 50
ustädh, Sufi master, shaykh, sec. 82
wajd, ecstatic yearning, ecstasy, sees. 32, 146

waqt, m o m e n t , m o m e n t a r y experience, sees. 40, 42
wara', scrupulosity, p. 3, sees. 49, 65, 68
yaqin, certainty, one of the Sufi states, sec. 50
Zflhir, the exoteric aspect of Sufism, sec. 41

zuhd, asceticism, pp. 3, 4, sec. 48; renunciation, one of the Sufi stations,
p. 3, sees. 49, 66, 68
Harvard Middle Eastern Studies
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4. The Agricultural Policy of Muhammad'Ali in Egypt. By Helen Anne B. Rivlin.
1961.
5. Egypt in Search of Political Community: An Analysis of the Intellectual and Political
Evolution of Egypt 1804-1952. By N a d a v Safran. 1961 (also a H a r v a r d Political
Study).
6. The Economy of Cyprus. By A . J . Meyer, with Simos Vassiliou. 1962.*
7. Entrepreneurs of Lebanon: The Role of the Business Leader in a Developing Economy.
By Yusif A. Sayigh. 1962.*
8. The Opening of South Lebanon, 1788-1840: A Study of the Impact of the West on
the Middle East. By William R . Polk. 1963.
9. The First Turkish Republic: A Case Study in National Development. By Richard
Robinson. 1963.
10. The Armenian Communities in Syria under Ottoman Dominion. By Avedis K .
S a n j i a n . 1965.
12. Tripoli: A Modern Arab City. By J o h n Gulick. 1967.
13. Pioneers East: The Early American Experience in the Middle East. By David H .
Finnie. 1967.
14. Shaykh and Effendi: Changing Patterns of Authority Among the El Shabana of
Southern Iraq. By Robert A. Fernea. 1970.
15. Between Old and New: The Ottoman Empire under Sultan Selim III, 1789-1807.
By Stanford J . Shaw. 1971.
16. The Patricians of Nishapur: A Study in Medieval Islamic Social History. By
Richard W. Bulliet. 1972.
17. A Sufi Rule for Novices: Kitab Adab al-Muridin. By M e n a h e m Milson. 1975.
*Published jointly by the Center for International Affairs a n d the Center for
M i d d l e Eastern Studies.
•(•Published jointly by the Center for Middle Eastern Studies and the J o i n t
Center for U r b a n Studies.

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A Sufi Rule for Novices

HARVARD MIDDLE EASTERN STUDIES, 17

Abu al-Najlb al-Suhrawardi

Harvard University Press

A Sufi Rule for Novices presents an outline of Sufism as seen by

data which are presented in detail in the apparatus of my

In a preliminary stage, this book formed part of a doctoral

Rules for the Novice 27

Sufism, Islamic mysticism, has attracted a good deal of

Sufism and Sufi Orders

The Quran and subsequent Islamic thought teach that

human imperfection, they held that man could not possibly

should be recognized, however, that the p r i m a r y sources of

period in the development of Sufism, when great Sufi masters

T h e emergence of this doctrine of stations and states in the

this n a m e has b e c o m e f a m o u s in reference to these great m e n

"Qushayri, Al-Risala al-Qushayriyya (Cairo: Mustafa al-Babi al-Halabl, 1379/

" S e e sees. 39, 54 below.

attributed to communal prayer. It is quite understandable

I t has already been noted that there were some variations in

From the end of the sixth century, the affiliation of kindred

Abü al-Najlb al-Suhrawardi—A Biographical Note18

western part of Persia. He is said to have been a descendant

seventeen years old. 24 H a v i n g achieved a certain proficiency

who was a Sufi shaykh quite different f r o m A h m a d al-Ghazali

also tried to exercise some authority over the affairs of the

shihna, Abu al-Najib resumed his teaching in the Ni?amiyya,

1168 A.D.) at the time of the evening prayer a n d was buried

Kitäb Ädäb al-Murïdïn—A Sufi Rule

« S e e GAL Supp., I, 620.

stations a n d states (maqamat and ahwal) h a d already been

"Esp., Sarraj, KalabadhI, Makki, and Qushayri.

and that it is especially intended for people whom he desig-

the lay members are referred to as muhibbun "those who are

and thereby to safeguard the orthodoxy of Sufism a n d its

primarily for novices, it presents, in fact, an ethical doctrine

It appears that Abu al-Najib did not hesitate to draw upon

only in what has been termed "the Sufi common stock"

T h e language of the author is clear and simple, unmarred

Adab and Sufi literature." 69 In Abu al-Najïb's composition,

The popularity of Kitâb Âdàb al-Murïdïn appears to have

Kitab Adah al-Murldin is a relatively short composition. In

Sufi stations and states. Section 51 explains that there are

1. A blessing on the Prophet and his family.

' T h e word adab (plural of adab) is rendered in this translation as "ethics"or

will be in them forever; however, Muslims who have com-

requirement is an unbeliever (kafir)\ he who does not fulfil

crafts but rather to devote oneself to acts of piety; this rule is

commend the good and forbid evil ( a l - a m r bil-ma'ruj wal-nahy

mendable, some is repugnant and hence reprehensible." Po-

(mahabba, khawf, raja.'). Movement in the course of sama may

37. The Sufis are distinguished by lofty sciences and noble

of one who has reached the position of stability. Zulaykha,

T h e adab of the people of religion are, in addition to

self famous for his asceticism (zuhd) spitting mucus in the

remote from one's home, service to the brethren, self-mortifica-

station. He should not speak about what he has not practiced,

tellect), and ma'rifa (gnosis).] T h e r e is a saying: " H e w h o