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UNIT 17 BUDDHISM, JAINISM AND

OTHER RELIGIOUS IDEAS

Structure

17.0 Objectives
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Rise of New Religious Ideas
17.3 Gautama Buddha and Origin of Buddhism
17.4 Teachings of Buddha
17.5 Development of Buddhism
17.5.1 Spread of Buddhism
17.5.2 The Institution of the Sangha
17.5.3 Buddhist Councils
17.5.4 Buddhist Schools
17.6 Origins of Jainism
17.6.1 Parsvanatha
17.6.2 Mahavira
17.7 Teachings of Mahavira
17.8 Development of Jainism
17.8.1 Spread of Jainism
17.8.2 Jain Councils
17.8.3 Sects
17.9 Other Heterodox Ideas
17.9.1 A j i v h
17.9.2 Other Ideas
17.10 Impact of the New Religious Movements
17.li LetUsSumUp
17.12 Keywords
17.13 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

17.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit you should be able to know about :
the background to the rise of new religious ideas during the sixth century B.C.,
the emergence and growth of Buddhism and Jainism,
the main tenets of these religions,
the influence these religions came to wield on contemporary society,
the other heterodox ideas prevalent in the sixth century B.C., and,
the significance of these religious movements.

17.1 INTRODUCTION
The sixth century B.C. was an important stage in Indian history as far as the development of
new religions is concerned. In this period, we notice a growing opposition to the ritualistic
orthodox ideas of the Brahmanas. This ultimately led to the emergence of many heterodox
religious movements. Among these Buddhism and Jainism developed into well organised
popular religions. This Unit attempts to analyse the emergence andsignificance of these new
religious ideas.
Firstly it deals with the factors that were responsible for the emergence and growth of
heterodox ideas. Then it goes on to explain how Buddha and Mahavira tried to find a
solution in their own ways to end human suffering. Since the causes for the emergence of
the& two religions are common in nature, the? is some similarity in the principles adopted
by these religions. However, they differ completely on some of the basic principles. We
have diact~saedthe.w nnints in the 1Tnit~
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India :6th to 4th Century B.C. The other heterodox religious ideas which were current during the sixth century B.C. have
also been dealt with. Finally we examine the impact of these religious movements on
contemporary economy and society.

17.2 RISE OF NEW RELIGIOUS IDEAS

The new religious ideas during this period emerged out of the prevailing social, economic
and religious conditions. Let us examine some of the basic reasons which contributed to
their emergence:
i) The Vedic religious practices had become cumbersome, and in the context of the new
society of the period had become in many cases meaningless ceremonies. Sacrifices and
rituals increased and became more elaborate and expensive. With the breakup of
communities, the participation in these practices also became restricted and as such
irrelevant to many sections in the society.
ii) Growing importance of sacrifices and rituals established the domination of the
Brahmanas in the society. They acted both as priests and teachers and through their
monopoly of performing sacred religious rites, they claimed the highest position in the
society which was now divided into four vamas.
iii) Contemporary economic and political developments, on the other hand, helped the
emergence of new social groups which acquired considerable economic power. You
have seen that merchants living in cities or even rich agricultural householders
possessed considerable wealth. Similarly, the Kshatriyas, whether in the monarchies or
in the gana-samghas, came to wield much more political power than before. These
social groups were opposed to the social positions defined for them by the Brahrnanas
on the basis of their heredity. As Buddhism and Jainism did not give much importance
to the notion of birth for social status, they attracted the Vaisyas to their folds.
Similarly, the Kshatriyas i.e. the ruling class were also unhappy with Brahmanical
domination. Briefly put, it was basically the discontent generated hy the dominant
position of the Brahmanas in the society, which contributed to the social support behind
the new religious ideas. It is worth remembering that both Buddha and Mahavira came
from Kshatriya class but in their search for answers to the pressing problems of society
they went beyond boundaries set by their birth. Further, when we try to find out how
their ideas were received by their contemporaries, we notice that they had a range of
people responding to them: Kings, big merchants, rich householders, Brahmans and
even courtesans. They all represented the new society which was emerging in the sixth
century B.C. and Buddha and Mahavira, and other thinkers of those times, in their own
ways, responded to the problems of a new social order. The Vedic ritualistic practices
had ceased to be of much relevance to this new social order.

Buddha and Mahavira, were by no means, the first to criticise the existing religious beliefs.
Many religious preachers before them, like Kapila, Makkali Gosala, Ajita Kesakambalin and
Pakuda Kachchayana had already highlighted the evils of the Vedic religions. They also
developed new ideas on life and God. New philosophies were also being preached.
iiowever, it was Buddha and Mahavira, who provided an alternative religious order.

This was the background which helped the emergence and establishment of new religious
orders in the sixth century B.C. Among these Buddhism and Jainism were most popular and
well organised. We will now discuss the origin and development of Buddhism and Jainism
separately.

17.3 GAUTAMA BUDDHA AND ORIGIN OF BUDDHISM

Buddhism was founded by Gautama Buddha who had been given the name Siddhartha by
his parents. His father was Suddhodana, the chief of the Sakya clan and mother was Maya,
princess of the Koliya clan He was born in the Lumbini grove (modem Rumindei) in Nepal
Tarai. We know this through an inscribed pillar of Asoka. The date of birth of Buddha is a
matter of dispute but most of the scholars place it about 566 B.C.
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traditions describe it, he was deeply affected by the sight of an old man, a sick person, a Buddhism, Jainism and
Other Religious Ideas
dead body and an ascetic. The misery of the human life cast a deep spell on Gautama.
In order to find a solution to the misery of-mankind, he left home at the age of 29.

Gautama spent six years as a wandering ascetic. From a sage named Alara Kalama he
learned the technique of meditation and the teachings of the upanishadas. Since these
teachings did not lead Gautama to the final liberation, he left him with five Brahmana
ascetics.

10. The Birth of Buddha

He practised rigid austerities and resorted to different kinds of self torture to find the truth.
Ultimately abandoning this he went to Uruvela (near, modem Bodh Gaya on the banks of
Niranjiina river) and sat under a pipal tree (Bodhi tree-). Here he attained the supreme
knowledge (Enlightenment) on the 49th day of his continuous meditation. Since then he was
called the Buddha (the enlightened one). From here he proceeded to the Deer park at Sarnath
near Varinasi and gave his first sermon which is known as 'Dharmachakra Pravartana'
(setting in motion the wheel of Dharma).

Asvajit, Upali, Mogallana. Sari-putra and Anada were the first five disciples of Buddha.
Buddhl hid the foundations of the Buddhist Sangha. He preached most of his sermons at
Srdvasti. Anathapindika. the rich merchant of Sravasti became his follower and made liberal
donations to the Buddhist order.

Soon he started visiting various places to propagate hi\ \emon\. Cte visited Sarnath,
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Indh : 6th to 4th Century B-C. Mathura, Rajgir, Gaya and Padiputra. Kings like Bimbisara, Ajatasatru (Magadha),
Prasenajita (Kosala) and Udayana (Kausarnbi) accepted his doctrines and became his
disciples. He also visited Kapilavastu and converted his foster mother and his son Rahula to
his faith.

At the age of 80 (486 B.C.) he died at KusinagaraQCasiain Deoria district in Uttar Pradesh),
the capital of the Mallas. Let us examine the teachings of Buddha which became popular
and gave a new direction to the religious ideas of the time.

17.4 TEACHINGS OF BUDDHA

The basic teachings of Buddha are contained in:
a) Four Noble Truths, and
b) Eight Fold Path
The following are the Four Noble Truths:
i) The world is full of sufferings.
ii) All sufferings have a cause: desire, ignorance and attachment are the causes of
sufferings.
iii) The suffering could be removed by destroying its cause.
iv) In order to end sufferings one must know the right path. This path is the Eight Fold Path
(Ashtangika Marga).
The Eight Fold Path consists of the following principles:
i) Finding the right view. It is to understand that the world is filled with sorrow generated
by desire. The ending of desire will lead to the liberation of the soul.
ii) Right aim. It seeks to avoid the enjoyment of the senses and luxury. It aims to love
humanity and increase the happiness of others.
iii) Right speech, which seeks to emphasise the speaking of truth always.
iv) Right action, which is understood to be unselfish action.
V) Right livelihood. It instructs that a man should live by honest means.
vi) Right effort. It is the proper way of controlling one's senses so as to prevent bad
thoughts. It is through correct mental exercises that one can destroy desire and
attachment.
vii) Right mindfulness. It is the understanding of the idea that the body is impermanent and
meditation is the means for the removal of worldly evils.
viii) Right concentration. The observation of it will lead to peace. Meditation will unravel
the real truth.

Buddhism laid great emphasis on the law of 'karma'. According to this law present is
determined by the past actions. The condition of a man in this life and the next depends
upon his own actions.

Every individual is the maker of his own destiny. We are born again and again to reap the
fruits of our 'karma'. If an individual has no sins, he is not born again. Thus the doctrine of
k m a is the essential part of the teachings of Buddha.

Buddha preached 'nirvana', the ultimate goal in the life of a man. It means the shedding of
all desires, and ending of sufferings, which finally leads to freedom from rebirth. By a
process of elimination of desire, one can attain 'nirvana'. Therefore, Buddha preached that
annihilation of desire is the real problem. Prayers and sacrifices will not end the desire. So
unlike the emphasis on rituals and ceremonies in Vedic religion he laid emphasis on the
moral life of an individual.

Buddha neither accepted nor rejected the existence of God. He was more concerned about
the individual and his actions. Buddhism also did not believe in the existence of soul.
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Besides these Buddha laid stress on certain other aspects: Buddhism, Jainism and
Other Religious Ideas
Buddha emphasised on the spirit of love. Love could be expressed on all living beings by
following 'ahimsa' (non-killing). Though the principle was well understood, it was not
emphasised as much as in Jainism.
An individual should pursue the middle path and both severe asceticism as well as
luxurious life are to be avoided.
Teachings of Buddha put forward a serious challenge to the existing Brahmanical ideas:
i) Buddha's liberal and democratic approach quickly attracted the people of all sections.
His attack on the caste system and the supremacy of the Brahmins was welcomed by the
people of the lower orders. Irrespective of caste and sex people were taken into the .
Buddhist order. In Buddhism salvation lay in one's good deals. So there was no need of
a priest or middle man to achieve 'nirvana' the ultimate goal of life.
ii) Buddha rejected the authority of the Vedas and condernnccl animal sacrifices. He
protested against the complicated and meaningless ritt1.r I\. He said that neither a
sacrifice to gods can wash away sin, nor any prayer ol any priest do any good to a
sinner.

Buddhism in a very short period emerged into an organised religion and Buddha's teachings
were codified.

The Buddhist canons (collection of teachings) are divided into three sections namely:
i) The Sutta Pitaka consists of five sections (nikayas) of religious discourses and sayings
of Buddha. The fifth section contains the Jataka tales (birth stories of Buddha).

11. Preaching Buddha (Gupta Period)

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India :6th to 4th Century B.C. ii) The Vinaya Pitaka contains the rules of monastic discipline.
iii) The Abhidhamma Pitaka contains the philosophical ideas of teachings of Buddha. It is
written in the form of questions and answers.

Let us examine the factors which contributed to the popularity of Buddhism.

17.5.1 Spread of Buddhism

Even during the life time of its founder, Buddhism was accepted by a large section of
people. For example people of Magadha, Kosala and Kausambi had embraced Buddhism.
The republics of Sakyas, Vajjis and Mallas also followed the process. Later on, Asoka and
Kanishka made Buddhism state religion and it spread into central Asia, West Asia and Sri
Lanka. This appeal of Buddhism to a large section of population was because of the
following factors :
Emphasis on practical morality, an easily acceptable solution to the problems of mankind
and a simple philosophy, attracted the masses towards Buddhism.
The ideas of social equality laid down in the codes of Buddhism made many lay
followers accept Buddhism.
Merchants, like Anathirpindika, and courtesans, like Amrapali, accepted the faith because
they got due respect in this religion.
The use of popular language (Pali) to explain the doctrines also helped in the spread of
the religion. This was because the Brahmanical religion had limited itself so the use of
Sanskrit which was not the language of the masses.
The patronage extended by kings was another important reason for the rapid growth of
Buddhism. For example according to tradition Asoka sent his son Mahendra and his
daughter Sangamitra to Sri Lanka to preach Buddhism. He also established many
monastries and contributed liberally to the Sangha.
The institution of Sangha had helped to organise the spread of Buddhism effectively.

17.5.2 The Institution of the Sangha

The Sangha was the religious order of the Buddhists. It was a well organised and powerful
institution which popularised Buddhism. Membership was open to all persons, irrespective
of caste, above fifteen years of age. Criminals, lepers and persons affected by infectious
diseases were not given admission into the Sangha. Initially Buddha was not in favour of
admitting women in the Surgha. However he admitted them at the repeated requests of his
chief disciple Ananda and his foster mother Mahapajapati Gotami.

On admission, the monks had to ceremonially shave their head and wear yellow or saffron
robes. Monks were expected to go on a daily round in order to preach Buddhism and seek
alms. During the four months of the rainy season they took up a fixed abode and meditated.
This was called the retreat or 'vasa'. The Sanghas also promoted education among the
people. Unlike Brahmanism people of different orders of the society had entry .to education.
Naturally the non-Brahmins who were deprived of education got access to education in
Buddhism and thus education reached wider sections of the society.

The Sangha was governed by democratic principles and was empowered to enforce
discipline amongst its members. There was a code of conduct for the monks and nuns and
they were bound to obey it. The Sangha had the power to punish the emng members.

17.5.3 Buddhist Cauncils

According to tradition s h d y after the death of Buddha the first Buddhist Council was held
in 483 B.C. in the Saptapmi cave near Rajagriha. Mahakassapa presided over the assembly.
All the teachings of Buddha were divided into two Pitakas, namely
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a) Vinaya Pitaka, and Buddhism, Jainim and

Other Religious Ideas
b) Sutta Pitaka.
The text of Vinaya Pitaka was established under the leadership of Upali and those of Sutta
Pitaka was settled under the leadership of Ananda.
The second Council was held at Vaisali in 383 B.C. The monks of Vaisali and Pataliputra
had accepted certain rules which were declared as contrary to the teaching of Buddha by the
monks of Kausarnbi and Avanti. The Council failed to bring about a compromise between
the two opposing groups; Nence the council ended in a permanent split of the Buddhist order
into Sthaviravadins and Mahasangikas. The former upheld the orthodox Vinaya Pitaka
while the latter favoured the new rules and their further relaxation.

The third Council was held at Pataliputra during the reign of Asoka under the chairmanship
of Moggaliputta Tissa. In this Council the philosophical interpretations of the doctrines of
Buddha were collected into the third Pitaka called Abhidhamma Pitaka. An attempt was
made in this Council to free the Buddhist order from the dissidents and innovations.
Heretical monks numbering sixty thousand were expelled from the order. The true canonical
literature was defmed and authoritatively settled to eliminate all disruptive tendencies.

The fourth Council was held during the reign of Kanishka in Kashrnir. This council was a
gathering of Hinayanists of North India. It compiled three commentaries (Vibhashas) of
the three Pitalcas. It decided certain controversial questions of differences that arose
between the Sarvastivada teachers of Kashrnir and Gandhara.

17.5.4 Buddhist Schools

In the second Council held at Vaisali, the Buddhist order was split into two schools namely :
a) Sthaviravadins, and
b) Mahasangikas
The Sthaviravadins followed strict monastic life and rigid disciplinary laws as originally
prescribed.
The group which followed a modified disciplinary rules was called the Mahasangikas.

Mahayanism developed after the fourth Buddhist Council. In opposition to the group
(Hinayana sect) who believed in orthodox teaching of Buddha those who accepted the new
ideas were called the Mahayana sect. They made an image of Buddha and worshipped it as
god. In the first century A.D., during the period of Kanishka some doctrinal changes were
made.

Check Your Progress 1

1) Explain the Buddhist philosophy of 'Nirvana' and 'Karma'. Answer in five lines.

...........................................................................................................................................
2) List the factors responsible for the growth of Buddhism. Answer in five lines.

...........................................................................................................................................
3) Mark which of the statements is right (4 ) or wrong (x).
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1 Indh :6th to 4th Century B.C. ii) Buddha delivered his first sermon at Bodh Gaya.
iii) Severe asceticism was preached by Buddha.
iv) Buddha did not believe in rebirth.
v) Buddha believed in the existence of God.

17.6 ORIGINS OF JAINISM

According to Jaina traditions, twenty four Tirthankaras were responsible for the origin and
development of Jaina religion and philosophy. Of these, the fust twenty two are of doubtful
historicity. In the case of the last two, Parsvanatha and Mahavira, Buddhist works also
c o n f i their historicity.

17.6.1 Parsvanatha
According to Jaina tradition the twenty-third Tirthankara, Parsvanatha was the son of King
Asvasena of Varanasi and his Queen Vama. He abandoned the throne at the age of t h i i and
became an ascetic. He received enlightenment after 84 days of penance. He died at the age
of 100 years, nearly 250 years before Mahavira. Parsvanatha believed in the eternity of
'matter'. He left behind him a good number of followers. The followers of Parsvanatha wore
a white garment. Thus it is cbar that even before Mahavira some kind of Jaina faith existed.

17;6.2 Mahavira
The twenty-fourth Tirthankara was Vardhamana Mahavira. He was born in Kundagrama
(Basukunda), a suburb of Vaisali (Muzzaffarpur district, Bihar) in 540 B.C. His father,
Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrikas, a Kshatriya clan. His mother was Trishala, a
Lichchhavi princess. Vardhamana was given a good education and was married to Yashoda.
He had a daughter by her.

At the age of thirty, Vardhamana left his home and became an ascetic. At first he wore a
single garment which he abandoned after 13 months and began to wander as a 'naked
monk'. For twelve years he lived the life of an ascetic following severe austerities. In the
13th year of his asceticism, at the age of 42, he attained the 'supreme knowledge'. He was
later known as 'Mahavir' (the supreme hero), or 'Jina' (the conqueror). He was also hailed
as 'Nugrantha' (free from fetters).

For the next t h i i years he moved from place to place and preached his doctrines in Kosala,
Magadha and further east. He wandered for eight months in a year and spent the four
months of the rainy season in some famous town of eastern India. He often visited the courts
of Bimbisara and Ajatasatru. He died at Pawa (near Rajagriha) in Patna district at the age of
72 (468 B.C.).

17.7 TEACHINGS OF MAHAVIRA

Mahavira accepted most of the religious doctrines laid down by Parsvanatha. However, he
made some alterations and additions to them.

Parsvanatha advocated the following four principles:

b) non-violence,
c) non-possession, and
d) not to receive anything which was not voluntarily given. To this Mahavira added
celibacy (brahmacharya).

.. .. . .. . -. . .. . . . . ..
Mahavira believed that soul (jiva) and matter (ajiva) are the two basic existing elements.
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I previous births. By means of continued efforts the soul can be relieved of bondage. This is
the final liberation (moksha) of the soul. The liberated soul then becomes 'the pure soul'.
Buddhism, Jainism and
Other Religious Ideas

12. Jein Tlrthankere (Gupta Perlod)

According ta Jainism, man is the creator of his own destiny and he could attain 'moksha' by
pursuing a life of purity, virtue andnnunciation. Moksha (nirvana) can be attained by
observing the following three principles (ratnatraya):
i) Right belief.
ii) ~ i g hknowledge,
t and
iii) Right action.
He advocated a life of severe asceticism and extreme penance for the attainment of
'nirvana' or the highest spiritual state.
He believed that the world was not created by any supreme creator. The world functions
according to an eternal law of decay and development.
He thought that all objects, animate and inanimate had a soul. He believed that they feel pain
or the influence of injury.
He rejected the authority of Vedas and objected to Vedic rituals and the supremacy of the
Brahmanas.
A code of conduct was prescribed both for householders and for monks. For the purpose of
avoiding evil karmas, a householder had to observe the following five vows:
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i) non-injury,
ii) non-stealing,
iii) non-adultery,
iv) speaking the truth, and
V) non-possession.

It was also prescribed that a householder should feed cooked food to the needy everyday.

He preached that lay worshippers should not take to agriculture, since this involved the
d e h c t i o n of plants and insects.

A monk had to observe certain strict rules. He had to abandon all worldly possessions. He
had to root out every hair of his head by his own hands. He could walk only during the day,
taking care that he did not kill or injure any being. He had to train himself so as not to be
affected by objects of the senses.

Jainism believed that the monastic life was essential to attain salvation and a householder
could not att;tin it.

According to tradition the original doctrines taught by Mahavira were contained in 14 old
texts known as 'purvas'. In the first Council at Pataliputra, Sthulabhadra divided the Jaina
canon into 12 'angas' or sections. This was accepted by Svetambaras. However, the
Digambaras refused to accept this claiming that all the old scriptures were lost. At the
second Council held at Vallabhi new additions were made in the f o m of 'Upangas' or
minor sections.

Among the 12 angas the Acharanga sutta k d Bhagavati sutta are the most important.
While the former deals with the code of conduct which a Jaina monk is required to follow,
the later expounds the Jaina doctrines in a comprehensive manner.

DEVELOPMENT OF JAINISM
Teachings of Mahavira became very popular among the masses and different sections of the
society were attracted to it. Like Buddhism in Jainism also with the change of time a lot of
changes came in. We will now see what contributed to the spread of this religion and what
were the developments in it.

17.8.1 Spread of Jainism

Mahavira had eleven disciples known as Ganadharas or heads of schools. Arya Sudharma
was the only Ganadhara who survived Mahavira and became the first 'Thera' (chief
preceptor) of the Jaina order. He died 20 years after Mahavira's death. The Jain order in the
days of the late Nanda King was administered by two Theras :
a) Sambhutavijaya, and
b) Bhadrabahu.

The sixth Thera was Bhadrabahu, a contemporary of the Maurya King Chandragupta
Maurya.

The followers of Mahavira slowly spread over the who?e country. In many regions royal
patronage was bestowed upon Jainism. According to Jain tradition, Udayin, the successor of
Ajatsatru was a devoted Jain. Jain monks were seen on the banks of the river Indus, when
Alexander invaded India. Chiindragupta Maurya was a follower of Jainism and he migrated
with Bhadrabahu to the South and spread Jainism. During 'the early centdies of the
Christian era Mathura and Ujjain became great Fentres of Jainism.

The success of Jainism was more remarkable than Buddhism. One of the important causes
for the success was the popular dialect (Prakrit, Religious literature was also written in
Ardhamagadhi) used in place of Sanskrit by Mahavira and his followers. The simple and
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homely morals prescribed to the masses attracted the people. The patronage extended by Buddhism, Jainism and
Other Religious Ideas
Kings helped Jainism to gain a place in the minds of the people.

17.8.2 Jain Councils

Towards the close of Chandragupta Maurya's rule a terrible famine broke out in South
Bihar. It lasted for about 12 years. Bhadrabahu and his disciples migrated to Sravanabelgola
in Karnataka. Other Jains remained in Magadha with Sthulabhadra as their leader. They
summoned a council at Pataliputra at about 300 B.C. In that council the sacred teachings of
Mahavira were divided into twelve angas.

The second Jain Council was held at Vallabhi (Gujarat) in 5 12 A.D. and was presided over
by Devardhi Kshemasarmana. The purpose of this Council was to collect the Sacred texts
and write them down systematically. However this time the 12th anga drawn at the first
Council was lost. All the remaining angas were written in Ardhamagadhi.

17.8.3 Sects
The split in the Jaina order is widest from the third century B.C. The differences over
wearing a garment was apparent even during the times of Mahavira. The followers of
Bhadrabahu, after their return from Sravanabelgola to Magadha refused to acknowledge the
canon holding that all the 14 purvas were lost. Moreover a wide gulf had developed
between those who emigrated and those who stayed in Magadha. The latter had becoine
accustomed to wearing white garments and made a departure from Mahavira's teachings,
while the former still continued going naked and strictly followed his teachings. Hence, the
first split in the Jaina order was between the Digambaras (sky clad or naked) and
Svetambaras (clad in white).

During the later years further splits took place among both the sections, the most important
of them being one that renounced idol worship altogether and devoted itself to the worship
of the scriptures. They were called the Terapanthis among the Svetambaras and the
Samaiyas among the Digambaras. (This sect came into existence about the sixth century
A.D.)

17.9 OTHER HETERODOX IDEAS

Many non-vedic ideas were prevalent in this period. They later developed into small sects.
Among them the Ajivika sect had a considerable number of followers with a recognised
organisation.

17.9.1. Ajivikas

The Ajivikas are said to be sudra sanyasins. The sect was said to be established by Nanda
Vachcha, who was followed by Kisa Sankichcha. The third religious chief was Makkali
Gosala, who popularised this sect. He denied the theory of 'karma' and argued that man is
subject to the laws of nature. The Ajivikas believed that the thought and deed of an
individual were predetermined (decided before birth). They did not believe that there was
any special cause for either the misery of human beings or for their deliverance. They did
not believe in human effort and held that all creatures were helpless against destiny. Gosala
maintained that all creatures had to face misery and it would end after the completion of
fixed cycles. No human effort would reduce or lengthen the period. Gosala's followers
centred round Sravasti, the capital of Kosala where Gos.ala preached and died sixteen years
before Mahavira.

17.9.2 Other Ideas

The Charvakas believed in complete materialism. They held that an individual's body is
formed of matter and finally would end in matter. Therefore, the aim of human life should
be to enjoy all the material pleasures of life.

I Purana Kassapa preached the doctrine of Akriya or non-action. He was a Brahman teacher
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I India : 0th to 4th Century B.C. whose main doctrine was that action did not lead to either merit or demerit. According to
him, even if a man killed all the creatures on earth he would not incur any sin. Similarly, he
would not e m any merit through a good deed or even by standing on the bank of Ganges.
Similarly self-control, gifts and truthfulness would not e m him any credit.

Ajita Kesakambalin preached that everything ended with death and there is no further life
after death. -Hedid no1 believe in the fruits of good or bad acts or persons possessing higher
or supernatural powers. According to this sect there is nothing wrong in enjoying the
pleasures of the world, and there is no sin in killing.

Pakudha Kachchayna preached the doctrine of Asasvatavada. According to it, there are
seven elements, which are immutable and do not in any way contribute to pleasure or pain.
The body is ultimately dissolved into these seven elements.

IMPACT OF THE NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS

The rise and development of the new religious ideas had brought some significant changes
in the contemporary social life. Following are some of the important changes.
i) The idea of social equality was popularised in this period. The Buddhists and Jains did
not give any importance to the caste system. They accepted members of different castes
in their religious order. This was a great threat to the age long domination of the
Brahmanas in the society. Acceptance of women in the Buddhist order also had an
important impact in the society because this gave women equal status with men in the
society.
ii) Brahmanical texts had assigned an inferior position to traders. Sea voyages were also
condemned. But as Buddhists and Jains did not give any importance to caste and did not
look down upon sea voyages so the trading community was very much encouraged by
these new religious ideas. Moreover the emphasis on 'karma' by this new religious
ideas for future life also indirectly favoured the activities of the trading community.
iii) The new religions gave importance to languages like Prakrit, Pali and Ardha Magadhi.
Buddhist and Jaina philosophies were discussed in these languages and later, canons
were written in the local language\. This paved the way for the development of
vernacular literature. Thus the Jains, tor the first time, gave a literary shape to the mixed
dialect, Ardha Magadhi, by writing their i.anons in this dialect.

Check Your Progress 2

1) What are the basic principles of Jainism? Answer in 100 words.

2) Who are Ajivikas ? What are their ideas? Answer in five lines.
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i 3) Mark which of the statement is right (4 ) or wrong (x ). Buddhism, Jeinism and

Other Religious Ideas
8

i) Mahavira added the idea of celibacy to the four principles of Parsvanatha.

ii) Mahavira did not believe in the supreme creator.
iii) The concept of 'Nirvana' is same in Buddhism and Jainism.
iv) The original texts of the doctrines of Mahavira are known as 'Purvas'.
V) The rise of heterodox sects resulted in the development of vernacular literature.
d

17.11 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit you have seen the emergence and establishment of new religious ideas in the
sixth century B.C. in North India. The contemporary socio-economic needs largely
contributed to the emergence of these new religious ideas. Among these, Buddhism and
Jainism became very popular among the people. In spite of some differences, both the
religions put emphasis on humanity, moral life, 'Karma' and 'Ahimsa'. Both of them were
highly critical of caste system, domination of the Brahmanas, animal sacrifices and the ideas
of God. This was a direct challenge to the existing Vedic religion. Besides this, you haw
also learnt about other heterodox sects like Ajivikas and their ideas. All these brought about
a significant change in the attitude of the people and they, as a result, began to question the
age long supremacy of the Brahmanical religion.

17.12 KEY WORDS

Ahimsa: Non-killing or non-violence
Heterodox: Non-orthodox
Karma: Action of an individual
Pitakas: Buddhist religious texts
Purvas: Jain religious texts
Schism: Division of an organisation into two or more groups.
Sect: Group of people united by beliefs or opinions.
Tirthankara: Refers to the Jain preachers who acquired supreme knowledge.

17.13 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress 1
1) You have to write here, what Buddha meant by 'Nirvana' and 'Karma'. See Section
17.4.
2) Your answer should include the practical aspect of Buddhism, its emphasis on social
equality, popular language, etc. See Sub-see. 17.5.1.
3) i) J
ii) x
iii) x
iv) J
v) x

Check Your Progress 2

1) You have to discuss the five principles i.e. truth, non-violence, non-possession, not to
receive anything, celibacy and then how one can attain nirvana by following the
principles of right belief, right knowledge and right action.
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India :6th to 4th Century B.C. See Section 17.7

2) The sect founded by Nan& Vachcha and is said to b e s f Sudra Sllnydns. They
believed that man is subject to the laws of nature. See Sub-sec. 17.10.1.
3) i) J
ii) J
iii) x
iv) J
v)

SOME USEFUL BOOKS FOR THIS BLOCK

Allchin, Bridget and Raymond; The Rise of Civilisations in India and Pakistan, New Delhi,
1988
Kosambi, D.D;The Culture and Civilisation of Ancient fndia in Historical Outline,
New Delhi, 1987
Ghosh, A, The City in Early Historical India, Simla, 1973
Sharrna R.S; Material Cultures and Social Formations in Ancient India, New Delhi 1983
Shanna, R S ; Perspectives in the Social and Economic History of Ancient India
Wagle, N; Sociefy at the Time of the Buddha, Bombay, 1966.