UNIT 6

PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TRANSFER

Unit objective: At the end of the unit, the student should be able to comprehend
with the principles of heat transfer applied to food processing and
preservation.

Specific objectives: To be able to

1. Define the different mechanisms involved in the occurrence of heat

transfer,

2. Explain the different mathematical evaluations commonly used for heat

transfer,

3. Describe the possible applications of the principles and concepts

regarding heat transfer in food processing and preservation, and

4. Solve basic problems involving heat transfer.

Suggested topics:

1. Heat Transfer Through Conduction

2. Heat Transfer Through Convection

3. Heat Transfer by Radiation

Teaching Materials:
1. Information sheet

2. Figures and Table

3. Assignment sheet

4. References:

a. John C. Harper, 1976. Elements of Food Engineering. The AVI

Pub. Co. Inc, Westport, Connecticut. pp 119-187.

b. Faires and Simmang, 1978. Thermodynamics. MacMillan Pub. Co.,

Inc., New York, London, 6th ed, pp 517-561.

c. Roth, et al, 1981. An Introduction to Agricultural Engineering. The

AVI Pub. Co. Inc, Westport, Connecticut. pp 264-272.

d. Henderson and Perry, 1979. Agricultural Process Engineering. The

AVI Pub. Co. Inc, Westport, Connecticut. pp 237-280.
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INFORMATION SHEET

The following are symbols used in this unit:

Dimensionless numbers
Gr Grashof number = L3p2gt/2
Gz Graetz number = RePr(L/D)(/4) = mcp/kL
Nu Nusselt number = hD/k
Pr Prandtl number = cp/k
Re reynolds number = DVp/
St Stanton number = Nu/PrRe = h/cpVp
E radiation energy flux, usually Btu/(hr)(ft 2)
Eb radiation energy flux for black body
F12 factor for combined emissivities and space relationship of
bodies 1 and 2
h conductance film coefficient of heat transfer, Btu/(hr)(ft 2)(F)
hr equivalent conductance for radiation
I intensity of radiation flux, usually Btu/(hr)(ft 2)
k thermal conductivity, Btu/(hr)(ft2)(F)
L characteristic length dimension, e.g., length of cylinder, side
of a square, etc.
Q quantity of heat, Btu
q rate of heat transfer, Btu/hr
q1-2 total radiation emitted by surface 1 that is absorbed by
surface 2
q2-1 total radiation emitted by surface 2 that is absorbed by
surface 1
qnet net heat transfer by radiation between two surfaces
R resistance, F hr/Btu
Rt total resistance
U overall heat transfer coefficient, Btu/(hr)(ft 2)(F)
Subscripts
c cold side
d deposit
e equivalent
h hot side
i inside or insulation
lm logarithmic mean
o outside
s solids or steam
w wall or water
 absorptivity
 coefficient of thermal expansion
 emissivity, dimensionless
 Stefan-Boltzman constant, 0.1713 x 10-8 Btu/(hr)(ft2)(R4)

c
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UNIT 5

PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TRANSFER

Quantity of heat was defined in the previous unit as energy that is

transferred as a result of temperature difference. In the study of equilibrium
properties there is no limit on the length of time available for changes to take
place. The solution of many problems requires nothing more than the application
of equilibrium thermodynamic relationships.

Thermal energy in a substance is manifested through the random motions

of molecules, atoms, and sub-atomic particles. The temperature is merely a
measured of the level of such motion.

There are three broad mechanisms by which transfer of heat can occur:
conduction, convection, and radiation. In conduction, the energy is transmitted
from particle to particle by a process of direct contact or random collisions, with
bulk movement of material. Transfer of heat by convection involves bulk mixing
of fluids of different temperatures. Radiation is the transfer of energy from a
radiating source through space that may or may not be occupied by matter.

HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH CONDUCTION

Temperature is the driving force for flow of heat. The larger the
temperature difference, the greater will be the rate of heat flow. Heat flow rate is
also proportional to the perpendicular to the direction of flow. Finally, heat flow
decreases as the length of path for a given temperature difference increases.
These conditions are illustrated in Figure 5.1, so the rate of heat flow is given by
the expression:

q = - kAdt/dx eq. 5.1

A
A

t+dt
t

Figure 5.1. Conductive heat flow conventions

 52

where q is in Btu/hr, A = cross sectional area of flow path in ft 2, x = distance

through conducting medium in ft, and t in F. The factor k is a proportionality
constant that is called the thermal conductivity with units of Btu/hr(ft)( F) can be
taken from the table. The minus sign is included as a convention to give a
positive value of q. In order that heat will flow, the temperature must decrease in
the direction of the arrow in Figure 5.1, and dt is therefore a negative quantity.
The above equation is known as Fourier’s Law.

The thermal conductivity is a property of a substance, and tables of

thermal conductivity are available. Metals have high thermal conductivity, since
conductivity is related to the number of free electrons available for transferring
energy. Thermal conductivity depends on the temperature of the material. A
complete vacuum has zero thermal conductivity and evacuated jackets are
commonly used insulating devices. Most insulating materials have porous
structure that entraps a quantity of air or gas. A thick layer of gas in principle is
having low thermal conductivity but it would be impossible to eliminate
convection currents.

Most of the processing and preservation plants are concerned with heat
conduction in one direction. Furthermore, we are interested in steady-state heat
conduction, meaning that q is constant.

If we rearrange the above equation, then we have

(q/A)dx = -kdt eq. 5.2

If area A is constant over the length of the heat flow path and the thermal
conductivity can be considered constant, then by integrating the above
expression becomes

(q/A)x = k(t1 – t2) eq. 5.3

This equation is the integrated form of Fourier’s Law for unidirectional steady-
state heat conduction over a path of constant cross-sectional area.

Example 1: A steel rod having a 1-inch diameter is placed with one end in
boiling water at 212F and the other end in an ice bath. The rod is insulated so
that there is no heat loss or gained through the outer surface of the rod between
the two baths. If the net length of the rod is 20 in., How much heat flows through
the rod from the hot to the cold bath? The thermal conductivity of steel is 26
Btu/(hr)(ft)(F).

Solution: from the above equation,

q = (kA/x)(t1 – t2)

A = D2/4 = (/4)(1/144) = 0.00545 ft2

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x = 30 in. = 2.5 ft
q = (26)(0.00545)(1/2.5)(212 – 32) = 10.2 Btu/hr

If the temperature difference is very large, the variation of k with

temperature may be important. It can be resolve by using the average k from k 1
at t1 and k2 at t2. That is, using the plot or graph of thermal conductivity k versus
temperature.

Conduction Through Cylindrical Surface

Another consideration arises when the area of the heat flow path varies
along its length. Such situation in the conduction of heat through the wall of a
hallow cylinder like the pipe. In this case, the heat flow in radial direction, and
the area through which the heat flows is the cylindrical surface, increasing from
the inner to outer radius and is given by the expression

A = 2r L

Substituting this equation into Eq. 5.2, and letting r replace x as the distance
measure,

qdr/2rL = - kdt

Integrating between the limits of r1 and r2,

(q/2rL) ln(r2/r1) = kav(t1 – t2)

or
2Lkav(t1 – t2)
q=
ln(r2/r1)

By algebraic manipulation, we can find an expression for a mean area that, if

substituted into Eq. 5.3, will give the correct heat flow rate. We will rearrange Eq.
5.3 as
q = Am kav(t1 – t2)/(r2 – r1) eq. 5.3a

where r2 – r1 represents the length of path x, and comparing Eq. 5.3a and 3.4,
we can write
Am/(r2 – r1) = 2L/ln(r2/r1)
or
Am = 2L(r2 – r1) / ln(r2/r1) = (A2 – A1) / ln(A2/A1) eq.5.5

where A1 = 2r1L and A2 = 2r2L.

The expression on the right side of Eq. 5.5 is called a logarithmic mean.
 54

Example 2: A 2-in. standard steel pipe is carrying steam at a temperature

of 250F. the pipe is covered with 1-in thickness of magnesia insulation [k = 0.05
Btu/(hr)(ft)(F)]. If the outer temperature of the insulation is 115F, what is the
heat loss per foot of length?

Solution: the inside radius of the insulation is the same as the outside pipe
radius, or 2.375/2 in. The logarithmic mean area is most directly obtained from
the logarithmic mean radius.

r1 = 2.375/2(12) = 0.099 ft

r2 = r1 + 1/12 = 0.099 + 0.083 = 0.182 ft

rm = (r2 – r1)/ln(r2/r1) = 0.083/ln(0.182/0.099) = 0.136 ft

Am = 2rmL = 2(0.136)(1) = 0.856 ft2

q = Am kav(t1 – t2)/(r2 – r1) = 0.856(0.050)(250 – 115)/(1/12)

= 69.4 Btu/hr

Concept of Resistance

The heat flows from high temperature point toward low temperature point
and becomes true if it results from driving force caused by the temperature
difference (or temperature gradient).

In the flow system either heat, fluid or electricity, the rate of flow is
proportional to the driving force, and the common practice is to express the
proportionality constants as a resistance similar to that of electrical resistance
shown by Ohm’s Law. Thus, a slight rearrangement will put Eq. 5.3, the
integrated form of Fourier’s Law into the form:

(t2 – t1) (t2 – t1)

q= =
x/kA R

where the thermal resistance, R, is equal to x/kA. The above form of the
equation provides no new information but the analogy provides a very powerful
experimental tool.

Resistance in Series and Parallel

The very common application in practice is that of heat conduction through

a wall made up of layers of several different materials. Figure 5.1 shows three
layers of different materials that made up a wall. Each layer is having different
thickness and conductivity. Under steady state conditions, the heat flow rate, q,
must be the same through each of the layers. Then, we can write
 55

(t1 – t2) (t2 – t3) (t3 – t4) (t1 – t4)

q= = = =
Ra Rb Rc Rt

where Ra = xa/kaA; Rb = xb/kbA; Rc = xc/kcA; and Rt is an overall or total

resistance. Solving for the temperature differences in the above equation,

t1 – t2 = qRa ; t2 – t3 = qRb ; t3 – t4 = qRc

Adding these three expressions,

t1 – t4 = q(Ra + Rb + Rc) = qRt

Thus, for resistance in series, the total resistance is the sum of the individual
resistances.

xa xb xc

q ka kb kc

t1 t2 t3 t4
Ra Rb Rc

xa/kaA xb/kbA xc/kcA

Figure 5.2. Wall section of three different thermal conductivities with equivalent
electrical resistances

Figure 5.2 illustrates the problem of heat flow through several resistances
in parallel. The total q is the sum of the q’s through the individual resistance, and
the temperature differences for the individual resistances are all the same and
equal to the overall temperature difference. Hence, we have

qa = (t1 – t2)/Ra ; qb = (t1 – t2)/Rb ; qc = (t1 – t2)/Rc

Then, adding the above expressions to have

Q = qa + qb + qc = (t1 – t2)(1/Ra + 1/Rb + 1/Rc) = (t1 – t2)(1/Rt)

1/Rt = 1/Ra + 1/Rb + 1/Rc

Example 3: The walls of the food warehouse are made up of a 4-in

concrete slab lined with 3-in layer of foamed plastic insulation. The thermal
conductivity of the concrete and plastic are 0.50 and 0.03 Btu/(hr)(ft)(F),
respectively. If the inside surface temperature of the plastic insulation is 0F and
the outer surface of the concrete wall is at 78F, calculate the heat flow per
 56

square foot of area through the wall and the temperature at the boundary
between the concrete and the insulation.

Solution:

Rc = xc/kcA = (4/12)/(0.50)(1.0) = 0.667(F)(hr)/Btu

Ri = xi/kiA = (3/12)/(0.03)(1.0) = 8.333(F)(hr)/Btu

Rt = Rc + RI = 0.667 + 8.333 = 9.000(F)(hr)/Btu

q = (t1 – t2)/Rt = (78 – 0)/9.0 = 8.87 Btu/hr

Let t’ represents the intermediate temperature,

(t1 – t’)/(t’ – 0) = 0.667/8.333 = 0.080

t’ = 72.2F

HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH CONVECTION

Heat transfer through convection occurs as result of bulk movement in a

fluid stream in which temperature gradient exists. In any convective heat transfer
situation, conduction must obviously be proceeding simultaneously but will be
overshadowed by convection except in a few special cases, and no attempt
made to evaluate the effects of conduction separately. Thus, the results obtained
for convection automatically includes conduction contribution.

The two recognized categories of convection: natural or free convection

and forced convection. Natural convection arises from density gradient that in
turn result from temperature variations. The coefficient of thermal expansion of a
fluid is an important property affecting natural convection. Thus, natural
convection effect is important particularly with gases. Since gases offer less
resistance to movement then a little variation in density will set the bulk in motion.

In forced convection, some means of moving is provided such as pump or

fan. Here, direct control can be attained and therefore greater heat transfer rate
is possible. In this mechanism, it is usually necessary to make further distinction
of streamline or turbulent flow.

Film Coefficient of Heat Transfer

Most processing application of convection are concerned with steady state

heat transfer between a fluid and a solid surface. The heat flow may be either
natural or forced convection, streamline or turbulent. The curve of temperature
versus distance represents the profile corresponding to a given position on the
 57

surface. Under steady state conditions, this profile does not change with time, but
may vary from one position to another along the surface.

Immediately adjacent to the surface, there is a thin layer in which velocity

is low enough that flow is streamline, regardless of the nature of flow in the main
stream. Heat transferred across this thin layer by conduction. But no define
thickness of this layer, and transfer cannot be calculated by simple application of
the conduction equations. Moving further away from the surface, the velocity
increases, and consequently, the resistances to heat transfer decreases. The
temperature profile in Figure 5.3 shows a sharp drop across the stagnant
streamline layer, where the thermal resistance is high. Farther from the surface,
where convection is more effective and the thermal resistance is lower, the
change in temperature is less rapid.

ts

Distance

Figure 5.3. Temperature profile in a fluid moving fast a surface at temperature t s

Newton’s law of cooling (or heating) states that the rate of heat flow per
unit surface area is proportional to the difference between the surface and fluid
temperatures, or
q = hA(ts – t)

The proportionality constant h represents a thermal conductance of the fluid film

across which temperature change, and that h has the units of k divided by
distance, or Btu/(hr)(ft2)(F). It is usually convenient to express convective heat
transfer in terms of temperature difference driving force divided by a resistance,
1/hA.

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

One of the most common process heat transfer applications of heat flow
from a hot fluid, through a solid wall, to a cooler fluid on the other side. The
temperature profile through this series of resistances is represented in Figure
5.4.
Pipe wall
 58

th
Scale deposit
th
tw
td

tc
tc
Figure 5.4. Temperature profile from a hot fluid at t h inside the pipe to a lower
fluid temperature at tc outside the pipe

The previous derived relationships for resistance in series was general

and applies regardless of the nature of the individual resistances. Accordingly,

Rt = Rh + Rw + Rd + Rc
or
1/UA = 1/hhAh + xw/kwAw + 1/hdAd + 1/hcAc

where the areas are based on some unit length of pipe. The quantity U in the
above expression is known as the overall heat transfer coefficient.

The value of the product UA depends on the area that is used with it, that
can be either inside, outside or the mean area. Thus,

q = UA(th – tc) = UcAc (th – tc) = UhAh (th – tc) = UmAm (th – tc)

In calculating U, it is convenient to rearrange so that the areas appear as ratios.

Thus, if U is to be based on the cold side area, then

1 1 xw 1 1
= + + +
Uc hhAh/Ac kwAm/Ac hd hc

When the scale deposit have negligible thickness, so that A d = Ac. since the ratio
of the areas is equal to the ratios of the diameters, we can write

1 1 xw 1 1
= + + +
Uc hhDh/Dc kwDm/Dc hd hc

The above development is based on the presence of four resistances but

any others can be included in the same manner.

Example 4: A 2-in standard steel pipe carrying steam at 250F is covered

with 1-in layer of magnesia insulation. The heat transfer coefficient for the steam
film in the inside is 1000 Btu/(hr)(ft 2)(F), and the coefficient for natural
convection to the air from the outside of the insulation is 3.0 Btu/(hr)(ft 2)(F). the
 59

thermal conductivities of pipe wall and the magnesia insulation are 26 and 0.04
Btu/(hr)(ft)(F), respectively. The room temperature is 75F. calculate the overall
heat transfer coefficient based on the inside area and the heat loss per foot of
pipe.

Solution:
pipe i.d. = 2.067in.; pipe o.d. = 2.375 in.

xw = (2.375 – 2.067) = 0.154 in.

Dw = (2.375 + 2.067)/2 = 2.22 in. (arithmetic mean can be

used instead of logarithmic mean because the inside and outside diameters are
close to each other).

Magnesia i.d. = 2.375 in; magnesia o.d. = 4.375 in.

Dm = (4.375 – 2.375)/ln(4.375/3.375) = 3.28 in.

1 1 xw xm 1
= + + +
Ui hi kwDw/Di kmDm/Di hoDo/Di

1 0.154/12 1/12 1
= + + +
1000 26(2.22/2.067) 0.04(3.28/2.067) 3(4.375/2.067)

= 0.001 + 0.0005 + 1.32 + 0.16 = 1.48

Ui = 1/1.48 =0.675 Btu/(hr)(ft2)(F)

For a 1 ft length of pipe,

Ai = DIL = (2.067/12)(1.0) = 0.543 ft2

Q = UiAit = (0.675)(0.542)(250 – 75) = 64 Btu/hr

In the above example, it is seen that the resistances of the steam film and the
pipe wall are negligible compared to those of the insulation and the natural
convection to the air.

Example 5: Milk flowing through a 1-in. sanitary stainless tube is heated

by steam on the outside of the tube. Initially, experimental measurements show
that the overall heat transfer coefficient, based on the inside area, is 300 Btu/(hr)
(ft2)(F). After a period of time, formation of a deposit on the inside surface of the
tube causes the overall coefficient to drop to 45 Btu/(hr)(ft 2)(F). What is the
value of the heat transfer coefficient for the deposit?

Solution:
 60

1 1 xw 1
= + + = 1/300
U1 hi kwDw/Di hoDo/Di

1/U2 = 1/U1 + 1/hd = 1/45

1/hd = 1/45 – 1/300 = 0.0286 – 0.0033 = 0.0253

hd = 1/0.0253 = 39.6 Btu/(hr)(ft2)(F)

Table 5.1. Approximate range of individual heat transfer coefficients

Btu/(hr)(ft2)(F)
Gases – natural convection 0.5 – 5
Gases – forced convection 2 – 20
Viscous fluids – forced convection 10 – 100
Water – forced convection 100 – 1000
Boiling water 300 – 5000
Condensing steam 1000 – 20000

Table 5.2. Dimensionless ratios employed in convective heat transfer

Name Symbol Gruop
Reynolds Re DVp/
Prandtl Pr cp/k
Nusselt Nu hD/k
Stanton St = Nu/PrRe h/cpVp
Grashof Gr L3p2gt/2
Graetz Gz = RePr(L/D)(/4) Mcp/kL

Natural convection – For air at atmospheric pressure, the following

equations were applied in practice in the evaluation of its properties (exponent of
1/3 for turbulent convection and exponent of ¼ for streamline):

For vertical surfaces, horizontal square plates (heated plate facing up or

cooled plate facing down):

h = 0.22(t)1/3

Horizontal square plates (heated plate facing down or cooled plate facing
up):

h = 0.12(t/L)1/4
where L = the length of one side of the square. For not square plates, L is taken
as the square root of the area.

Horizontal pipes:

h = 0.25(t/D)1/4
 61

Remember that the above equations are not dimensionless and proper units
must be used, temperature in F, and length and diameter in feet.

HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION

Radiation is a wave transmission of energy through space. Whatever the

source, it is specifically called electromagnetic radiation because it can be
described mathematically in terms of fluctuating electric and magnetic fields. As
with any wave motion, it has an associated wave and frequency. The product of
wave and frequency gives the radiation velocity that, in a vacuum, has the
velocity of light. Thus,  = 3.0 x 1010 cm/sec, where  is wavelength and  is
frequency.

An alternating electric current flowing through a conductor emits radiation

called radio or Hertzian waves. Radiation also arises from the motion of
molecules, atoms, and sub-atomic particles in matter. When energy is supplied to
a substance some of these constituents are raised to energetic or excited states.
These excited particles tend to return to the normal state, and in so doing, emit
radiation. There are various ways that the excitation of energy can be provided.
Fluorescent substances absorb energy from ultraviolet light and emit it as visible
light. Bombardment of a substance by electrons produces X-ray radiation. From
energy consideration, the most important radiation is arising from thermal
agitation of molecules and atoms. The atoms of all matter above absolute
temperature are in constant motion that result in radiation of energy. All matter is
therefore radiating energy, although the amount radiated at lower temperature
may be to small to be detected easily. The categories and mechanisms of
electromagnetic radiation can be found in the references (from radio wave to
gamma rays).

Radiation and Matter

Matter is continuously emitting thermal radiation. The emitted radiation

depends only in temperature and proceeds independently of any incoming
radiation or heat flow by other mechanisms. In heat exchange by radiation, we
must consider the incoming and emitted radiation streams separately and the net
exchange is the difference between the two, and the direction of net radiation
must be from higher to lower temperature.

Radiation falling on matter will undergo some combination of absorption,

reflection, and transmission. The absorptivity, , is the fraction of the total radiant
energy absorbed; the reflectivity, p, is the fraction reflected; and transmissivity, r,
is the fraction transmitted. By definition, therefore

+p+r=1

The quantities above are dependent on the nature of the incoming

radiation. For example, glass window is transparent to visible light, but opaque to
 62

ultraviolet and infrared radiation. The walls of a house are opaque to visible light
but readily transparent to radio waves. A surface with an absorptivity of 1.0
corresponds to absorption of all incoming radiation and would appear black to the
eye.

Considering a number of objects in an isothermal enclosure, at

equilibrium, all objects will be at same temperature and subjected to the same
intensity of radiation from the surrounding space. At thermal equilibrium, the
energy absorbed per unit area by each object must be equal to the energy
emitted. Then, we can write

E1 = 1I; E2 = 2I; E3 = 3I; etc

where E is rate of emission in Btu/(hr)(ft 2) and I is the incoming intensity. Solving

the above equations for I, we obtain

I = E1/1 = E2/2 = E3/3 = … = Eb/b

The above relationships show that the ratio of emissive power to

absorptivity is the same for all surfaces. Since black body has maximum
absorptivity, it must have the maximum emissive power. The ratio of the emissive
power of a surface to the emissive power of a black body is called emissivity, .
Hence, the emissivity of any surface is equal to its absorptivity as stated from
Kirchhoff’s law. Emissivity is a property of a surface, and values are tabulated in
heat transfer references.

Surface Radiation

True black bodies do not exist in nature, it can only absorb about 95% of
incoming radiation. It has been shown both experimentally and theoretically that
the emissive power of a black body is proportional to the fourth power of the
absolute temperature. This relationship is known as the Stefan-Boltzmann law,
written as

Eb = T4

For E in Btu/(hr)(ft2) and T in R, the proportionality constant  has the value
0.1713 x 10-8 Btu/(hr)(ft2)(R).

A warm object like electric iron emits infrared radiation. At higher

temperatures, red dull red glow showed a wave length is getting into the red end
of the visible region. Further increase in temperature, the radiation is getting into
the visible region and approximate white light. Sunlight corresponds to a
temperature of about 10,000F.

Black body radiation at any temperature includes the entire range of

wavelength from zero to infinity and generating a continuous spectrum.
 63

Absorptivity and emissivity are dependent on wavelength for the material.

Most white surfaces are reflectors of visible light but are good absorber of
infrared.

For example, glass walls readily transmit the energy of solar radiation. The
glass is opaque to low-temperature radiation on the interior, and heat is retained
inside.

Processing applications is usually concerned with the net exchange of

radiant heat between two surfaces. If two surfaces of finite area are at some
distance apart, only a fraction of the total radiation leaving one surface will strike
the other. In such situation, a portion of the radiation striking surface 2 will be
absorbed and the remainder will be reflected. This process of repeated
absorption and reflection will continue, until the entire quantity of radiation initially
leaving surface 1 has been absorbed by surface 2. The original quantity of
radiation emitted is proportional to T14A1. Eventually, the radiation emitted by
surface 1 is absorbed by surface 2, and for surface 1, we can write

q1-2 = T14A1F12

where F12 is a factor that depends on the emissivities of both surfaces and on
their geometric relationship. Similarly, for surface 2

q2-1 = T24A2F21

The net heat transfer is the difference these two quantities, or

qnet = T24A2F21 – T14A1F12

The above quantity applies only to black or gray surfaces. If emissivity varies with
wavelengths, much complicated calculation is required. When T 2 = T1, there can
be no net exchange, but it must still apply. Setting the above equation equal to
zero, we have

A2F21 = A1F12

Since the factor F does not depend on temperature for either black or gray
surfaces, the above equation is valid for all temperatures, except for equal
temperature, and then, we can have the relation,

qnet = (T24 –T14 )A1F12

The most common cases of radiant interchange, the object is completely
surround by a large surface. A piece of equipment in a room radiating to the walls
would correspond to this case. All the radiation leaving the object strikes the
other surface. A negligible part of the radiation striking the outer surface will be
reflected back to the object and most of it will be absorbed by the surrounding
surface, and we can have
 64

q1-2 = T14A11

letting 1 = F12. Since A2F21 = A1F12, so that

qnet = (T14 –T24 )A11

Solutions for a large number of geometric arrangements are presented in

the heat transfer literature. For two concentric spheres or concentric cylinders of
infinite length,

1/F12 = 1/1 + (A1/A2)(1/2 – 1)

For the case of infinite parallel planes, A1 = A2 and

1/F12 = 1/1 + 1/2 – 1

Equivalent conductance for radiation – It is convenient to express radiant

heat transfer rate as the product of a conductance and a temperature difference,
just as done with conduction and convection. Thus,

q = hrA1(t1 – t2) = (T14 – T24)A1F12

An expression for hr can be obtained by noting that the fourth power temperature
difference can be factored as follows:

(T14 – T24) = (T1 + T22)(T1 + T2)(T1 – T2)

Substituting into this to the above equation to obtain

hr/F12 = (T12 + T12)(T1 – T2)

With the aid of Figure 8.18 (Harper, 1976. Elements of Food Engineering), the
radiant heat transfer rates can be obtained without the necessity of calculating.

Example: The top of a vegetable dehydrator is constructed of sheets of ¼

in-thick asbestos-cement covered with a 1-in layer of insulation. On a certain day,
the air temperature of the building in which the dehydrator is located is 70F, and
the ceiling temperature is 40F. If the air temperature inside the dehydrator is
155F, what is the heat loss per square foot through the top? The following
information is available:

Heat transfer coefficient from hot air to inside surface = 10 Btu/(hr)(ft 2)(F)
Thermal conductivity of asbestos-cement = 0.05 Btu/(hr)(ft)(F)
Emissivity of outer surface of insulation = 0.96

Solution: The following diagram represents the thermal resistance

combination for this situation. Note that the inside air film, the asbestos-cement,
and the insulation form a series resistance path. From the outside of the
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insulation, heat is lost through the parallel resistance of convection and radiation.
The temperature difference for these two parallel resistances is not the same.

hf 40F

150F h = 10 kw = 0.43 ki = 0.05 tw

R1
hc 70F

Let R1 = the series resistance between the inside air and the outer surface
of the insulation. On the basis of 1 ft 2 area,

R1 = 1/10 + 0.25/(12)(0.43) + 1/(12)(0.05) = 1.82

q/A = (155 – tw)/R1 = hc(tw – 70) + hr(tw – 40)

tw(hc + hr + 1/R1) = 155R1 + 70hc + 40hr

155/R1 + 70hc + 40hr 155/1.82 + 70hc + 40hr

tw = =
1/R1 + hc + hr 1/1.82 + hc + hr

The procedure is to assume a value of t w, calculate hc and hr, and check

the assumed tw by substituting into the above equation. Because of the effective
layer of insulation, t w will be closer to the outer air temperature than that inside
the dehydrator. Assume 80F for the first trial.

By using h = 0.22(t)1/3, then we have

hc = 0.22(80 – 70)1/3 = 0.47

From Fig. 8.18, with t1 and t2 of 80F and 40F, and F12 = 

Hr = 1.0 = 1.0(0.96)

155/1.82 + 70(0.47) + 40(0.96)

tw = = 156.5/1.98 = 79F
1/1.82 + 0.47 + 0.96

This answer is close enough to the assumed value of 80F that a repeat
calculation is necessary. The calculation shows the simplification resulting from
use of the equivalent conductance of radiation.

The heat flux is obtained by substituting values for t w and R1 in the

expression given above:
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q/A = (155 – tw)/R1 = 155 – 79)/1.82 = 42 Btu/(hr)(ft2)

Example: A warehouse for storing food products is to have a new roof. It is

desired to maintain an inside temperature no greater than 85F during summer
months, and a question has been raised as to the most effective roof treatment
for minimizing radiant heat gain from the outside. The following alternative are
being considered:

Short Wave Absorptivity

Material (For Solar Radiation) Long Wave Emissivity
Unpainted galvanized iron 0.65 0.23
Aluminum sheet 0.26 0.04
Aluminum paint 0.35 0.45
White paint 0.18 0.85
Asbestos-cement 0.59 0.96

The solar radiation intensity may be taken as 330 Btu/(hr)(ft 2)

We will consider only radiant heat interchange between roof and the sky.
To determine the relative effectiveness, all surfaces will be compared on the
basis of the same roof temperature. Under identical exposures, the poorer
surfaces would get hotter, but we are asked to determine the actual
temperatures. The net interchange to be minimized is the difference between the
incoming solar radiation that is absorbed and the long wave radiation emitted,
per ft2 of surface.

q net = 330solar – T4long

For a roof temperature of 120F,

q net = 330solar – 0.1713(580/100)long

The results of this calculation for the different surface are as follows:

Material 330solar 194long qnet Rank

Galvanized iron 215 45 170 5
Aluminum sheet 86 8 78 4
Aluminum paint 116 87 29 3
White plant 59 165 -106 1
Asbestos-cement 195 186 9 2

The situation on the inside surface, where only long wave radiation is
involved, is different. Here, the surfaces would rank in the order of their long
wave emissivities. It can be seen that the most effective roof would be aluminum
sheet painted white on the outside.
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ASSIGNMENT SHEET

Solve the following questions or problems:

1. A cold room for hardening ice cream has an 8-in thick insulated wall made
from a material which has an average thermal conductivity of 0.024 Btu/(hr)
(ft2)(F). The inner wall temperature is 10F and the outer wall temperature is
70F. What is the rate of heat transfer through one square foot of wall?

2. Steam at 10 psi gage is being condensed inside a 20 ft length of stainless

steel tubing 1-in o.d. and ¾ in. i.d. The outside of the tube is exposed to air at
70F. If steam is condensed at a rate of 8 lb/hr, estimate the value of the heat
transfer coefficient between the outside tube surface and the air. The
coefficient of the steam on the inside may be taken as 2000 Btu/(hr)(ft 2)(F).
The thermal conductivity of stainless steel is 9.4 Btu/(hr)(ft)(F).

3. Calculate the net rate of heat transfer by radiation to a potato surrounded by

catalytic heaters at 2000F. Assume that the surface temperature of the
potato is 212F, the surface area is 60 square inches and the emissivity of the
potato surface is 0.70.

4. Explain or describe the differences between the three recognized

mechanisms of heat transfer.

5. Explain briefly how to minimize the effect of natural radiation in relation to

food processing and preservation.