PRACTICAL REASEARCH 1

Ethics of Research
Ethics generally is considered to deal with beliefs about what is right or wrong, proper or improper, good or bad.
According to a dictionary definition (Webster‘s 1968), to be ethical is to conform to accepted professional practice.

Ethics should be applied in all stages of research from planning, to gathering of data, to the analysis and
interpretation and evaluation (oral examination) of the research.

Research ethics provides guidelines for the responsible conduct of research. In addition, it educates and monitors
scientists conducting research to ensure a high ethical standard.

The following is a general summary of some ethical principles:

Honesty
Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent
data.

Objectivity
Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant
writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research.
Integrity
Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and action.

Carefulness
Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work and the work of your peers. Keep
good records of research activities.

Openness
Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.

Respect for Intellectual Property

Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results
without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Never plagiarize.

Confidentiality
Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or
military secrets, and patient records.

Responsible Publication
Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative
publication.

Responsible Mentoring
Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to make their own decisions.

Respect for Colleagues

Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.

Social Responsibility
Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public education, and advocacy.

Non-Discrimination
Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related
to their scientific competence and integrity.

Competence
Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong education and learning; take
steps to promote competence in science as a whole.

Legality
Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.

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Animal Care
Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed
animal experiments.

Human Subjects Protection

When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity,
privacy, and autonomy.

Source:
What is Ethics in Research & Why is it Important? U.S. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

Ethics in Qualitative Research

Ethical issues are present in any kind of research. The research process creates tension between the aims of
research to make generalizations for the good of others and the rights of participants to maintain privacy. Ethics pertains
to doing good and avoiding harm. Harm can be prevented or reduced through the application of appropriate ethical
principles. Thus, the protection of human subjects or participants in any research study is imperative.

Violations of human rights in the name of scientific research have been among the darkest events in history. From
1932-1972 more than 400 African American people who had syphilis were deliberately left untreated to study the illness.
Although the Tuskegee syphilis study was sponsored by United States Public Health Service, the disclosure of the 40-year
study caused public outrage (Caplan, 1992).

Another example of unethical research is the experiment conducted between 1950-1952 in which more than 1,000
pregnant women were given diethylstilboestrol to prevent miscarriages. These women were subject to a double-blind
study without consent. Only 20 years later, when the children of these women had high rates of cancer and other
abnormalities did the participants learn they were subjects of these experiments (Capron, 1989).

The nature of ethical problems in qualitative research studies is subtle and different compared to problems in
quantitative research. For example, potential ethical conflicts exist in regard to how a researcher gains access to a
community group and the effects the researcher may have on participants. The literature provides few examples of ethical
issues in qualitative health research. Punch (1994) claimed that one hardly ever hears of ethical failures in qualitative
research. However, Batchelor and Briggs (1994) claimed that the failure of researchers to address ethical issues has
resulted in those researchers being ill-prepared to cope with the unpredictable nature of qualitative research.

Qualitative researchers focus their research on exploring, examining, and describing people and their natural
environments. Embedded in qualitative research are the concepts of relationships and power between researchers and
participants. The desire to participate in a research study depends upon a participant’s willingness to share his or her
experience. Nurse researchers have to balance research principles as well as the well-being of clients (Ramos, 1989).

Qualitative health research is focused on the experiences of people in relation to health and illness. Yet nurse
researchers may find that their roles as researchers and as clinicians may be in conflict. Qualitative studies are frequently
conducted in settings involving the participation of people in their everyday environments. Therefore, any research that
includes people requires an awareness of the ethical issues that may be derived from such interactions. Ethics in health
research includes appropriateness of the research design, the methodological design, and the funding sources, as well as
behaviors in reporting data. The purpose of this paper is to show these and related ethical issues and ethical principles to
be used in qualitative research.

Source: Ethics in Qualitative Research by A. Orb, L. Eisenhauer, and D. Wynaden (2000)

Questions to Ponder on:

1. Based on the article, how will you define ethics in research?

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2. Are the Tuskegee syphilis study and diethylstilboestrol study on pregnant women
unethical? Why?

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3. If you were part of the research teams who conducted the research studies, what will
you do to correct the unethical aspect of the experiments?
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Characteristics of Research
1. Empirical- Research is based on direct experience or observation by the researcher.

2. Logical-Research is based on valid procedures and principles.

3. Cyclical-Research is a cyclical process because it starts with a problem and ends with a problem.

4. Analytical-Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering the data, whether historical, descriptive, and
experimental and case study.

5. Critical-Research exhibits careful and precise judgment.

6. Methodical- Research is conducted in a methodical manner without bias using systematic method and procedures.

7. Replicability- The research design and procedures are replicated or repeated to enable the researcher to arrive at valid
and conclusive results.

Characteristics of the Researcher

1. Intellectual Curiosity-A researcher undertakes a deep thinking and inquiry of the things and situations around him.

2. Prudence-The researcher is careful to conduct his research study at the right time and at the right place wisely,
efficiently, and economically.

3. Healthy Criticism-The researcher is always doubtful as to the truthfulness of the results.

4. Intellectual Honesty-An intelligent researcher is honest to collect or gather data or facts in order to arrive at honest
results.

5. Intellectual Creativity-A productive and resourceful investigator always creates new researches.

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 The Research Process
Research is a process that requires patience and thought. There is no easy way to make certain that you have
exhausted every resource and found the best research. Research is more of an art rather than a science. Below is a
diagrammatic presentation of the steps taken when doing research.

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Step One: Define the Research Problem

The first step in research process is to develop a research question. This can be a problem that needs to be solved
or some piece of information that is missing about a particular topic. Answering this question will be the focus of the
research study. (Offord Centre for Child Studies, 2017)

Step Two: Review the Literature

The researchers must now learn more about the topic they are investigating. This not only provides important
background information about the issue they are researching., but it also tells them what other studies have already been
conducted, how they were designed, and what those studies found. In research, you often do not want to repeat old
studies, but rather add something new to the field. (Offord Centre for Child Studies, 2017;Cornell University
Library,2016)

Step Three: Formulate the Hypothesis

The hypothesis is a clear statement of what is intended to be investigated. It should be specified before research is
conducted and openly stated in reporting the results.

Step Four: Design Research

The research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different components of the
study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively address the research problem; it constitutes the
blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data.

Step Five: Collect Data

The collection of data is a critical step in providing the information needed to answer the research question. Every
study includes the collection of some type of data-whether it is from the literature or from subjects –to answer the research
question. (Blankenship, 2010) Depending on the plan of the research, data can be collected in the form of words on a
survey , with a questionnaire, through observations, or from the literature.(Offord Centre for Child Studies, 2017; Human
Kinetics, 2017)

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Step Six: Analyze Data

Analysis of data plays an important role in the achievement of research aim and objectives. (Dudovskiy, 2016)
Once the data have been collected, these must be analyzed in order to answer the original research question.

Step Seven: Interpret and Report

In this final part, you will have to justify why you think that research aims and objectives have been achieved.
(Dudovskiy, 2016) Profread the paper you have created and report the results. There are different ways to share the results
of your research, among them is by publication either in print or on the internet. Another is by sending or submitting the
research report to those persons concerned or stakeholders such as policy makers, government officials, company or
business executives, etc. Another way to share the results of your research is through a colloquium where the researcher
presents orally the research report to an audience or to the public.

Research Misconducts
(a) Fabrication - making up data or results and recording or reporting them.

(b) Falsification - manipulating research materials, or changing or omitting data or results such that the research is
not accurately represented in the research record.

(c) Plagiarism - the appropriation of another person's ideas, processes, results, or words without giving appropriate
credit.

Research misconduct does not include honest error or differences of opinion.

Source: Definition of Research Misconduct

The Office of Research Integrity, U.S. Department of Health & Human Services The Intellectual Property Code
of the Philippines or R.A. 8293 contains provisions regarding published works and copyright ownership. The term
“published works” means works which, with the consent of the authors, are made available to the public in such a way
that these works can be sourced from a place and time individually chosen by them.

TWO BROAD CATEGORIES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

To come up with a good research, a good research design is needed. The type of research would depend on the
purpose of writing the research.

There are two broad categories of research methodology: qualitative and quantitative research. The research
method determines the approach the researcher takes in identifying relevant data for the research and collecting and
analyzing the
information gathered in the research.

Choosing either a quantitative or qualitative approach will affect the components of the research. For instance, a
researcher may choose to undertake a scientific research. If he or she takes a qualitative approach, the goal of the study
will be to discuss and analyze the underlying concepts and theories related to the research topic. If the researcher chooses
a quantitative approach, he or she will use statistical data to provide an explanation of the phenomenon. Now, let us
understand the two main categories of research design.

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 What is QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH?

Polit and Beck (2004) define quantitative research as “the traditional positivist scientific method which refers to a
general set of orderly, disciplined procedures to acquire information.” In their book, Nursing Research Principles and
Methods, they explain that the research method utilizes deductive reasoning to generate predictions that are tested in the
real world. It is systematic since the researcher progresses logically through a series of steps, according to a pre specified
plan of action.

Quantitative research is “explaining phenomenon by collecting numerical data that are analyzed using
mathematically based methods (in particular statistics).” (Aliaga and Gunderson, 2005; Skills YouNeed.com, 2017)

This design is used to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical data or data that can be transformed
into usable statistics. It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors and other defined variables – and generalize
results from a larger sample population.

In addition, quantitative approach uses measurable data to formulate facts and uncover patterns in research. The
quantitative data collection methods are much more structured than Qualitative data collection methods.

Quantitative data collection methods include various forms of surveys – online surveys, paper surveys, mobile
surveys and kiosk surveys, face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews, longitudinal studies, website interceptors, online
polls and systematic observations. (Wyse, 2011)

However, this design has its disadvantages as well. Quantitative is considered to be limiting when it comes to
studying the complex and diverse minds of human beings. This is because this approach can only explain a small fraction
of the human experience (e.g., behavioral impulses and varying personal preferences). In quantitative research, these
human complexities are usually controlled or removed entirely instead of being analyzed. The inflexible and narrow
vision of quantitative research tends to present the human experience in a restricted manner.

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 What is QUALITATIVE RESEARCH?

Qualitative research is concerned with non-statistical methods of inquiry and analysis of social phenomena. It
draws on an inductive process in which themes and categories emerge through an analysis of data collected by such
techniques as interviews, observations, videotapes and case studies. Samples are usually small and are often purposively
selected.

This design seeks to answer questions about why and how people behave in the way that they do. It provides in-
depth information about human behavior (SkillsYouNeed.com, 2017). It is primarily exploratory research. It is used to
gain an understanding of underlying reasons, opinions and motivations. It provides insights into the problem or helps to
develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative research. It is also used to uncover trends in thought and opinions,
and dive deeper into the problem.

Qualitative data collection methods vary using unstructured or semi-structured techniques. Some common
methods include focus groups (group discussions), individual interviews and participation/observations. The sample size
is typically small and respondents are selected to fulfill a given quota. (Wyse, 2011)

Qualitative research is an inductive, subjective process of inquiry done in a natural setting in order to build a
complex, holistic picture, described in words, including the detailed views of the informants are reported in informal,
personal language. (Tabinas, 2014)

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

Overview
Design is a word which means a plan or something that is conceptualized by the mind. As a result of a mental
activity characterized by unfixed formation of something but an extensive interconnection of things, a design in the field
of research serves as a blueprint or a skeletal framework of your research study. It includes many related aspects of your
research work. A choice of a research design requires you to finalize your mind on the purpose, philosophical basis, and

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types of data of your research, including your method of collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and presenting the data. It is a
plan that directs your mind to several stages of your research work. (De Mey 2013)

Types of Qualitative Research Design

There are varied ways of doing qualitative research. In this chapter we will focus on six types of qualitative research.

These are:

1. phenomenology,
2. ethnography,
3. grounded theory,
4. case study,
5. discourse/conversation analysis, and
6. narrative analysis.

The following table summarizes the key features of these six different types of qualitative research. What follows
is a brief description of each type of qualitative research.

Types of Qualitative Research Defining features

1. Phenomenology Both an approach to, and a method of, understanding the behavioral,
emotive, and social meanings of lived experiences of individuals
2. Ethnography Focuses on studying shared practices and belief systems (. e., culture) of a
group people in their natural context over a prolonged period.
3. Grounded theory Refers to a set of inductive data collection and analytic methods with the
purpose of constructing theories grounded in the data themselves.
4. Case study Allows the in-depth investigation of complex issues within a specific
context, based on a small geographical area or a very limited number of
individuals as the subjects of study
5.Discourse/Conversation analysis Study naturally occurring discourse and extract shared meanings from such
discourse.
6. Narrative analysis Focuses on the narratives (storytelling) used as source of data.

PHENOMENOLOGY

Phenomenology emphasizes individual experiences, beliefs and perceptions. According to Bryman (2008, p. 697),
phenomenology is a "philosophy that is concerned with the question of how individuals make sense of the world around
them and how in particular the philosopher should bracket out preconceptions concerning his or her grasp of that world."
It is a philosophy that understands lived experience" and that experience is live in time, space and with others and bodily
experience (Bryman 2008. p.697 It is also embedded within qualitative inquiry in general and endeavors to appreciate the
behavioral, emotive, and social meanings that these live experiences have for them (Guest. Namey and Mitchell, 2013,
p.11). Nevertheless, Nagy, Biber, and Leavy (2011) underscored that phenomenology is not just a philosophy but also a
research method for capturing the lived experience of individuals.

They characterized phenomenology in the following manner:

Phenomenology is a study wherein human experiences are examined through the detailed descriptions of the
people being studio -a study of essences. Phenomenology as a research method seeks / unearth the significance of
ordinary life.

Phenomenology is an approach applied in clinical psychology and as such linked with a distinctive set of methods
and procedure (Moustakas 1994) that is useful in seizing, examining and finding meaning in one's everyday existence
(Guest, Namey and Mitchell, 2013, p.10).

In a nutshell, phenomenology is both the approach to, and a method of, understanding the behavioral, emotive,
and social meanings of lived experiences of individuals

ETHNOGRAPHY

Guest, Namey, and Mitchell (2013) provided a concise description of ethnographic research its meaning, origins,
and central features.

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 Ethnography literally means to write about a group of people. Its roots are grounded in the field of anthropology
and the practice of in situ research, where a researcher is immersed within the community he/she is studying for extended
periods of time. Early twentieth century anthropologists such as Bronislaw Malinowski and Franz Boas pioneered
traditional ethnography, which historically has focused on the cultural dimensions of life and behavior, such as shared
practices and belief systems. A hallmark feature of the ethnographic approach is a holistic perspective, based on the
premise that human behavior and culture are complicated phenomena and are composed of, and influenced by a multitude
of factors. These might include historical precedents, the physical content in which people live and work, the social
structures in which individuals are embedded, and the symbolic environment in which they act (e.g., language, shared
meanings).

Traditionally, ethnographic research has involved a researcher's total and prolonged immersion within a study
community, often for a year or longer. With the luxury of time, proximity to the field site, and the ability to coordinate
data collection in an integrated and inductive manner, research can be more fluid.

Another strength of the ethnographic research is the naturalistic, in situ way it is came out and its emphasis on
understanding the emic (insider/local) perspective. Observing individual and group behavior in its natural context and
participating in that context can generate insights that other forms of research cannot. Not surprisingly participant
observation has historically been an integral component of ethnographic inquiry (11)

In a nutshell, ethnographic research is focused on studying shared practices and belief systems (i.e., culture of a
group people in their natural context over a prolonged period.

GROUNDED THEORY

Grounded theory is a type of inductive thematic analysis Inductive thematic analysis is the process of reading
through textual data, identifying themes in the data, coding those themes, and then interpreting the structure and content of
the themes" and the most common qualitative data analysis method employed in the social, behavioral, and health
sciences (Guest Namey & Mitchell 2013, p. 13).

Grounded theory is 'a set of methods that consist of systematic, yet flexible guidelines for collecting and
analyzing qualitative data to construct theories 'grounded' in the data themselves (Charmaz 2006, p. 2 in Guest Namey and
Mitchell 2013, p. 13).

Grounded theory can be best described in the following manner:

The process entails systematically reviewing units of text (often line by-line, but units can be words, paragraphs,
or larger units of text) as they are collected, creating emergent codes for those units, and writing memos that expand on
created codes and the relationships between codes. This process is repeated until data collection is completed

In a nutshell, grounded theory is a set of inductive data collection and analytic methods with the purpose of
constructing theories grounded in the data themselves.

CASE STUDY

Case Studies represent a type of research that allows the search and deep exploration of complex issues.
According to Zainal (2007, P case studies can be considered as "a robust research method particularly when a holistic, In-
depth investigation is required." The role of case study method in research suits issues on education, sociology, and
community-based problems. Moreover, Zainal (2007) claimed that one of the reasons for the recognition of the case study
as a research method is the concern on the limitation of quantitative methods in providing holistic and in-depth
explanations on social and behavioral problems. In addition, Zainal (2007 P. (1) said that through case study research,
"one may go beyond the quantitative statistical results and understand behavioral conditions through the person's
perspectives." Yin (1984) provides a comprehensive description of the case study approach and method.

Case study method permits a researcher to closely assess the data within a specific context. It selects a small
geographical area or a very limited number of individuals as the subjects of study. Case studies, in their true essence,
explore and investigate contemporary real-life phenomenon through detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of
events or conditions, and their relationships. It is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon
within its real-life context: when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clear; and in which multiple
sources of evidence are used" (Yin 1984.23 cited in Zainal, 2007, p. 1).
In a nutshell, a case study allows the in-depth investigation of complex issues within a specific context, based on a
small geographical area or a very limited number of individuals as the subjects of study.

DISCOURSE AND CONVERSATION ANALYSIS

Discourse and conversation analysis focuses on text as "object analysis. Nonetheless, the text as object of analysis
of discourse and conversation analysis is different from the text that results from formal of interviews. Instead, discourse

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and conversation analysis examine recorded naturally occurring language, usually of conversations between individuals
within the study population. Both discourse and conversation analysis look at the discourse and interaction between two
or more speakers to understand how shared meanings are socially constructed (Guest, Namey & Mitchell 2013)

Discourse analysis (DA) is a type of research that "emphasizes the way version of the world, of society, events
and inner psychological worlds are produced in discourse" (Potter, 1997:146 cited in Bryman, 2008, p. 500). Hence, the
"language" is not just a way to appreciate the world but illustrated as making the social world.

There are four themes in discourse analysis (DA) which was highlighted by Gill (2000) and cited by Bryman
(2008). These are outlined in the table below:

Themes of Discourse Analysis Description

Discourse is a topic. Discourse is a focus of inquiry itself and not just a means of gaining
access to aspects of social reality that lie behind it.
Language is constructive. Discourse is a way of constituting a particular view of social reality, and
choices are made regarding the most appropriate way of presenting it and
these will reflect the disposition of the person responsible for devising it.
Discourse is a form of action. Language is viewed as a practice and a way of accomplishing acts. A
person's discourse is affected by the context that s/he is confronting.
Discourse is rhetorically organized. Discourse is concerned with establishing one version of the world in the
face of competing versions; there is a recognition that we want to
persuade others when we present a version of events or whatever.
Source: Adopted from Bryman A (2008) Social Research Methods. New Delhi: Sage Publications.

In a nutshell, discourse analysis and conversation analysis study naturally occurring discourse and extract shared
meanings from such discourse.

NARRATIVE ANALYSIS

Narrative analysis is an approach to the collection and examination of data that is sensitive to the sense of
historical arrangement that people as tellers of stories about their lives or events around them, discover in their lives and
surrounding occurrences and add into their accounts. The emphasis of attention moves from what actually happened? to
how do people make sense of what happened?" It is the gathering of important historical details of what people perceive
about their lives in terms of continuity and process, it is akin to life history research, but Bryman (2008) claimed that it is
more than that because narrative analysis relates not just life's span but also accounts relating to episodes and to the inter-
connections between them (Bryman, 2008, p. 557)
In narrative analysis, there is a possibility that you unearth the stories of the person you are interviewing.
Statements such as "tell me what happened and "then what happened next" will certainly arouse the person to share more.
In other words, narrative analysis provides two important possibilities: "an approach to analyzing different kinds of data
and approach that seeks to stimulate telling of stories" (Bryman, 2008, p.557).

In a nutshell, narrative analysis focuses on the narratives (storytelling) used as source of data.

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