CHEMICAL FORMULAS

There are different kinds of chemical formulas, and each conveys certain
kinds of information. This can include the elemental composition, the relative
numbers of each kind of atom present, the actual numbers of atoms of each kinds in
a molecule of the substance, or the structure of a molecule of the substance. For
convenience, we can classify formulas according to the amount of information that
they provide.
Simplest formula is also called an empirical formula because it is normally
derived from the results of some experimental analysis. The formulas NaCl, H 2O and
HCl are empirical formulas.
A formula that states the actual numbers of each kind of atom found in a
molecule is called a molecular formula. H2O is a molecular formula as well as an
empirical formula since a molecule of water contains 2 atoms of H and 1 atom of
O.
The formula C2H4 is the molecular formula for ethylene which contains 2
atoms of C and 4 atoms of H. Note that the simplest formula for this compound is
CH2 because the carbon to hydrogen ratio is 1 to 2. However, the simplest formula
CH2 is not unique to C2H4. A substance whose empirical formula is CH2 is could
have as its molecular formula CH2, C2H4, C3H6, and so on.
A third type of formula is a structural formula. For example:
H O

H C C O H

H
In a structural formula the dashes between the different atomic symbols
represent the ‘chemical bonds’ that bind the atoms to each other in the molecule.
You will learn more about them in Topic 4. A structural formula gives us information
about the way in which the atoms in a molecule are linked together and provide s
information that also allows us to write the molecular as well as the empirical
formulas. Thus, for acetic acid shown above, we can also write its molecular formula,
C2H4O2 and its empirical formula, CH2O.
The most desirable kind of formula to have, of course, is the structural
formula, because it also contains all the information provided the other two types.
However, chemistry, as in the rest of life, there is no “free lunch”- we never get
something for nothing! The more information a formula conveys, the more difficult it
is to arrive at experimentally. We will see how empirical and molecular formula are
derived but most of the procedures involved in the determination of structural
formulas are beyond the scope of the syllabus.

2
 Symbols and Names of Common Cations

+1 Cations +2 Cations +3 and +4 Cations

Hydrogen H+ Magnesium Mg2+ Aluminium Al3+

Lithium Li+ Calcium Ca2+
Sodium Na+ Strontium Sr2+
Potassium K+ Barium Ba2+
Zinc Zn2+
Ammonium NH4+ Cadmium Cd2+

Copper (I) or Cu+ Copper (II) or Cu2+

Cuprous Cupric

Mercury (I) or Hg+ Mercury (II) or Hg2+

Mercurous Mercuric

Chromium (II) Cr2+ Chromium (III) or Cr3+

or Chromus Chromic

Manganese Mn2+ Manganese (III) or Mn3+

(II) or Manganic
Manganous

Iron (II) or Fe2+ Iron (III) or Fe3+

Ferrous Ferric

Cobalt (II) or Co2+ Cobalt (III) or Co3+

Cobaltous Cobaltic

Nickel (II) or Ni2+ Nickel (III) Ni3+

Nickelous

Tin (II) or Sn2+ Tin (IV) or Sn4+

Stannous Stannic

Lead (II) or Pb2+ Lead (IV) or Pb4+

Plumbous Plumbic

3
 Symbols and Names of Common Anions

-1 Anions -2 Anions -3 and -4 Anions

Peroxide O- Oxide O2-

Hydride Sulphide S2-
H-
Fluoride Selenide Se2-
F-
Chloride Telluride Te2-
Cl-
Bromide Br-
Iodide I-
Hydroxide OH-
Hydrogen Carbonate CO32-
HCO3-
Carbonate
(Bicarbonate)

Hydrogen Sulphate SO42- Phosphate PO43-

HSO4-
Sulphate
(Bisulphate)

Hydrogen Sulphide HSO - Sulphite SO32- Phosphite PO33-

3
(Bisulphite)

Thiocyanate Thiosulphate S2O32-

SCN-
Cyanide CN-
Acetate CH3COO- Oxalate C2O42-
or C2H3O2-

Nitrate Chromate (VI) CrO42-

NO3-
Nitrite Dichromate Cr2O72-
NO2-
(VI)
Permanganate MnO4-
Perchlorate† ClO4-
Chlorate† ClO3-
Chlorite† ClO2-
Hypochlorite† ClO-

4
CHEMICAL NAMES AND FORMULA
1. Write down the chemical formula of the following compounds:
a. Calcium nitrate _______________
b. Copper (II) hydroxide _______________
c. Aluminium oxide _______________
d. Sodium hydrogen carbonate _______________
e. Potassium sulphate _______________
f. Ammonium carbonate _______________
g. Lead (IV) hydroxide _______________
h. Magnesium chloride _______________
i. Aluminium carbonate _______________
j. Potassium dichromate (VI) _______________
k. Potassium manganate (VII) _______________
l. Sodium hydroxide _______________
m. Copper (I) oxide _______________
n. Barium sulphate _______________
o. Phosphorus pentachloride _______________

2. Write down the full structural formula ( showing all the bonds between atoms )
of the following organic compounds:
a. Methane
b. Propane
c. Butane
d. Ethanol
e. Ethene

3. Write down the names for these compounds / ions:

a. FeBr3 ____________________________
b. Na2SO4 ____________________________
c. NO3- ____________________________
d. NH4+____________________________
e. AgNO3 ____________________________

5
BALANCING EQUATIONS

1. Balance the following equations:

a. ____C3H8 (g) + ____O2 (g) → ____CO2 (g) + ____H2O (g)

b. ____NaOH (aq) + ____H2SO4 (aq) → ____Na2SO4 (aq) + ____H2O (l)

c. ____K (s) + ____H2O (l) → ____KOH (aq) + ____H2 (g)

d. ____As2O3 (s) + ____H2S (g) → ____As2S3 (s) + ____H2O (l)

e. ____MnO2 (s) + ____HCl (aq) → ____MnCl2 (aq) + ____Cl2 (g) + ____H2O (l)

f. ____Fe(s) + ____H2O (g) → ____Fe3O4 (s) + ____H2 (g)

g. ____Ag2S (s) + ____H2O (l) →____ Ag (s) + ____H2S (g) + ____O2 (g)

h. ____CS2 (l) + ____Cl2 (g) → ____CCl4 (l) + ____S2Cl2 (l)

i. ____SCl4 (l) + ____H2O (l) → ____H2SO3 (aq) + ____HCl (g)

j. ____KClO3 (s) → ____KCl (s) + ____KClO4 (s)

k. ____Zn (OH)2 (s) + ____H3PO4 (aq) → ____Zn3(PO4)2 (aq) + ____H2O (l)

l. ____N2 (g) + ____H2 (g) → ____NH3 (g)

m. ____CuO (s) + ____HNO3 (aq) → ____Cu(NO3)2 (aq) + ____H2O (l)

n. ____NH3 (g) + ____O2 (g) → ____NO (g) + ____H2O (g)

o. Na2B4O7.10H2O (s) + ___HCl (aq) → ___ NaCl (aq) + __H2O (l) + ___H3BO3 (aq)

p. (NH4)2SO4 (s) + ___NaOH (aq) → ___Na2SO4 (aq) + ___NH3 (g) + ____H2O (l)

2. Write a balanced equation that describes each of the following:

a) Sodium metal reacts with water to produce aqueous sodium hydroxide and
hydrogen gas.
b) In the presence of a catalyst , ammonia gas reacts with oxygen gas to form
gaseous nitrogen monoxide and water vapour.
c) Solid sodium hydrogen carbonate neutralizes hydrochloric acid to form
aqueous sodium chloride, water and carbon dioxide gas.

6
THE CHANGES OF STATES

1. Name each of the following state changes:

a) Solid to liquid ____________________________
b) Liquid to solid ____________________________
c) Liquid to gas, at any temperature ____________________________
d) Liquid to gas, at a fixed maximum temperature __________________
e) Gas to liquid _____________________________
f) Solid to gas _____________________________

2. Answer the following questions regarding state changes in water.

a) On which section(s) of the heating curve below is water

i. Melting?

ii. Boiling?

iii. Increasing in temperature?

iv. Being heated?

v. Going through a phase change?

vi. Only a gas?

vii. Only a liquid?

viii. Only a solid?

ix. Present in two phases?

7
THE MOLE CONCEPT
In today’s world, the study of chemical substances and chemical reaction
requires the ability to experimentally determine the nature of the products of
chemical reactions. We must be able to find out their formulas and we must be able
to decide how much of the various chemicals we need when we carry out chemical
reactions. In other words, we must be able to deal with elements and compounds
and with chemical reactions quantitatively. Stoichiometry (derived from the Greek
‘stoicherion’ = element and ‘metron’ = measure) is the term we use in describing the
quantitative aspects of chemical composition and reaction.
The atomic theory of Dalton and the development of a table of atomic masses
of the element really opened the door to stoichiometric calculations, but before this
can be appreciated, we must first examined what is surely the most important
concept of all in stoichiometry, the mole.
As you’ve learned, atoms react to form molecules in simple whole number
ratios. Hydrogen and oxygen atoms, for instance, combine in a 2 to 1 ratio to form
water, H2O, and carbon and oxygen atoms combine in a 1 to 1 ratio to form carbon
monoxide. Knowing this, suppose we want to form carbon monoxide from carbon
and oxygen atoms in such a way that there wouldn’t be any atoms of other element
left over, if we only require one molecule, we could imagine bringing together 1 atom
of C and 1 atom of O. If two molecules are desired, then we would need 2 atoms of
C and 2 atoms of O, and so on for any number of molecules we wished.
However, we really can’t work with individual atoms because they are so tiny.
Therefore in any real life laboratory situation we must increase the sizes of the
samples to the point where we can see them and manipulate them. However, this
must be done in a way that maintains the proper ratio of atoms.
One way we could enlarge the amounts in a chemical reaction would be to
work with dozens of atoms instead of individual atoms.
1 atom C + 1 atom O → 1 molecule CO
1 dozen C atoms + 1 dozen O atoms → 1 dozen CO molecules
(12 atoms C) (12 atoms O) 12 molecules CO
Notice that the 1 to 1 ratio of dozens of atoms is exactly the same as the 1 to 1 ratio
of the atoms themselves. If we were to take 2 dozen carbon atoms and 2 dozen
oxygen atoms (another 1 to 1 ratio of dozens), again, we could be sure that there

8
 would be equal numbers of atoms of carbon and oxygen ( a 1 to 1 ratio of atoms). In
fact it doesn’t matter how many dozens of each kind of atom we take; all we have to
be careful about is that we have equal number of dozens, so that the 1 to 1 ratio by
dozens and by atoms is maintained.
This is such an important concept that it’s worth exploring fro another case.
Let’s consider the substance water, H 2O. If we were dealing with individual atoms,
we could write the equation;
2 atoms of H + 1 atom of O → 1 molecule H2O
We could then scale up the size of the reaction by working with dozens of
hydrogen and oxygen atoms.
2 dozen H atoms + 1 dozen O atoms → 1 dozen H 2O molecules
or
4 dozen H atoms + 2 dozen O atoms → 2 dozen H 2O molecules
or
6 dozen H atoms + 3 dozen O atoms → 3 dozen H 2O molecules
In each case, we maintain a 2 to 1 ratio of H to O atoms by maintaining a 2 to 1
ratio of dozens of these atoms.
It should be obvious now that if we had some way of counting atoms by the
dozen, we could take dozens of them in a ratio that is exactly equal to the desired
atom ratio, and in so doing, we would be ensured of having the proper atom ratio.
Unfortunately, a dozen atom or molecules is still much too small to work with, so we
must find a still larger unit. The ‘chemist’s dozen’’ is called the mole (abbreviated
mol). It is composed of 6.022 x 10 23 objects (we will say more about the origin of this
number, called Avogadro’s number, later).
1 dozen = 12 objects
1 mole = 6.022 x 1023 objects

The dozen and the mole are similar units; each stands for a certain number of things.

The same reasoning that we can use with the dozen applies equally to the
mole. The mole is simply a much larger collection.

9
 1 mole of C atoms + 1 mole of O atoms → 1 mole of CO molecules
or
1 mol C + 1 mol O → 1 mol CO
(6.022 x 1023 atoms C) (6.022 x 1023 atoms O) (6.022 x 1023 molecules CO)
We see that if we take 1 mole of carbon atoms and 1 mole of oxygen atoms,
we have equal numbers of carbon and oxygen atoms and can construct exactly 1
mol of CO molecules with nothing left over.
The preceding discussion illustrates the most important aspect of the mole
concept.
The ratios which individual atoms combine to form molecules are exactly the
same as the ratio in which moles atoms combine.
For example, to form tetrachloride, CCl4, we know that
1 atom C + 4 atoms Cl → 1 molecule CCl4
We can immediately enlarge this to moles
1 mol C + 4 mol Cl → 1 mole CCl4
Remember ‘1 mol C’ means 1 mole of C atoms. What does ‘1mole CCl 4 means?

By taking moles of carbons and chlorine atoms in a 1 to 4 ratio, we can be sure

of having one carbon atom for every four chlorine atoms. And if our goal is simply
keeping the carbon to chlorine atom ratio equal to 1 to 4, we can work with any
number of moles of carbon atoms, just as long as the number of moles of chlorine
atoms is 4 times larger. Thus, if we started with 2 mol C atoms, we would need 8 mol
Cl atoms.
2 mol C + 8 mol Cl → 2 mole CCl4
Or, if we started with 5 mol C atoms, we would need 20 mol Cl atoms.
5 mol C + 20 mol Cl → 5 mole CCl4
In each case, there is a 1 to 4 ratio of carbon to chlorine both by moles and by
atoms.
To summarise then, the ratio by which moles of substances react is the same
as the ratio by which their atoms and molecules react. This simple idea forms the
basis for all quantitative chemical reasoning.
Students who have difficulty learning chemistry often have not learned to think
problems through in terms of moles.

10
 The atoms ratio in a chemical formula such as C 2Cl6 establishes a number of
mole ratios that are useful for constructing conversion factors that can be employed
in solving problems. We’ve already seen one of these, which can be written as either
2 mol C or 6 mol C
6 mol Cl 2 mol C
There are others as well. The formula tells us that 1 molecule of C 2Cl6 contains
2 atoms of C and that it also contains 6 atoms of Cl. We can scale this up
immediately to moles; 1 mol C 2Cl6 contains 2 mol C and 6 mol Cl. This gives two
equivalences:
1 mol C2Cl6 ↔ 2 mol C
1 mol C2Cl6 ↔ 6 mol Cl

In other words, any time we have a mole of C 2Cl6 molecules, there will be two
moles of carbon atoms in it, and anytime we have a mole of C 2Cl6 molecules, there
will be six moles of chlorine atoms in it. That’s what we mean by an equivalence (↔).
As described earlier, we can use these equivalences to form conversion factors.
1 mol C2Cl6 or _ 2 mol C__
2 mol C 1 mol C2Cl6
and
1 mol C2Cl6 or _ 6 mol Cl_
6 mol Cl 1 mol C2Cl6

11
MOLE CALCULATIONS WORKSHEET

Use your data booklet to find the basic data required for these calculations, ie.
R.A.M’s. Make sure that you show your working in every calculation.
1. Determine the mass of material in each of the following:
a. 2.00 mol of SO3
b. 0.03 mol of Cl
c. 9.00 mol of SO42-
d. 0.15 mol of MgSO4.7H2O

2. Determine the number of moles in each of the following:

a. 31.0g of P4
b. 1.0 x 1022 atoms of Cu
c. 70.0g of Fe2+
d. 9.0 x 1024 molecules of C2H5OH

3. What is the mass of:

a. 6.02 x 1023 atoms of oxygen
b. 6.02 x 1023 molecules of nitrogen
c. 1.0 mole of carbon dioxide
d. 0.20 moles of sulphur dioxide
e. 12.04 x 1023 atoms of zinc

4. How many mole of:

a. Cl2 are there in 71.0 g of chlorine
b. CaCO3 are there in 10.0g of calcium carbonate
c. KOH are there in 20.0 cm3 of 0.100M potassium hydroxide solution

5. The mass of one molecule of a compound is 2.19 x 10 -22 g. What is the molar
mass of the compound?

12
 EMPIRICAL FORMULAS

The subscripts in each empirical formula give us the atoms ratios in a

compound. In CH2, for example, the C-to-H atom ratio is 1 to 2, and as you’ve
already learned, the atom ratio is exactly the same as the mole ratio. In CH 2 we find
the elements in a ratio of 1 mol C to 2 mol H. This equality between atom and mole
ratios is the basis for the method of determining empirical formulas; we
experimentally measure the mole ratios , which then give us the atom ratios. For
instance, suppose we had a sample of a compound containing only carbon and
hydrogen in which these elements occurred in a ratio of 1 mol C to 3 mol H. The only
way the mole ratio could be 1 to 3 is if the atom ratio is 1 to 3, so the empirical
formula must be CH3.
The next question, of course is, “ How do we obtain the mole ratios?” In every
empirical formula calculation, we must at some point have the same basic
information.

To calculate an empirical formula, we need to know the mass of each of

the elements in a given mass of the compound.
Once we have the masses of the elements, we convert them to moles and
then find the simplest whole-number ratio of the moles, which gives us the subscripts
in the formula.
Usually it is not possible to decompose a compound into its elements and
then weigh them, so different strategy must be used. As a rule this involves causing
the compound to undergo some chemical reaction that divides the elements from
each other and isolates them in compounds having known chemical formulas. Such
analysis requires very careful work to ensure that all of given element in the original
sample is isolated in the compound of known formula.

MOLECULAR FORMULAS
Not only does the molecular formula give us the atom ratios in a compound, it
also tells us the actual number of atoms of each kind in a molecule of the substance.
Now, you should recall that it is possible for more than one compound to have the
same empirical formula. The molecules C 2H4, C4H8, and C5H10 all a 1 to 2 ratio of
carbon to hydrogen atoms and the empirical formula CH 2. One important way that
these substances differ, however, is in their molecular masses. In fact, their
molecular masses are multiple of the mass of the simplest formula, CH 2.
Recognizing this, we see if we are able in some way to learn the molecular mass of
the compound, we could simply divide the molecular mass by the mass of the
empirical formula unit to obtain a whole number. This number tells us how many
times the empirical formula is repeated in the molecular formula.

13
EMPIRICAL FORMULAS I

1. Find the empirical formula of the following compounds from their composition by
mass:
a. Zn, 47.8% ; Cl, 52.2% [RAM: Zn=65 ; Cl=35.5]

b. Na, 39.3% ; Cl, 60.7% [RAM: Na=23; Cl=35.5]

c. Cu, 39.5% ; S, 20.3% ; O, 40.2% [RAM: Cu=64 ; S=32; O=16]

d. Pb, 62.5% ; N, 8.45% ; O, 29.05% [RAM:Pb=207; N=14; O=16]

e. Na, 43.4% ; C, 11.3% ; O, 45.3% [RAM: Na=23 ; C=12; O=16]

14
2. Calculate the percentage by mass of each element in the following
compounds:
a. Sodium hydrogen carbonate, NaHCO3

b. Calcium chloride, CaCl2

c. Ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2SO4

d. Sodium thiosulphate, Na2S2O3

e. Potassium dichromate (VI), K2Cr2O7

15
EMPIRICAL FORMULAS II

1. Sodium thiosulphate is used for photographic fixing. Its elemental composition

by mass is 29.03% sodium, 40.56% sulphur and 30.36% oxygen. Determine
the empirical formula of the compound.

2. Twenty-Mule Team Borax consists of a compound whose elemental

composition by mass is 22.85% sodium, 21.49% boron and 55.66% oxygen.
Determine the empirical formula of the compound.

3. Human muscle cells produce lactic acid. It is the accumulation of lactic acid
that results in cramps during sudden exertion when the oxygen supply in the
cell has been exhausted. The elemental composition by mass of lactic acid is
40.00% carbon, 6.71% hydrogen and 53.28% oxygen by mass. Determine the
empirical formula of lactic acid.

16
MOLECULAR FORMULAS

1. Determine the empirical formula of each of the following molecular formulas:

a. C6H12N4 ________________

b. C6H12O2 ________________

c. C10H14N2 ________________

2. Hydrogen peroxide is a corrosive, chemically reactive liquid. Its chemical

composition is 5.92% hydrogen and 94.08% oxygen by mass. Its molar mass
is 34.01g. Determine the molecular formula of hydrogen peroxide.

3. Vanillin is the flavoring agent in “ Vanilla “. Its molar mass is 152.14g, and its
percentage composition by mass is 63.16% carbon, 5.30% hydrogen and
31.54% oxygen. Determine its molecular formula.

4. A 100.0 g sample of a compound contains 53.30 g C, 11.19 g H, and 35.51 g

O. The molecular mass of the compound is 90 . Determine its molecular
formula.

17
MOLECULAR FORMULA OF ORGANIC COMPUNDS

1. An organic compound, X, which contains only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

has a molar mass of about 85 g mol -1. When 0.43 g of X is burnt in excess
oxygen, 1.10 g of carbon dioxide and 0.45 g of water are formed.
a) What is the empirical formula of X?

b) What is the molecular formula of X?

2. 60 cm3 of oxygen was added to 10 cm3 of a gaseous unsaturated

hydrocarbon. After explosion and cooling to room temperature, the residual
gaseous occupied 45 cm3 and after absorption by aqueous NaOH, 15 cm 3 of
oxygen remained. All measurement was taken under the same condition of
temperature and pressure.
a. What volume of carbon dioxide was formed in the reaction?

b. What volume of oxygen actually reacted with hydrocarbon?

c. Determine the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon.

d. What volume of water vapour was formed in the reaction before the
gases were cooled?

18
REACTING MASSES AND VOLUMES

1. What mass of glucose must be fermented to give 5.00 kg of ethanol?

C6H12O6 (aq) → 2C2H5OH (aq) + 2CO2 (g)

2. The pollutant sulphur dioxide can be removed from the air by the reaction:
2CaCO3 (s) + 2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2CaSO4 (s) + CO2 (g)

How much calcium carbonate (in grams) is needed to remove 10.0 kg of

sulphur dioxide?

3. What mass of KIO3 is required to give 10.00 g of iodine?

KIO3 (aq) + 5 KI (aq) + 6 H+ (aq) → 3 I2 (aq) + 6 K+ (aq) + 3 H2O (l)

4. Sodium hydrogen carbonate will decompose to sodium carbonate, carbon

dioxide and water when heated. How many moles of sodium carbonate is
produced when 100 g of sodium hydrogen carbonate is heated?

19
5. Assuming 100% yield , what is the volume of H 2 required to produce 120 dm 3
of ammonia by the reaction:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)

6. The production of acrylonitrile (C3H3N) is given by the following reaction:

2C3H6(g) + 2NH3(g) + 3O2(g) → 2C3H3N(g) + 6H2O(g)
Determine the volume of C3H3N produced from the complete reaction of
48.2 dm3 of C3H6 .

7. What is the volume of O2 gas, at STP, required for the complete combustion
of 75.0 g of octane (C8H18) to CO2 and H2O.

20
LIMITING REAGENTS 1

1. What is the maximum number of grams of NH 4SCN (s) that can be prepared
from 9.00 g of CS2 (l) and 3.00 g of NH3 (g). The equation for the reaction is:
CS2 (I) + 2NH3 (g) → NH4SCN (s) + H2S (g)

2. What is the maximum number of grams of OF 2 (g) that can be prepared from
2.50 g of F2 (g) and 2.50 g of NaOH (aq). The equation for the reaction is:
2F2 (g) + 2NaOH (aq) → OF2 (g) + 2NaF (aq) + H2O (l)

3. What is the maximum number of grams of SF 4 (g) that can be prepared from
6.00 g of SCl2 (g) and 3.50 g of NaF (s). The equation for the reaction is:
3SCl2 (g) + 4NaF (s) → SF4 (g) + S2Cl2 (l) + 4NaCl (s)

21
LIMITING REAGENTS /PERCENTAGE YIELD

1. In the manufacture of fertilizer, sulphuric acid and ammonia gas are reacted
together to form ammonium sulphate. What is the maximum mass of
ammonium sulphate that can be obtained from 2.00 kg of acid and 1.00 kg of
ammonia?

2. In the Thermit reaction: 2 Al (s) + Cr2O3 (s) → 2Cr (s) + Al2O3 (s)
Calculate the percentage yield when 181 g of chromium are obtained from the
reaction between 105 g of aluminium and 401 g of chromium (III) oxide.

3. 5.00 g of iron and 5.00 g of sulphur are heated together to form iron (II)
sulphide.
a. Which reactant is present in excess?

b. How many moles of iron (II) sulphide is formed?

4. 100.0 cm3 of 0.500 M barium chloride were treated with an excess of sulphate
ions. The precipitate formed was dried and weighed. A mass of 11.558 g was
recorded.
a. Write the equation for the reaction.

b. Calculate the percentage yield.

22
VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS I

1. What mass of the solute must be used in order to prepare the required
solutions listed below,

a) 255.0 cm3 of 0.200 mol dm-3 Na2CO3 (aq) from Na2CO3 (s).

b) 755.0 cm3 of 0.100 mol dm-3 H2C2O4 (aq) from H2C2O4.2H2O (s).

c) 2.50 dm3 of 0.200 mol dm-3 NaHCO3 (aq) from NaHCO3 (s).

d) 5.00 dm3 of 0.100 mol dm-3 Na2B4O7 (aq) from Na2B4O7.10H2O (s).

2. Calculate the molarity for the solution below:

a. 0.40 moles of NaOH in 500.0 cm3 of water.

b. 54.0 g of BaCl2 in 250.0 cm3 of water.

23
3. 25.0 cm3 of NaOH solution required 28.0 cm 3 of 1.00 M H2SO4 solution for
complete neutralisation.
a. Write a balanced equation for the reaction.

b. How many moles of the acid were used to neutralise the sodium
hydroxide?

c. How many moles of the alkali were neutralised?

d. How many moles of the alkali are there in 25.0 cm 3 of solution?

e. What is the molarity of the sodium hydroxide solution?

4. A solution is made containing 2.38g of magnesium chloride, in 500.0 cm 3 of

solution.
a. What is the concentration of magnesium chloride, MgCl 2, in this solution?

b. What is the concentration of the chloride ions in this solution?

5. Arsenic (V) acid, H3AsO4 is a tribasic acid. 25.0 cm 3 of a solution of the acid
require 35.7 cm3 of a solution of sodium hydroxide of concentration
0.100 mol dm-3 for neutralisation. What is the concentration of the acid?

24
6. Soda lime is 85.0% NaOH and 15.0% CaO. What volume of 0.250M sulphuric
acid is needed to neutralise 2.50g of soda lime?

7. A 1.00 g sample of limestone is allowed to react with 100.0 cm 3 of 0.200 M

hydrochloric acid. The excess acid required 24.8 cm 3 of 0.100 M sodium
hydroxide solution for titration. Calculate the percentage of calcium carbonate
in the limestone.

8. An impure sample of barium hydroxide of mass 1.6524g was allowed to react

with 100.0 cm3 of hydrochloric acid of concentration 0.200 M. When the excess
acid was titrated against sodium hydroxide, it required 28.5 cm 3 of the 0.200M
NaOH solution in a separate titration. Calculate the percentage purity of the
sample of barium hydroxide.

25
VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS II

1. A household cleaner contains ammonia. 25.37g of the sample is dissolved in

250.0 cm3 of water. 25.0 cm3 of the solution requires 37.3 cm 3 of 0.360 M of
sulphuric acid for neutralisation. Calculate the percentage by mass of the
ammonia in the cleaner.

2. Calculate the number of moles of H + in C6H8O6 given that 0.440g of it

neutralised 37.5 cm3 of 0.200 M sodium hydroxide.

3. Sodium carbonate crystals (27.823g) were dissolved in water and made up to

1000.0cm3. 25.0 cm3 of the solution was neutralised by 48.8 cm 3 of 0.200 M
hydrochloric acid. Find n in the formula Na 2CO3.nH2O.

4. Anhydrous sodium carbonate is used as a primary standard in volumetric

analysis. 25.0 cm3 of 0.100 M sodium carbonate requires 35.0 cm 3 of
hydrochloric acid for neutralisation. Calculate the concentration of the acid.

26
STOICHIOMETRY REVIEW EXERCISE I

1. Calculate the mass of each of the following that is necessary to produce 6.00
mol of AgCl by reaction with AgNO3.
(a) NaCl (b) BaCl2 (c) AlCl3

2. Excess AgNO3 (aq) was added to a sample of NiCl2, and 10.3g of AgCl (s) was
produced. What mass of NiCl2 was present initially?

3. How many grams of stearic acid C 17H35COOH, a fatty acid, can be produced by
the reaction of 750g of H2 and sufficient C17H31COOH, a component of an oil?
The balanced equation is:
C17H31COOH (l) + 2H2 (g) → C17H35COOH (s)

4. What mass of diphosphorus trisulfide can be prepared by heating phosphorus

with the quantity of sulphur that contains 2.35 x 10 23 S atoms?

5. Consider the following equation:

C4H6 (g) + 2H2 (g) → C4H10 (g)
Calculate the mass of C4H10 that can be prepared from 14.0g of C 4H6 and 2.00g
of H2.

6. Calculate the mass of unreacted starting material when 95.0g of PCl 3, is treated
with 40.0g H2O.
PCl3 (l) + 3H2O (l) → H3PO3 (l) + 3HCl (g)

7. Calculate the percent yield for an experiment in which 16.7g of SOCl 2 was
obtained by treatment of 10.0g of SO2 with excess PCl5:
PCl5 (l) + SO2 (g) → SOCl2 (l) + POCl3 (l)

8. How many molecules of NO can be produced by the reaction of 60.0g NH 3 with

155g of O2 according to the following balanced equation?
4NH3 (g) + 5O2 (g) → 4NO (g) + 6H2O (g)

9. Calculate (a) the theoretical yield and (b) the percent yield, if 40.9g of liquid
SO2Cl2 is obtained from the reaction of 20.0g of gaseous SO 2 and excess
gaseous Cl2.

27
STOICHIOMETRY REVIEW EXERCISE II

1. How many litres of CO2 at STP will be produced by burning 81.0g of cellulose,
C6H10O5.

2. How many litres of H2S are needed to precipitate 14.2g of Sb2S3?

2Sb3+ + 3H2S → 6H+ + Sb2S3

3. If 4.0 moles of NO2 were reacted with 2.0 moles of H 2O, what is the maximum
amount of HNO3 that can be formed?
3NO2 + H2O → 2HNO3 + NO

4. What is the maximum amount of NO that can be formed by reacting 25.0g of

NH3 with 25.0g of O2?
4NH3 + 5O2 → 4NO + 6H2O

5. Calculate the number of grams of excess reagent left over if 25.0g of C 2H4 were
reacted with 40.0g of O2.

6. Calculate the number of grams of HCl that would be produced if 6.00 moles of
PCl3 were reacted with excess H2O.
PCl3 + 3H2O → H3PO3 + 3HCl

7. Calculate the number of grams of excess reagent left over if 50.0g of C 2H4 were
reacted with 75.0g of O2.

8. If 16.0g of O2 were reacted with 16.0g C 3H8, calculate the maximum amount of
CO2 that can be formed.

9. If 25.0g of H2S were reacted with 20.0g of SO2, what is the maximum amount of
sulphur that can be formed?
SO2 + 2H2S → 2H2O + 3S

10. Calculate the amount in grams of excess reagent left over if 40.0g of CaCO 3
were reacted with 40.0g of HCl.

11. How many litres of HBR would be produced at STP by reacting 100.0g of PBr 3
with 50.0g of H2O?
PBr3 + 3H2O → H3PO3 + 3HBr

28
STOICHIOMETRY REVIEW EXERCISE III

1. Which of the following has a greater mass: 2 atoms of lead or 5.1 x 10 -23 mole of
helium? Show your working.

2. How many molecules of ethane, C2H6, are present in 0.334g of C2H6?

3. Urea, (NH2)2CO, is used for fertiliser and many other things. Calculate the
number of N, C, O and H atoms in 1.68 x 104 g of urea.

4. The density of water is 1.00g/cm 3 at 4oC. How many moles of water are present
in 2.56cm3 of water at this temperature?

5. Carbohydrates are compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in

which the hydrogen to oxygen ratio is 2:1. A certain carbohydrate contains
40.0% carbon by mass. Calculate the empirical and molecular formula of the
compound if the mass is 178g.

29
6. A compound X contains 63.3% manganese and 36.7% oxygen by mass. When
X is heated, oxygen gas is evolved and a new compound Y containing 77% Mn
and 23% O is formed.
a. Determine the empirical formula of X and Y.

b. State the name of X and Y.

c. Write a balanced equation for the conversion of X to Y.

7. Balance the following equations:

a. ___KNO3 → ____KNO2 + ____O2
b. ___P4O10 + ____H2O → ____H3PO4
c. ___Cu + ____HNO3 → ____Cu(NO3)2 + ____NO + ____H2O
d. ___S + ____HNO3 → ____H2SO4 + ____NO2 + ____H2O
e. ___CuO + ____NH3 → ____Cu + ____N2 + ____H2O

30
MOLE CALCULATIONS WITH NO USE OF CALCULATOR

1. Avogadro’s constant has the same value as the number of

A. Molecule in 1 mol of solid iodine
B. Atoms in 1 mol of chlorine
C. Ions in 1 mol of solid potassium bromide
D. Protons in 1 mol of helium gas

2. Which sample has the least number of atoms?

A. 1 mol of H2SO4
B. 1 mol of CH3COOH
C. 2 mol of H2O2
D. 2 mol of NH3

3. How many oxygen atoms are present in 0.0500 mol of carbon dioxide?
A. 3.01 x 1022
B. 6.02 x 1022
C. 6.02 x 1023
D. 1.20 x 1024

4. Which contains the same number of ions as the value of Avogadro’s constant?
A. 0.5 mol NaCl
B. 0.5 mol MgCl2
C. 1.0 mol Na2O
D. 1.0 mol MgO

5. What volume of 0.20M sodium hydroxide solution could be made from 2.0g of
solid sodium hydroxide?
A. 10.00 dm3
B. 5.00 dm3
C. 0.25 dm3
D. 0.125 dm3
6. Which solution contains 0.1 mol of sodium hydroxide?

31
 A. 1 cm3 of 0.1 moldm-3 NaOH
B. 10 cm3 of 0.1 moldm-3 NaOH
C. 100 cm3 of 1.0 moldm-3 NaOH
D. 1000 cm3 of 1.0 moldm-3 NaOH

7. Which aqueous solution contains the most hydrogen ions?

A. 20 cm3 of 2 moldm-3 sulphuric acid

B. 10 cm3 of 4 moldm-3 nitric acid
C. 80 cm3 of 0.5 moldm-3 hydrochloric acid
D. 40 cm3 of 0.5 moldm-3 sulphuric acid

8. When 112g of carbon monoxide are consumed to the given equation, which of
the following occurs? [RAM: C=12; O=16.0]
CO(g) + ½ O2 (g) → CO2 (g) ;

A. 2.0 mol of oxygen are consumed.

B. 2.0 mol of carbon dioxide are produced.
C. 44.0g of carbon dioxide are produced.
D. 16.0 g of oxygen are consumed.

9. A 4.0 g sample of sodium hydroxide, NaOH is dissolved in water and made up

to 500 cm3 of aqueous solution. What is the concentration of the resulting
solution?

A. 0.1 moldm-3
B. 0.2 moldm-3
C. 0.5 moldm-3
D. 1.0 moldm-3

32
10. Methane, CH4 burns in oxygen gas to form carbon dioxide and water. How
many mole of carbon dioxide will be formed from 8.0 g of methane?

A. 0.25
B. 0.50
C. 1.00
D. 2.00

11. What is the empirical formula of a compound containing 50% by mass of

element X (Ar = 20) and 50% by mass of element Y (Ar = 23)?

A. XY
B. X2Y2
C. X4Y5
D. X5Y4

12. Assuming complete reaction, what volume of 0.200 moldm -3 potassium

hydroxide solution (KOH (aq)) is required to neutralize 25.0 cm 3 of 0.200
moldm-3 aqueous sulphuric acid, (H2SO4 (aq))?

A. 12.5 cm3
B. 25.0 cm3
C. 50.0 cm3
D. 75.0 cm3

13. On complete combustion, a sample of a hydrocarbon compound produce 1.5

mol of carbon dioxide and 2.0 mol of water. What is the molecular formula of
this hydrocarbon?

A. C2H2
B. C2H4
C. C3H4
D. C3H8

33
14. What volume of 0.500 moldm-3 sulphuric acid solution is required to react
completely with 10.0 g of calcium carbonate (M r = 100) according to the
equation below?

CaCO3(s) + H2SO4 (aq) → CaSO4 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

A. 100 cm3
B. 200 cm3
C. 300 cm3
D. 400 cm3

15. Aluminium reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce hydrogen gas according to
the equation below :

2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) → 3H2(g) + 2AlCl3(aq)

Which expression gives the number of moles of hydrogen that can be

produced from 0.24 moles of Al and excess hydrochloric acid?

A. 0.24 x 3/2
B. 0.24 x 2/3
C. 0.24 x 3/6
D. 0.24 x 6/2

16. What mass in grams of solid silver chloride can be precipitated when 25 cm 3 of
0.12 moldm-3 sodium chloride is added to an excess of aqueous silver ions?

A. 0.025 x 1.2 x ½ x (107.87 + 70.90)

B. 0.025 x 0.12 x (107.87 + 35.45)
C. 0.25 x 0.12 x (107.87 + 35.45)
D. 25 x 0.12 x (107.87 + 35.45)

34
17. A 2.0 molar solution of H2SO4 will contain _______g of H2SO4 in 0.50 dm3
solution.

A. 24g
B. 49g
C. 98g
D. 196g

18. How many atoms are present in 0.10 mole of propyne, C 3H4?

A. 4.2 x 1022
B. 6.0 x 1022
C. 4.2 x 1023
D. 6.0 x 1023

19. The percentage of nitrogen by mass in nitrogen diocide, NO 2, is closest to

which of the following?

A. 20%
B. 30%
C. 40%
D. 50%

20. Analytical chemists can detect amounts of amino acids as small as 2.0 x 10 -21
mol of molecules. How many molecules does this represent?

A. 2.0 x 10-21
B. 1.2 x 103
C. 6.0 x 1023
D. 3.0 x 1044

35
 STOICHIOMETRY TEST FOR CHEMISTRY IB
WITH NO USE OF CALCULATOR

1. One mole of N2H4 molecules contains approximately:

A. 6.02 x 1023 atoms

B. 6.02 x 1023 N atoms
C. 2.40 x 1024 H atoms
D. 1.80 x 1024 atoms

2. Which one of the following contains the greatest mass of carbon?

A. 32.0g of CH4
B. 50.0g of CaCO3
C. 0.25 mol of C4H10
B. 9.03 x 1023 molecules of CO2

3. What is the approximate mass in grams of 1 nitrogen molecule N 2?

A. 28
B. 1.69 x 1025
C. 2.33 x 10-23
D. 4.66 x 10-23

4. Which one of the following contains the smallest number of molecules?

A. 1g of sucrose, C12H22O11
B. 1g of methanol, CH3OH
C. 1g of phenol, C6H5OH
D. 1g of ethane, C2H6

5. The nitrogen compound which contains the largest mass percentage of

nitrogen is?

A. NH3
B. N2H4
C. NO
D. N2O3

36
6. Which hydrocarbon would, on complete combustion in oxygen, produce CO 2
and H2O in the mole ratio 1.0 mol CO2 to 1.33 mol H2O?

A. C4H10
B. C4H8
C. C3H8
D. C3H4

7. Which one of the following could represent an empirical formula?

A. C2H3
B. C2H6
C. C3H6
D. C4H10

8. The number of grams of hydrogen in a sample of ethanoic acid C 2H4O2 that

contains 48.0g of carbon is:

A. 2.0
B. 4.0
C. 6.0
D. 8.0

9. The sample which contains 3.01 x 1023 atoms is:

A. 1.60 g of CH4
B. 3.20 g of CH4
C. 8.00 g of CH4
D. 16.00 g of CH4

10. A certain compound has a relative molecular mass (M r) of 60. All of the
following are possible simplest formula from this compound EXCEPT:

A. HF
B. NO
C. NH
D. H2O

37
11. When 32 g of CH4 are reacted with 32 g of O2 according to the equation:
CH4 + O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
All of the following statements are false EXCEPT:
A. 22 g of CO2 will be produced.
B. All 32 g of O2 will react.
C. Only 8 g of CH4 will react.
D. The total mass of CO2 and H2O produced will be 64 g.

12. How many moles of water will be produced if 100 g of potassium hydrogen
carbonate (Mr = 100) are completely decomposed by heat?
2KHCO3 (s) → K2CO3 (s) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
A. 0.25
B. 0.50
C. 1.00
D. 2.00

13. If 100.00 cm3 of NaOH solution are required for the neutralisation of a 25.00
cm3 sample of 0.1000 mol dm-3 H2SO4, what is the concentration of the NaOH?

A. 0.0250 mol dm-3

B. 0.050 mol dm-3
C. 0.1000 mol dm-3
D. 0.4000 mol dm-3

14. The Avagadro constant (L) corresponds to:

A. The number of atoms in 1 mole of atoms of any element.

B. The number of atoms in 1 mole of molecules of any element.
C. The number of atoms in 1 g of any element.
D. The number of ions in 1 mole of atoms of any ionic compound.

15. The volume of 0.250 mol dm -3 nitric acid, HNO3 required to react with 5.80g of
magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2,(Mr = 58) according to the following equation
is:
2HNO3 + Mg(OH)2 → Mg(NO3)2 + 2H2O

A. 800 cm3
B. 400 cm3

38
 C. 200 cm3
D. 100 cm3

16. A 27.0 g sample of and unknown carbon-hydrogen compound was burned in

excess oxygen to form 88.0 g of CO 2 and 27.0 g of H2O. What is a possible
molecular formula of the hydrocarbon?

A. CH4
B. C2H4
C. C4H6
D. C4H8
17. When 8.00 g of hydrogen gas reacts with 38.0 g of fluorine gas in an explosion,
the final mixture will contain:
H2 + F2 → 2HF
A. H2 , F2, and HF
B. H2 and HF
C. F2 and HF
D. H2 and F2

18. In order to dilute 250.0 cm 3 of 0.400 mol dm-3 HCl to 0.100 mol dm -3 the volume
of water that must be added is:

A. 250 cm3
B. 500 cm3
C. 750 cm3
D. 1000 cm3

19. Which solution contains the same number of ions per dm 3 as 0.10 mol dm-3
Al2(SO4)3 (aq)?

A. 0.15 mol dm-3 FeCl3 (aq)

B. 0.25 mol dm-3 FeSO4 (aq)
C. 0.20 mol dm-3 K2CO3 (aq)
D. 0.10 mol dm-3 AlCl3 (aq)

20. Calculate the mass of hydrogen formed when 5.4g of Al react with excess HCl.
2Al + 6HCl→ 2AlCl3 + 3H2
A. 0.3 g
B. 0.6 g

39
 C. 1.2 g
D. 1.8 g
21. An unknown element X combines with oxygen to form a compound which has
the formula X2O3 . It is found that 14.0 g of the element combines exactly with
6.0 g of oxygen to form 20g of X2O3. What is the relative atomic mass (Ar) of X?

A. 14.0
B. 28.0
C. 56.0
D. 112.0

22. If 250 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm-3 MgCl2 is diluted to 1.00 dm3, the number of chloride
ion present, and the concentration of the chloride ions in the resulting solution
are:

A. 0.25 mol and 0.25 mol dm-3

B. 0.50mol and 0.25 mol dm-3
C. 0.25 mol and 0.50mol dm-3
D. 0.50 mol and 0.50mol dm-3

23. When the equation below is balanced using the simplest whole number
coefficient, the sum of the coefficients is ( do not forget coefficients of one)
V2O5 + CCl4 → VCl5 + COCl2

A. 12
B. 13
C. 14
D. 15

24. The concentration of SO42- ions in 250 cm3 of 0.30 moldm-3 Al2(SO4)3 is:

A. 0.30 moldm-3
B. 0.45 moldm-3
C. 0.75 moldm-3
D. 0.90 moldm-3

40
25. A sample of magnesium carbonate in a crucible (total mass= 121 g) is
decomposed by heat. The mass of magnesium oxide and crucible obtained is
110 g.
MgCO3 (s) → MgO (s) + CO2 (g)
What was the mass of the crucible?

A. 40 g
B. 60 g
C. 80 g
D. 100 g

26. 0.69 g of carbonate of a Group 1 metal reacted with exactly 10 cm 3 of a

solution of HCl of concentration 1.0 moldm-3 according to the equation:
M2CO3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2MCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
The Group 1 metal could have been:

A. Li
B. Na
C. K
D. Rb

27. In performing an acid-base titration, a pipette, burette and a conical flask are to
be used. Which of these should be rinsed with the solution that they are to
contain, rather than water, before performing the titration?

A. Conical flask only

B. Burette and pipette only
C. All of them
D. None of them

28. A 366 g sample of KBrO4 (Mr = 183) was decomposed by heating, producing a
solid residue of mass 238 g. Which is the equation which corresponds to this
decomposition?

A. 2KBrO4 (s) → 2KBrO3 (s) + O2 (g)

B. KBrO4 (s) → KBrO2 (s) + O2 (g)
C. 2KBrO4 (s) → 2KBrO (s) + 3O2 (g)
D. KBrO4 (s) → KBr (s) + 2O2 (g)

41
29. 1 dm3 of NaOH (aq) with concentration 1.0 moldm-3, is mixed with 1dm3 of HCl(aq)
,concentration 2.0 M. After the reaction, the resulting solution:

A. contains NaCl with a concentration of 1.0 moldm -3

B. contains NaOH with a concentration of 1.0 moldm -3
C. contains HCl with a concentration of 1.0 moldm-3
D. contains HCl with a concentration of 0.5 moldm-3

30. An excess aqueous barium chloride was added to an aqueous solution

containing 32.2g g Na2SO4.xH2O. (Mr Na2SO4 = 142). 0.100 mol of BaSO 4 was
precipitated. The value of x is:

A. 2
B. 5
C. 10
D. 16

31. A student mixed 800cm3 of HCl(aq) concentration of 0.600 moldm-3 with 1200
cm3 of HCl(aq) concentration of 0.200 moldm-3. The resulting solution would
have a concentration of HCl(aq) of

A. 0.24 moldm-3
B. 0.36 moldm-3
C. 0.40 moldm-3
D. 0.48 moldm-3

32. According to the equation ;

2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g)

What volume of air (20% oxygen) is required to react with 10 dm 3 of SO2?

A. 2 dm3
B. 5 dm3
C. 10 dm3
D. 25 dm3

42
33. The equation for the reaction occurring in the synthesis of methanol is
CO2 (g) + 3H2 (g) → CH3OH (l) + H2O (l)
What is the maximum amount of methanol that can be formed from 2 mol of
CO2 and 3 mol of H2?

A. 1 mol
B. 2 mol
C. 3 mol
D. 5 mol

34. Calcium carbonate (Mr = 100) decomposes on heating as shown below ;

CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
When 50 g of calcium carbonate are decomposed, 7 g of calcium oxide are
formed. What is the percentage yield of calcium oxide ?
A. 7%
B. 25%
C. 50%
D. 75%

35. H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) → 2HCl (g)

Hydrogen and chlorine react according to the equation above. What will be the
result of the reaction of 2.0 mol of H2 and 1.5 mol of Cl2?

A. 3.5 mol of HCl

B. 1.5 mol of HCl and 0.5 mol of H2
C. 2.0 mol of HCl and 0.5 mol of Cl2
D. 3.0 mol of HCl and 0.5 mol of H2

43