NAME------------------------------------------------------------------------- CLASS ---------------

DEEPER LIFE HIGH SCHOOL

FIRST TERM: E-LEARNING NOTES

www.dlhsschools.org, www.dlhsschool.com,

[email protected]

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY

CLASS: SS 2

SCHEME OF WORK

WEEKS TOPICS

1. Revision of SS 1 work
2. Digestive System I: (a) Types of Alimentary Tracts (b) Description and functions of
parts of the alimentary canal (c) Modifications of alimentary canal (i) Modification of
parts to effect their digestive functions.
3. Digestive System II: (d) classification of mammals based on their diet (e) Feeding
habits: (i) filter feeders (ii) fluid feeders (iii) insect feeders (iv) parasitic and
saprophytic feeders (f) feeding in protozoa, hydra and mammals (g) feeding
mechanisms (h) Mammalian teeth
4. Transport System I: (a) introduction to transport system (b) media for transportation
(c) Need for substances to move over greater distances (d) Materials for transportation
(e) Structure of arteries, veins, capillaries, vascular bundles (f) transport system in
plants and animals
5. Transport System II: (g) circulatory systems (h) Mechanism of transportation: (i)
Unicellular organisms (ii) Multicellular organisms (iv) Higher animals (v) Higher
plants (i) Absorption of water and mineral salt (a) Definition of diffusion and osmosis
and principle behind them (b) Need for diffusion
6. Respiratory System: (a) Types of respiratory systems: (i) Body surface respiration
(ii) Coetaneous respiration (iii) Gills (iv) tracheal system (v) lungs (b) Mechanism of
respiratory system in: (i) Higher animals (ii) Lower animals (iii) plants (c)
Mechanisms of gaseous exchange through the stomata of plants.
7. Mid-Term Break
8. Excretory systems I: (a) introduction to excretory systems: (i) Contractile vacuoles
(ii) Flame cells (iii) Malpighian Tubules (iv) Kidney (v) other excretory organs in
mammals (vi) Stomata and Lenticels.
9. Excretory system II: (b) Excretory Mechanism in: (i) Earthworm (ii) Insects (iii)
Mammals.
10. Nutrient cycle in nature: (i) carbon cycle (ii) oxygen cycle
11. Revision.
12. Examination.
-

REFERENCE TEXTS

Catch-up Biology for SSCE/UME by A. Fatubarin et-al

Concise Biology for Senior Secondary Schools by B. N. Okoro

Exam Focus Biology for WASSCE and SSEC by E. Egunyomi et-al.

Lamlad’s SSCE &UTME Biology by G. A. O. Arawomo et-al.

Modern Biology for Senior Secondary Schools, by Sarojini T et-al.

Nelson Biology for Senior Secondaru Schools 2, by Kola Soyibo et-al.

Senior Secondary School Biology, by S. O. ILOEJE

Nelson Functional Biology for Senior Secondary Schools by KolaSoyibo et-al.

WEEK 1: Revision of first term work

WEEK 2
SUBJECT: BIOLOGY
CLASS: SS2
TOPIC: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM I
CONTENT:
(1) Introduction to digestion and digestive system
Types of Alimentary tracts
(2) Description and functions of parts of the alimentary canal
(3) Modification of alimentary canal

INTRODUCTION

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Digestive System, series of connected organs whose purpose is to break down, or digest,
the food we eat. Food is made up of large, complex molecules, which the digestive system
breaks down into smaller, simple molecules that can be absorbed into the bloodstream. The
simple molecules travel through the bloodstream to all of the body's cells, which use them for
growth, repair, and energy.
All animals have a digestive system, a feature that distinguishes them from plants. Plants
produce their own food in a process called photosynthesis, during which they use sunlight to
convert water and carbon dioxide into simple sugars. But animals, including humans, must
take in food in the form of organic matter, such as plants or other animals.

DIGESTION
Digestion is the breaking down of complex food substances into simple, soluble and
diffusible form by mechanical and chemical means.

Digestion generally involves two phases: a mechanical phase and a chemical phase. In the

mechanical phase, teeth or other structures physically break down large pieces of food into
smaller pieces. In the chemical phase, digestive chemicals called enzymes break apart
individual molecules of food to yield molecules that can be absorbed and distributed
throughout the body. These enzymes are secreted (produced and released) by glands in the
body.

ALIMENTARY CANAL
This is a tubular passage between the mouth and the anus, including the organs through
which food passes for digestion and elimination as waste. The alimentary canal is also called
the digestive tract or gut.
In most holozoic animals, digestion and absorption of food take place in the alimentary canal
or gut. A simple unicellular animal does not have an alimentary canal.

TYPES OF ALIMENTARY TRACT

There are different types of alimentary tracts in animals. However, there is no definite
alimentary canal in plant. This includes:

1. Intracellular alimentary tract: this is a digestion that takes place inside the cell,
within a food vacuole. E.g. unicellular organism like amoeba
2. Extracellular alimentary tract: this is a type of digestion that occur in multi-cellular
organisms. The mouth opens into a sac-like gut cavity where food is digested. E.g.
Hydra.
3. Simple alimentary tract for simple digestion of food. E.g. Birds.
4. Compartmentalised alimentary tract by ruminants for digestion of cellulose. E.g.
ruminants like cow.
5. Complex Human alimentary tract; a long tube stretching from the mouth to the
anus. Most of it is coiled up in the abdominal cavity. It is divided into several regions:
mouth, oesophagus, stomach, and intestines. Each region plays a role in the digestion
and /or absorption of food.

Diagram of human alimentary canal (page 293, modern biology)

PARTS OF THE MAMMALIAN ALIMENTARY CANAL

A typical mammalian alimentary canal consists of the following parts, namely: mouth,
pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, rectum and anus. All these parts can be found
in most vertebrates. However, there are modifications of the parts of the alimentary canal in
various, animals. In some animals, a structure may be reduced or enlarged, while in others,
some parts may be absent. The modifications reflect the various modes of feeding and types
of diet.
DESCRIPTION AND FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF THE MAMMALIAN
ALIMENTARY CANAL

Mouth and Teeth: In higher animals especially in human, the incisors, canines, premolar
and molar are teeth used to masticate the food into particles which expose it to large surface
area for the action of the enzymes. Digestion starts in the mouth.

Tongue: the tongue tastes the food, helps in the movement of the food in the mouth to allow
turning and mixing of the food with saliva and in forming food into bolus to allow
swallowing.

Saliva: The saliva lubricates the food, allows easy chewing or movement of food in the
mouth for swallowing, forms solvent for food, contains enzyme-ptyalin which digests cooked
starch to maltose and is slightly alkaline which is medium for action of ptyalin. The chewed
food in the mouth is then swallowed.

Pharynx: it next to the mouth. In some animals, such as the earthworm and Planaria, it is
muscular. In man it is short and wide. The pharynx leads to the trachea and the oesophagus. It
is used for passing food materials into the oesophagus or gullet.

Oesophagus/gullet: this is a narrow, straight, long, tube passing through the thoracic region
and the diaphragm into the stomach. Digestion does not take place here. But it is used for
passing food substances into the stomach by a wave-like muscular contraction and relaxation
called peristalsis. This type of movement occurs throughout the human alimentary canal.
Chewed food is passed to the stomach by peristaltic movement of the oesophagus.

Stomach: In some animals, the lower part of the oesophagus may be modified to form the
crop as in insects and birds. These are storage organs for the food consumed.

The stomach is primarily a storage organ. But in most mammals, it is very muscular and
digestion continues in it. In birds, insects and grasshopper and earthworm, the stomach
modified into a grinding organ called gizzard. The gizzard is normally muscular with small
sharp stones which masticate the food before it is further digested in the intestine. Hence,
gizzard is possessed by some vertebrates e.g. birds and some invertebrates e.g. insects and
earthworms which lack teeth in their mouth. Ruminants stomach are modified into four
chambered or compartments namely rumen, reticulum, psalterium and abomasums.

The stomach, located in the upper abdomen just below the diaphragm, is a saclike structure
with strong, muscular walls. The stomach can expand significantly to store all the food from
a meal for both mechanical and chemical processing. The stomach contracts about three times
per minute, churning the food and mixing it with gastric juice. This fluid, secreted by
thousands of gastric glands in the lining of the stomach, consists of water, hydrochloric acid,
an enzyme called pepsin, and mucin (the main component of mucus). Hydrochloric acid
creates the acidic environment that pepsin needs to begin breaking down proteins. It
also kills microorganisms that may have been ingested in the food. Mucin coats the stomach,
protecting it from the effects of the acid and pepsin. About four hours or less after a meal,
food processed by the stomach, called chyme, begins passing a little at a time through the
pyloric sphincter into the duodenum, the first portion of the small intestine.
In human, the wall of the stomach secretes gastric juice. This contains hydrochloric acid
which prevents the food in the stomach from being decay and two enzymes-rennin and
pepsin. Rennin curdles milk, while pepsin converts protein in the food into peptones.
Food may remain in the stomach for 3-4hours at the end it is converted to a semi-liquid paste
called chyme. Note that food is regulated into the stomach from the gullet by a muscle called
cardiac sphincter, while chyme is regulated to the small intestine by another muscle called
pyloric sphincter.

SMALL INTESTINE:
Most digestion, as well as absorption of digested food, occurs in the small intestine. This
narrow, twisting tube, about 2.5 cm (1 in) in diameter, fills most of the lower abdomen,
extending about 6 m (20 ft) in length. Over a period of three to six hours, peristalsis moves
chyme through the duodenum (first section of the small intestine) into the next portion of the
small intestine, the jejunum, and finally into the ileum, the last section of the small intestine.

A watery residue of indigestible food and digestive juices remains unabsorbed. This residue

leaves the ileum of the small intestine and moves by peristalsis into the large intestine, where
it spends 12 to 24 hours. The large intestine forms an inverted U over the coils of the small
intestine. It starts on the lower right-hand side of the body and ends on the lower left-hand
side. The large intestine is 1.5 to 1.8 m (5 to 6 ft) long and about 6 cm (2.5 in) in diameter.

During this time, the liver secretes bile into the small intestine through the bile duct. Bile
breaks large fat globules into small droplets, which enzymes in the small intestine can act
upon. Pancreatic juice, secreted by the pancreas, enters the small intestine through the
pancreatic duct. Pancreatic juice contains enzymes that break down sugars and starches into
simple sugars, fats into fatty acids and glycerol, and proteins into amino acids. Glands in the
intestinal walls secrete additional enzymes that break down starches and complex sugars into
nutrients that the intestine absorbs. Structures called Brunner’s glands secrete mucus to
protect the intestinal walls from the acid effects of digestive juices.

The small intestine’s capacity for absorption is increased by millions of finger-like

projections called villi, which line the inner walls of the small intestine. Each villus is about
0.5 to 1.5 mm (0.02 to 0.06 in) long and covered with a single layer of cells. Even tinier
finger-like projections called microvilli cover the cell surfaces. This combination of villi and
microvilli increases the surface area of the small intestine’s lining by about 150 times,
multiplying its capacity for absorption. Beneath the villi’s single layer of cells are capillaries
(tiny vessels) of the bloodstream and the lymphatic system. These capillaries allow nutrients
produced by digestion to travel to the cells of the body. Simple sugars and amino acids pass
through the capillaries to enter the bloodstream. Fatty acids and glycerol pass through to the
lymphatic system.

THE LARGE INTESTINE:

The large intestine serves several important functions.
I. It absorbs water—about 6 liters (1.6 gallons) daily—as well as dissolve salts
from the residue passed on by the small intestine.
II. In addition, bacteria in the large intestine promote the breakdown of
undigested materials and make several vitamins, notably vitamin K, which
the body needs for blood clotting.
III. The large intestine moves its remaining contents toward the rectum, which
makes up the final 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 in) of the alimentary canal. The rectum
stores the faeces—waste material that consists largely of undigested food,
digestive juices, bacteria, and mucus—until elimination. Then, muscle
contractions in the walls of the rectum push the faeces toward the anus. When
sphincters between the rectum and anus relax, the faeces pass out of the body.

A Section of the large intestine

 Human Digestive System
The human digestive system consists of a series of organs and structures that help break
down food and absorb nutrients for use throughout the body. Food enters the digestive system
through the mouth and passes through the oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large
intestine, and rectum. Other organs, such as the liver, further aid in the breakdown of food,
absorption of nutrients, and elimination of undigestible materials from the body.

Four-Chambered Stomach

Ruminant animals, including sheep, domestic cattle, goats, deer, and giraffes, have four-
chambered stomachs.

EVALUATION
1. Define the term Digestion.
2. What is digestive system?
3. List ten parts of the alimentary canal.
4. Outline four types of digestive system.

OBJECTIVE TEST
1. One of the is not a part digestive system of man (a) gizzard (b) teeth (c) saliva (d)
duodenum (e) oesophagus.
2. After about three to four hours the food is converted to (a) rennin (b) chyme (c) pepsin (d)
polypeptide (e) pepsinogen.
3. The hormone that converts glucose to glycogen is called (a) eosin (b) adrenalin (c) insulin
(d) oestrogen (e) mucin.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Discuss in details the functions of the duodenum.
2. Write two functions of the hydrogen chloride in the stomach
3. Sketch annotated diagram of the alimentary canals of man.

WEEK 3
SUBJECT: BIOLOGY
CLASS: SS2
TOPIC: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM II
CONTENT:
(1) Classification of mammals based on their diet
(2) Feeding Habits: Categories and mechanisms.
(3) Modifications in the feeding habits of
(i) Filter feeders
(ii) Fluid feeders
(iii) Insects feeders
(iv) Parasitic and saprophytic feeders
(v) Feeding in protozoa, hydra and mammals.

SUB-TOPIC 1: CLASSIFICATION OF MAMMALS BASED ON THEIR DIET

i. Herbivores
ii. Carnivores and
iii. Omnivores.

I. Herbivores
These refer to all the animals that are plant-eating. Examples include grasshoppers, goat,
cow, Grass cutter etc. They all feed on low vegetation such as grass. Giraffes and elephants
feed on taller plants or shrubs. Herbivores such as rabbits and guinea pigs use very sharp
incisors to cut shoots or browse, feed on roots and bark. Other animals like antelopes, cows
and goats pull up grass using the lower front teeth and pad on the front of the upper jaw. The
pad is called Diastema. Some herbivores such as elephant use a specialised organ (the trunk)
to pull leaves, bark and branches off trees.

II. Carnivores
These are animals that feed majorly on flesh or bones and other animals. They are referred to
as the primary consumers. Some examples are fishes which eat aquatic insects and other
fishes, toads and reptiles (Snakes, lizards, wall gecko), cats, dogs, and lions. Mammalian
carnivores are characterized by well developed dentition, large canines and a pair of
carnassials teeth. These are adapted to stabbing their prey, cutting and crushing meet and
bones.

III. Omnivores
Omnivorous animals are animals that feed on both plants and animals, cooked and uncooked
food. Some of the examples include, man, wild boar, bush and domestic pig, and the
domestic fowl.
Scavengers are animals that feed on the remains of dead animals are called scavengers e.g.
Vultures.

EVALUATION

1. Write short note on each of the following; Herbivores, Carnivores, Omnivores and
Scavengers

Caterpillar Hunter Beetle

A European caterpillar hunter beetle makes a meal out of an unlucky caterpillar. The
caterpillar hunter stalks its prey at night and survives mostly on caterpillars and earthworms.

SUB-TOPIC 2: FEEDING HABITS

There are various modification among the alimentary systems of some animals so far
considered, suggest that the parts are modified according to the type of food they eat. It has
also been discovered that there is a close relationship between feeding mechanism and the
diet of each organism.
Based on the modification on the feeding habits of organisms, we have the following;

i. Filter feeding, and

ii. Fluid feeding adaptations in animals
iii. Saprophytic
iv. Parasitic feeding in animals and plants.

i. Filter Feeders
Some aquatic organism feed on some tiny microscopic organisms (planktons) in their habitat.
A great number of them are gathered, filtered and consumed at the same time, from the
surface of the water. Typical examples of filter feeders include; water fleas, (Daphnia),
mosquito larvae, fish such as herring, and molluscs such as oyster, and mussels. Water
containing suspended plankton enters the mouth of the animal e.g. herring. Water passes
between the gill rakers to the gills. Oysters and clams draw water into their shells and trap
food particles on the muscles covering their gills.

ii. Fluid Feeders

Fluid feeders are organisms that can only feed on soluble or fluid food materials from the
body fluid of other animals or plants, or convert solid food into a liquid form before ingesting
it. Examples of fluid feeders are bees, wasps, aphids, housefly, mosquito, tsetse fly, and
butter fly. The house fly has a proboscis which is flattened its anterior end. This consists of
numerous food channels called pseudo- tracheae. Whenever the fly is prepared to feed, it
extends its proboscis and saliva is passed down salivary duct via the pseudo tracheae on to
the food.

The adult female anopheles mosquito feeds on blood. It has mouth parts which are modified
into a tube like a hypodermic needle. It pierces the skin of a blood capillary; saliva containing
an anti- coagulant is passed down the hypopharynx into the capillary. This prevents the blood
from coagulating when it is sucked up by the tubular labrum.

Many other insects bite and/or chew their food. Examples are the ants, beetles, cockroach,
locust, caterpillar, termites, and weevils. Most of these are crop pests as were taught in your
Basic classes.

Orchid Bees
The orchid bee is one of the most brilliantly coloured insects, and may appear metallic green,
blue, purple, gold, or red. A close relative of the bumblebee, it has a long tongue that allows
it to reach nectar deep inside tropical flowers. It is found in tropical and subtropical regions
of the western hemisphere.

iii. Saprophytic Feeders

These are organisms which obtain their food materials from dead or decaying food materials
or dead organic matters. They non-green plants and therefore cannot carry out
photosynthesis. Typical examples include: many fungi, e.g. mushroom, mucor or rhizopus,
penicillum and yeast as well as some bacteria. The rhizoids penetrate into the dead organic
matter or substrate, and excrete enzymes into it, and digestion occurs extracellulary. The
digested food; a soluble end products diffuse into the rhizoids and from there to the other
parts of the plants.

Structure of a Fungus
Fungi are made of filamentous tubes called hyphae. In many species, perforated walls, or
septa, divide the hyphae into cells containing one or two nuclei. Protoplasm flows through the
opening in the septa to provide the cells with nutrients, which are stored in the hyphal walls
as glycogen. Hyphae elongate from the tip. The entire mass of hyphae is collectively called
the mycelium.

IV. Parasitic feeders

In parasitic feeding, parasites are plants or animals which live and feed on or in other
organisms and harm the hosts at the end. Parasites which live outside the body or the surface
of their hosts are called ectoparasites e.g. tick, mites, lice and flaes. These live the skin, or
hairs of mammals. Those parasites which feed and live inside their hosts are called
endoparasites e.g. tapeworm, roundworm etc

EVALUATION
1. Write short notes on the following feeding habits:
i. Filter feeding
ii. Fluid feeding
iii. Saprophytic feeding
 iv. Parasitic feeding.

Feeding in Protozoa

Amoeba proteus is an example of a protozoan. It feeds on minute microscopic organisms.

These are mainly phytoplankton, desmids and diatoms, flagellates, bacteria, and decayed
parts of plants in water. The presence of the food stimulates the formation of pseudopodia
towards the object. Soon, the pseudopodia encircle the food material. This is taken into the
body with a drop of water and a food vacuole is formed. The cytoplasm secretes digestive
enzymes on to the food and digestion occurs. Later, the digested food materials diffuse into
the plasmasol. The indigestible parts are left behind or allowed to pass out through the
plasmagel. Ingestion and egestion can occur at any time through the body surface.

Feeding in Hydra

Hydra is at tissue and considered as multicellular, aquatic organism (animal). It feeds mainly
on tiny crustaceans e.g. water fleas. The food is usually caught by the tentacles with the aid of
nematocysts which immobilize the prey. The tentacles draw the prey into the mouth and then
into the enteron (digestive cavity). The digestive enzymes in the enteron digest the food
extracellularly. The absorptive cells ingest the partially digested food materials food
material and complete digestion intracellularly. The soluble materials diffuse to various part
of the animal. The waste products are egested through the mouth.

SUB-TOPIC 3: FEEDING MECHANISMS

There are four modifications and mechanisms of feeding associated with some organisms.
They include

i. Absorbing mechanism
ii. Biting (cutting) chewing
iii. Piercing and sucking
iv. Trapping and absorbing

i. Absorbing mechanism
Organisms that use this mechanisms has no mouth and alimentary canal, hence food is
digested food is absorbed through its entire body surface from the intestine of its host. E.g
tape worm, it attaches its self to its host through hooks and suckers..

ii. Biting (cutting) chewing

Organisms with this mechanism have four different mouth parts adapted for biting and
chewing. These mouth parts include:
a. Labrum or upper lip
b. Labium or lower lip
c. Mandibles
d. Maxillae
Examples of such organisms are cockroach and grasshopper.

iii. Piercing and sucking

Organisms that posses this mouth parts have different modifications which enables them to
adapt to feeding on food through mechanism of sucking. E.g mosquito and butterfly posses
proboscis for piercing and sucking. For mosquito, the mouth parts altogether forms a strong
Stylet. Housefly posses labella for sucking. It has the ability to convert solid food to liquid by
secretion of saliva on the solid food.
iv. Trapping and absorbing
This is common among plants that feed on insects. They are called insectivorous or
carnivorous plants. E.g bladderwort, sundew, Venus flytrap, pitcher plant.

Pitcher Plant
Pitcher plants, found throughout the tropical and temperate regions of the world, are insectivorous plants, using specially modified leaves to
capture and consume insects. Pitcher plants usually grow in poor soils and rely on the captured insects for added nutrition.
 Venus’s-Flytrap
The two lobes of a Venus’s-flytrap leaf form a deceptively safe and attractive landing place for insects and other animals. Less than a second
after the frog trips the trigger, bristles on the inside surface of the leaf, the lobes close enough to trap the intruder below interlocking spines.
If sensory organs determine that the prisoner contains protein, the leaf closes further, and the plant’s digestive enzymes start to flow.

Feeding in Mammals

Mammals feed on different types of food materials. They are often classified according to the
food they eat. Thus, we have herbivores- plant eaters; carnivores-flesh eaters and omnivores-
plant and animal eaters.

Each group of mammals has a peculiar type of dentition related to its diet even though
mammals generally have heterodont dentition. They have incisors, canines, premolars and
molars. Each tooth has a different shape and function. In human, there are two sets of teeth,
namely: temporary or milk teeth and permanent teeth. The formal are used at childhood
(6months to 6-8years) while they replaced by permanent teeth at old age

SUB – TOPIC 4: MAMMALIAN TEETH

The type of teeth possessed by a mammal is related to the type of food it eats. The number,
arrangement and conformation of teeth in an organism are referred to as its dentition. When
all the teeth are the same shape and size as in fishes, amphibians and reptiles it is called
homodont dentition. When they differ in shape as in dogs, man and rabbits it is heterodont
dentition.

Mammals usually have four different types of teeth namely the incisors, canines, premolars
and molars. Man has two sets of teeth during his lifetime; the milk teeth when young and the
permanent teeth when mature. There are 20 milk teeth and 32 permanent teeth.

Types of Teeth
1. Incisors – These are flattened, chisel-like with a sharp edge for cutting and holding
onto the food/prey. They are located in the front of the jaw.
 2. Canines – These have sharp, pointed tips and are used for tearing flesh. They are next
to the incisors.
3. Premolars – These have broad ridged surfaces called cusps. They are used for
grinding and chewing food. They are located towards the back of the jaw.
4. Molars – These also have broad, ridged surfaces and are used for chewing and
grinding food. They are found at the extreme back of the jaws.

Adult teeth

Dental Formula
This refers to the number, type and arrangement of teeth in one half of each jaw.
Example in;
(i) Man; I 2/2 ; C 1/1 ; PM 2/2 ; M 3/3
(ii) Dog; I 3/3 ; C I/I ; PM 4/4 ; M 2/3
(iii) Rabbit; I 2/1 ; C 0/0 ; PM 3/2 ; M 3/3

Structure of a Tooth
A typical tooth has three parts; the crown, the neck and the root. The crown is the part above
the gum. The root is embedded in the jaw and the neck is the part on the same level with the
gum, it is the narrow junction between the crown and root.
The incisors and canines have one root each while the premolars and molars have two or
three roots each.
 A TYPICAL TOOTH

In the centre of the tooth is a pulp cavity which contains blood vessels and nerves that make
extremely sensitive to heat, cold and pain. The dentine, a hard bone-like material, encloses
the pulp. The enamel, a white, hard material covers the dentine, protecting it and the pulp
within. At the root region a thin layer of cement covers the dentine. The cement is surrounded
by the periodontal membrane, a fibrous tissue that fixes the tooth into the jaw bone.

The tooth is not rigidly fixed but can move slightly while biting and chewing. A hole at the
tip of each root allows blood vessels and nerves of the pulp to be connected to those of bones
and gums. This ensures a continuous flow of of blood supply to the tooth and keeps the tooth
alive. However, the supply of blood is not sufficient for the tooth to grow. This type of teeth
is known as closed teeth.

Dental care
Tooth decay caused by bacteria and fermentation of carbohydrates that get stuck in the teeth
can be prevented by;
1. Practicing regular oral hygiene
2. Eating balanced diet containing enough vitamin, phosphorus and calcium.
3. Eating hard, fibrous fruits after each meal.
4. Avoiding sweet food, very hot and very cold.
5. Visiting a dentist regularly.

EVALUATION
 1. Define the terms (a) dentition (b) dental formula
2. Make a large well labeled drawing of a tooth.
3. State four ways of caring for your teeth
4. Name four types of teeth in mammals or human.
5. What is heterodont dentition?
6. The two sets of teeth are --------- and --------.
7. What type of feeding found in hydra?
8. Discuss briefly feeding in protozoa.

OBJECTIVE TEST

1. Which of the following mammalian structures is structurally adapted for grinding

flesh (a) Canine (b) Incisor (c) Molar (d) Diastema (e) Carnassial tooth.
2. Hydra catches food with the aid of the ---------- (a) tentacle (b) cilia (c) pseudopodia
(d) nematocysts (e) plasmagel.
3. One of these is not a fluid feeders (a) oyster (b) mosquito (c) bees (d) house fly (e)
tsetse fly.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. Study the various mouth parts of insects in page 288 of your Modern Biology text book.

WEEKEND PRACTICAL

Dissect a small mammal and observe the alimentary carnal.

WEEK 4

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY
CLASS: SS2
TOPIC: TRANSPORT SYSTEM 1
CONTENT: (a) Media of transportation (i) Fluid as medium of transportation-structure and
function of blood (ii) Cytoplasm in small organisms (iii) Cell sap or latex in most plants (iv)
Closed and open circulation (h) Mechanism of transportation: (i) Unicellular organisms (ii)
Multicellular organisms (iv)Higher animals (v) Higher plants (i) Absorption of water and
mineral salt.

TRANSPORT SYSTEM
Transport system is the movement of metabolic substances from various parts of the
organism where they are produced or obtained to the parts where they are either used, stored
or removed from the body.

NEED FOR TRANSPORTATION

i. It aids in the removal of metabolic waste e.g carbon dioxide, water and urea
ii. It helps to move hormones in plants and animals from where they are produced to areas
of need.
iii. It helps transport essential materials in organisms for metabolic process e.g nutrients,
oxygen and water.
iv. In plants, transport is necessary to move mineral salt and water from the root to the stems
and leaves.

MATERIALS THAT ARE TRANSPORTED IN ANIMALS

The materials transported in animals include:
i. Water
ii. Digested foods (vitamins, amino acids, mineral salts, fatty acids ,glycerol)
iii. Gases (oxygen, carbon-dioxide)
iv. Excretory products (urea, carbon-dioxide, excess salt)
v. Hormones (adrenalin, insulin, oestrogen etc) and other materials.
vi. Antibodies

MATERIALS THAT ARE TRANSPORTED IN PLANTS

These include:

i. Water
ii. Manufactured food
iii. Excretory products
iv. Hormones
v. Mineral salts
vi. Oxygen

MEDIA OF TRANSPORTATION

In all organisms, a liquid or fluid is the medium of transportation of materials. It includes

blood, lymph and tissue fluid in most animals; latex or cell sap in many plants and
cytoplasmic fluid in small organisms such as protozoan, protists and coelenterates.

Some of the media of transportation include:

1. Blood and lymph in the vertebrates.

2. Cytoplasm in unicellular organisms.
3. Cell sap or latex in most plants.
4. Body fluid in vertebrates.
5. Closed and open circulations.

NEED FOR SUBSTANCE TO MOVE OVER GREATER DISTANCES

Following the explanation, because small organisms have large surface area to volume ratio,
the movement of materials in and out of them can be done efficiently by diffusion. In
multicellular organisms with a small body surface relative to their large volume, diffusion is
inadequate for the exchange of metabolic materials within their body and between them and
their external environment. This is because large quantities of nutrients and waste products
have to be transported over long distances to and from their numerous body cells.
In order words, as the SA/V ratio in multicellular organisms decrease with increasing sizes,
the rates at which substances diffuse into and out of their cells decreases. Hence, most
multicellular organisms have developed transport system. The transport system in animals is
very similar to the city transport or water system. There is orderliness, and everything is
highly organized.

TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN LARGE ORGANISMS

In large and more complex organisms, transport system is necessary because;
1. The ratio A/V diminishes, and so the rate at which nutrients and other substances diffuse
decreases. This implies that small organisms have large surface area in relation to their
volume (i.e., per unit of volume) than large organisms. This could be illustrated by
considering three cubes of 1mm, 6mm, and 10mm. Using, Ratio = SA/V. You will
discover that the ratio of the smallest cube is =6unit, followed by 1unit, and 0.6unit
respectively.

2. Substances have to move greater distances.

In plants, materials for transportation include; water, mineral salts, manufactured food and
carbon (iv) oxide.
Materials for transport in animals include; digested food, vitamins, mineral salts, oxygen,
carbon (iv) oxide, urea, salts, hormones, water and antibodies.

FUNCTIONS OF THE BLOOD

There are several functions performed by the mammalian blood. These functions are grouped
into three viz:

1. Transport:
(i). It carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and carbon (iv) oxide from the tissues to the
lungs for excretion.
(ii). It carries digested foods from the gut to the various parts of the body.
(iii).it carries nitrogenous waste products from the tissues to the kidneys, which get rid of
them.
(iv). It carries hormones and antibodies from one part of the body to another.

2. Protection:
(i). It protects the body from the attacks of germs, which cause diseases, by killing germs.
(ii). It protect the body from excessive bleeding, by clotting when a body tissue is cut or
wounded

3. Regulation:
(i) It helps to regulate the quantity of water in the tissues (osmoregulation).
(ii) It helps to regulate the quantities of the various chemical materials in the tissue
(homoeostasis).
(iii) It helps to keep the body temperature fairly constant by distributing heat evenly around
the body.
In small organisms like Amoeba, and paramecium, cytoplasm which is fluid part of the
organism is used for transportation of food and other materials in and out of the organisms.

In many plants, the medium of transportation of materials is the latex or cell sap. The cell
sap is made up primarily of water, dissolved materials like synthesised foods, growth
substances and inorganic salts. The sap is transported to all the parts of a plant through the
phloem tissue. Different plants have latex (cell sap) of different colours. For example, the
latex of rubber plant cassava (manihot) is white. A few plants have red or colourless latex.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF BLOOD

The mammalian blood comprises four main components;

I. Plasma
II. Red corpuscles
III. White corpuscles
IV. Platelets.

I. Plasma: The plasma is a pale yellow liquid made of mainly of water (about 90%), with
many substances dissolved in it. These include digested food, mineral salts, vitamins,
hormones, dissolved oxygen and excretory products such as urea and carbon (iv) oxide.
The plasma also contains large molecules, the plasma proteins, such as fibrinogen, which
assist in the clothing of blood in damaged tissues.

II. Red corpuscles or erythrocytes: They are tiny, biconcave, disc-like cell without any
nucleus in adult mammals. They contain a red pigment-haemoglobin, a protein that
contains iron. This enables the red blood corpuscles to readily combine with oxygen in
area of high oxygen concentration (i.e., the alveoli of lungs) to form oxyhaemoglobin.
This is the form in which oxygen is carried to all body tissues. They also readily give
oxygen in places where the oxygen concentration is low (e.g., all the tissues except those
near the alveoli). Erythrocytes are synthesised in the red bone marrows of sternum, ribs
and vertebrae. There are about 51/2 million of them in a cubic centimetre of blood. They
live for about 120 days and are destroyed in the liver or spleen.
 Erythrocytes
Erythrocytes, or red blood cells, are the primary carriers of oxygen to the cells and tissues of
the body. The biconcave shape of the erythrocyte is an adaptation for maximizing the surface
area across which oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide. Its shape and flexible plasma
membrane allow the erythrocyte to penetrate the smallest of capillaries.

III. White corpuscles or leucocytes: There are many types of white corpuscles all of which
have nuclei. They are made in the red bone marrow, the lymph node or the spleen. They
live for many months. Those that are irregular in shape, i.e., the phagocytes, are
commonest. They are large with lobed nuclei. Like the Amoeba, they have pseudopodia
and are able to pass through the walls of the capillaries into the tissue fluid. In the
lymphatic system, they ingest bacteria, virus and dead cells, and help in preventing
diseases. The ingestion of materials is called phagocytosis and hence such white
corpuscles are called phagocytes. Those that produce antibodies are called lymphocytes
and are produced in the lymph glands. They produce chemicals called antibodies, which
stick to the surface of germs and kill them. White corpuscles are fewer than the red
corpuscles. There are about 5000 of them in a cubic millimetre of blood.
 Lymphocyte
Scanning electron micrograph of a normal T lymphocyte. Lymphocytes are specialized white
blood cells whose function is to identify and destroy invading organisms such as bacteria and
viruses. Some T lymphocytes directly destroy invading organisms, whereas other T
lymphocytes regulate the immune system by directing immune responses.

IV. Platelets: These are tiny, irregularly-shaped particles formed in the red bone marrow.
They lack nucleus. In damaged tissues, they break down and librate an enzyme, which
catalyses the first of a series of reactions, fibrinogen, a blood protein, is converted to
threads of fibrin, which form a mesh that plugs the wound. This stops the bleeding.

Thrombocytes and Clotting

 Thrombocytes, or platelets, are the smallest cellular component of blood. They
circulate inactivated, about 250,000 per cubic mm of blood, until they come into
contact with a damaged blood vessel. At this point, the platelets form a clump,
adhering to each other and to the blood vessel wall. They secrete chemicals that
alter a blood-borne protein, fibrinogen, so that it forms a mesh of fibers at the
damage site. A clot forms when platelets and red and white blood cells become
trapped in the fibers. Blood clotting begins within seconds of injury. The same
process can produce unwelcome clots in undamaged blood vessels.

EVALUATION
1. List three media of transportation.
2. Describe the four components of the blood.

TRANSPORT TISSUES IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

Tissues used for transportation are
i. Arteries,
ii. Capillaries,
iii. Veins, and
iv. Vascular bundles (in plants)

Structure of Arteries

i. All Arteries carry oxygenated blood from the heart to the body tissues, except
pulmonary arteries
ii. These are wide vessels that generally transport blood from the heart to the limbs and
organs.
iii. There is one artery to each of the organs of the body.
iv. They are muscular, thick walled and elastic and are able to withstand the high pressure
caused by the heartbeat.
v. The arteries branch in the organs to form arterioles.
vi. The arterioles also branch repeatedly to form a network of blood capillaries, which
permeate every living cell of the body.

Structure of Capillaries

i. These are tiny vessels with very thin walls, which are often one cell thick.
ii. Their walls allow water and dissolved substances, except proteins, to pass in and out of
them.
iii. The capillaries branch within the tissues.
iv. Through their thin walls, dissolved food and excretory products are exchanged with the
tissues around them.
v. The capillaries network is so dense that no living cell is far from food and oxygen
supplies.
vi. The capillaries rejoin to form veins.
vii. Through the capillaries network, blood flows from the arterial end to the venous end.

Structure of Veins
i. All veins carry de-oxygenated blood from the body tissues to the heart, except
pulmonary vein.
ii. They are wider and have thinner walls than arteries.
iii. The veins branch from the organs to form venules.
iv. They have valves at intervals, which allow blood to flow in one direction from other
organs towards the heart.

Structure of Vascular Bundles

i. Vascular bundles consist mainly of xylem and phloem tissues. But in the root and stems
of dicotyledons, a layer of cambium cells exist between the xylem and phloem tissue.
ii. Xylem transports water and mineral salts while Phloem translocates manufactured food
from the leaves to where it is stored.
iii. Vascular bundles are found in the roots, stems and leaves of flowering plants.
iv. Vascular tissues are grouped together in bundles within the plant body.
v. The vascular tissues of plants are made up of a network of long tubes called vascular
bundles.
vi. They are called veins in the leaves.

EVALUATION

1. Write short note on: Arteries, veins and capillaries.

2. List five materials for transportation.
3. Explain surface area to volume ratio.

OBJECTIVE TEST

1. Which of the following statements about transport system is false? (a) large organism,
large surface area (b) small organism ,small surface area (c) small organism large
surface area to volume ratio (d) large organism, large surface area to volume ratio (e)
small organism, small surface area to volume to volume ratio.
2. Which of the following structures are not associated with the mammalian heart? (a)
Auricles and Ventricles (b) Semilunar valve (c) Spleen and cardiac sphincter (d)
Arteries and Veins (e) Chordae tendineae.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. Write short notes on the following:

i. Renal artery
ii. Hepatic vein
iii. Mesenteric artery
iv. Iliac vein
v. Coronary artery
vi. Intercoastal artery
vii. Carotid vein
viii. Sub-clavian artery
ix. Pulmonary vein
 x. Gonadial artery
2. In a tabular form state five differences between arteries and veins.
3. Draw and label the longitudinal section of human heart.

WEEK 5

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY

TOPIC: TRANSPORT SYSTEM II

SUB-TOPIC 1: TYPES OF CIRCULATIONS AND CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS

Circulatory system is the continuous flow of blood around the body, involving the heart and
the blood vessels.

TYPES OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS

i. Open circulatory system
ii. Closed circulatory system

TYPES OF CIRCULATION
i. Single circulation
ii. Double circulation
iii. Systemic circulation
iv. Pulmonary circulation

MECHANISM OF TRANSPORTATION IN HIGHER ANIMALS

As a result of the repeated contractions of the heart, the blood circulatory system (i.e.,
arteries, capillaries and veins) throughout life. All mammals have double circulation. These
are the systemic (body) circulation and pulmonary circulation.

1. Systemic (body) circulation in which blood is carried from the left ventricle to all
body parts except the lungs and back to the right auricle.
2. Pulmonary circulation in which blood is carried from the right ventricle to the lungs
through the pulmonary veins.

The heart like other organs has a blood supply. The coronary arteries, which branch from the
aorta near the heart, carry blood to the heart muscles. The flow of blood through these
muscles is called coronary circulation.

The heart continues to beat repeatedly throughout the life and pump blood to the two main
circulations and the coronary circulation. When the body is at rest, normal heart beats about
70 to 72 times per minute. The rate of the heart beat increases when one is very active or
excited. The liver is the only organ in the body that receives blood by the hepatic artery and
hepatic portal vein. The hepatic portal vein carries blood rich in digested food from the
stomach and small intestines into the liver. The hepatic portal vein carries blood from the
liver into the inferior vena cava.
 Human Heart
The human heart is a hollow, pear-shaped organ about the size of a fist. The heart is made of
muscle that rhythmically contracts, or beats, pumping blood throughout the body. Oxygen-
poor blood from the body enters the heart from two large blood vessels, the inferior vena
cava and the superior vena cava, and collects in the right atrium. When the atrium fills, it
contracts, and blood passes through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. When the
ventricle becomes full, it starts to contract, and the tricuspid valve closes to prevent blood
from moving back into the atrium. As the right ventricle contracts, it forces blood into the
pulmonary artery, which carries blood to the lungs to pick up fresh oxygen. When blood exits
the right ventricle, the ventricle relaxes and the pulmonary valve shuts, preventing blood
from passing back into the ventricle. Blood returning from the lungs to the heart collects in
the left atrium. When this chamber contracts, blood flows through the mitral valve into the
left ventricle. The left ventricle fills and begins to contract, and the mitral valve between the
two chambers closes. In the final phase of blood flow through the heart, the left ventricle
contracts and forces blood into the aorta. After the blood in the left ventricle has been forced
out, the ventricle begins to relax, and the aortic valve at the opening of the aorta closes.
 Blood Vessels
Blood vessels circulate blood through the body. The three major types of blood vessels are
the arteries, veins, and capillaries. Arteries carry blood away from the heart, while veins carry
blood toward the heart. Capillaries form at the junction between arteries and veins and they
are the only blood vessel to come into direct contact with tissue cells. Oxygen, nutrients, and
other substances transported in blood through the arteries pass through thin capillary walls
into tissue cells. Wastes and other products of cellular metabolism pass from cells back
through the capillary walls and into veins. The walls of arteries and veins are composed of
three tunics (layers) that surround a central opening called a lumen, through which blood
flows. The innermost layer is the tunica intima, composed of endothelial cells that form a
slick lining that minimizes friction as blood moves through the lumen. The middle layer is the
tunica media. Composed of smooth muscle cells and sheets of elastic tissue, this layer enables
the lumen to narrow or widen to regulate blood flow in the body. The tunica adventitia forms
a protective outer layer of the blood vessel wall and it also anchors the blood vessel to
surrounding structures.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OPEN AND CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS

SN OPEN SYSTEM CLOSED SYSTEM

1. It is found in some molluscs, Found in annelids, vertebrates and some
arthropods and lower animals. invertebrates.
2. No small blood vessels or capillaries Minute blood capillaries unite the smaller
connecting arteries with veins. arteries with the veins.
3. Blood ends up in blood spaces Blood flows via the arteries, veins and
(haemocoels) within the body. capillaries.
4. Blood bathes the major organs and Fluids with nutrients reach the body tissues
tissues directly. from the capillaries as tissue fluids and lymph.
5. Blood returns directly to the heart. Blood returns to via the veins.

EVALUATION
1. Outline the three functions of the blood.
2. State four differences between open and closed circulatory system.

MACHANISM OF TRANSPORTATION

In many multicellular animals, materials are transported from one part of the body to another
in a circulatory system. There are two main circulatory systems in animals, namely open and
closed systems. In the open circulatory system, the blood vessels leave the heart but end up
in blood spaces called haemocoels within the body. The blood comes in contact with the body
cells after which it is sent back to the heart; example is found in arthropods and in some
molluscs.

In the closed circulatory system, blood is restricted to branching blood vessels. Through
them, blood is pumped to the body by one or more hearts. This is found in the annelids and
vertebrates. In unicellular organisms, such as spirogyra, nutrients, gasses and metabolic
wastes move in and out of their body by diffusion. In a few other unicellular organisms, such
as paramecium, food substances in food vacuoles are carried along a specific route by a
process called cyclosis.

In vascular plants (pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms), there is a circulatory

system in which materials are carried to and from all body parts. The circulatory system
consists of vascular tissues, which is a system of narrow tubes. Plants that have vascular
tissues are called vascular plants. The vascular tissue consists of compact strands called
vascular bundles. Each bundle consists of the xylem near the stem centre and the phloem
towards the outer surface of the stem. The cambium is usually found in between the xylem
and the phloem in the dicotyledonous roots and stems, and monocotyledonous plants do not
have cambium. Plants also make use other mechanisms of transportation such as root
pressure, transpiration stream, and protoplasmic streaming which occur in both plants and
animals.

ABSORPTION OF WATER AND MINERAL SALT IN HIGHER PLANTS

Plants need sufficient quantities of many materials, which are transported in them. These
include water, mineral salts and manufactured foods. In aquatic, unicellular and simple
multicellular plants, gases enter and leave their cells by diffusion. Water enters the cells of
these plants by osmosis, whereas manufactured foods and wastes are transported by diffusion.
In flowering plants, the gases are absorbed mainly through stomata in the leaves and lenticels
in the stems, whereas mineral salts are absorbed through the roots system.

Inside the plants, gases move by diffusion. They are always dissolved in water of the moist
cell walls before entering the cells. Water, mineral salts and soluble foods are transported in
vascular tissues.

Definition of diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of molecule from the region of higher concentration to the region
of lower concentration. It can occur in liquid, but it is faster in gaseous medium.

Some examples of diffusion living membrane are: Needs for Diffusion.

1. Absorption of nutrients, e.g. mineral salts uptake in roots.
2. Exchange of gases in the cells or tissue e.g. Oxygen and Carbon (iv) oxide exchange
through the stomata.
3. Materials transport within the cells
4. Excretion of waste product e.g. diffusion of carbon (iv) oxide into the alveoli.

Principle Of Diffusion
Graham’s law of diffusion states that the rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to
the square root of the density.
Hence, lighter gases can diffuse through heavier gases, e.g. hydrogen sulphide has diffused
through air.

Significance of diffusion.
When molecules are unevenly distributed in the cell, diffusion tends to equalize the
distribution.
Definition Of Osmosis
Osmosis on the hand is directly opposite diffusion. It is defined as the movement of solvent
molecules (usually water) from a solution of lower concentration to a more concentrated
solution through a differentially permeable or semi-permeable membrane in order to maintain
an ionic equilibrium. Osmosis is therefore a special form of diffusion.
Thus osmosis may be defined as the net movement of water from area of low D.PD. or higher
water concentration through an area of high D.P.D.or low water concentration through a
semi-permeable membrane.
D.P.D.: Diffusion pressure deficit, this may be defined as difference in water potential on
both sides of the semi-permeable membrane.

Some examples of osmosis in living membrane (Living Cells) are:

1. Absorption of nutrients or uptake of nutrients or water.
2. Plasmolysis of cells or shrinking of cells in hypertonic solution.
3. Turgidity of cells.
4. Haemolysis of red blood cells/bursting of animal cells in hypotonic solutions.
In osmosis, water moves into a stronger solution (the sugar solution in (E) through a living
material which acts as a semi-permeable membrane.

Examples of Osmosis in Plants: Needs for Osmosis.

1. Water absorption by the roots.
2. Plasmolysis of plant cells.
3. Movement of water from one cell to another in plants.
4. Maintenance of turgor pressure in plant cells.
5. Opening and closing of stomata.

Examples of Osmosis in Animals

1. Re-absorption of water by kidney tubules.
2. Haemolysis and crenation of red blood cells.
3. Osmo-regulation in Amoeba and Paramecium.
4. Maintenance of shape of mammalian cells in the surrounding tissue fluid.

Significance Of Osmosis: Osmosis is concerned with the transport of materials between

cells.
Evaluation
1. Define diffusion and osmosis
2. Explain the principle behind osmosis and diffusion.
3. Enumerate three applications of diffusion and osmosis in living things.
4. Write four examples of osmosis and diffusion.

EVALUATION

1. Discuss transport system in vascular plants.

2. All mammals have double circulation, Explain.
3. Write a short note on circulation in higher plants.

OBJECTIVE TEST

1. In the open circulatory system, the blood vessels leave the heart but end up in blood
spaces called.(a) open space (b) haemocool (c) haemocoels (d) space (e) heamocoel.
 2. All the following statement about the mammalian blood is correct except. (it protects
the body from germs (b) it synthesises bile and hormones (c) it carries dissolved
nutrients and waste products to specific parts of the body (e) it helps to keep the
amount of water in the body fairly constant.
3. The components of the blood include all these except (a) erythrocytes (b) leucocytes
(c) plasma (d) fibrinogen (e) platelets.

ASSIGNMENT

1a. Describe systole and diastole

2 Describe the mammalian heart without diagram.

SUGGESTED PRACTICAL

Dissect a toad and observe the heart beat and blood vessels

WEEK 6

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY

TOPIC: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

CONTENT:

(a) Types of respiratory systems:

(i) Body surface respiration

(ii) Coetaneous/Cutenous respiration

(iii) Gills

(iv) Trachea system

(v) Lungs.

(b) Mechanisms of respiratory system:

(i) Higher animals

(ii) Lower animals

(iii) plants

(iv) Mechanisms of gaseous exchange through the stomata of plants.

SUB-TOPIC 1: TYPES OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS

Note: that respiration is one of the characteristics of living things we discussed in our basic
classes, in this process, oxygen is taken in while carbon iv oxide is given out. The two basic
types of respiration are; aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
Respiratory system refers to all the parts or organs and cells responsible for respiration
process that take place in the organism.

Respiration is simply a biochemical process in which energy is liberated from food

substances (mainly simple sugars) in the mitochondria of living cells with the aid of enzymes
in the absence or presence of oxygen.

The production of water, carbon iv oxide, alcohol or other organic substances is just
incidental to the basic process. Respiration is achieved through the mouth, nose, trachea,
lungs and diaphragm. The system functions to obtain oxygen for use by the body and to
eliminate the carbon iv oxide. It works in conjunction with the circulatory system.

In animals, the structures associated with respiration include the following organs:

i. Body surface (amoeba, paramecium,earthworm,).

ii. Lung books (spider,)
iii. Gills (tadpole, molluscs, fish).
iv. Trachea (man, insects,)
v. Lungs (reptiles, man, birds, goat and other mammals etc)

In plants, the stomata and Lenticels are the main respiratory structures for gas exchange by
diffusion. Gas exchange in animals depends on their respiratory medium (whether it is air or
water) and the nature of their respiratory surfaces. For aquatic animals, the respiratory
medium is water, as for terrestrial animals, the medium is air. Amphibians and some fishes
use both air and water as their media of exchange.

The exchange of gases with the respiratory medium by animals is called breathing. The
respiratory surface provides a boundary between the body and respiratory medium. The cells
in this surface are epithelial in nature (have thin wall) and have large surface area. This
enhances diffusion.

BODY SURFACE RESPIRATION

This is the simplest type of respiration found mainly in unicellular organisms and some multi-
cellular organisms such as Annelids (earthworms), platyhelminthes (flatworms), sponges,
toads and frogs. Respiration occurs by diffusion. In unicellular organisms, exchange of gases
takes place at the respiratory surfaces. Gases are dissolved in water before they are diffused
across the cell membrane. Organisms that respire through their body surface possess moist
skin. As for breathing, it is a visible, mechanical, muscular action, which enables an animal to
quicken the rate of gas exchange between itself and its environment.

GILLS

The gill is found in large aquatic organisms such as tadpole, aquatic snails and fishes. Gills
are highly branched and vascularised, i.e., they are richly supplied with blood capillaries.
Gills may be external or enclosed. External gills may be sea slugs and amphibian larvae,
whereas in enclosed gills are found in water snails and crustaceans.
 How Fish Breathe
A fish breathes by absorbing oxygen from the water it drinks. Water flows into the mouth,
through the gills, and out of the body through gill slits. As water flows through the gills, the
oxygen it contains passes into blood circulating through gill structures called filaments and
lamellae. At the same time, carbon dioxide in the fish’s bloodstream passes into the water and
is carried out of the body.

TRACHEAL SYSTEM

Tracheal System is common in insects and many other arthropods. It ends up in tiny holes in
the cuticle called spiracles. The spiracles open and close by muscular action. The tracheae
branch repeatedly into fine branches called tracheoles, which are equivalent to the air sacs in
the lungs. The tracheoles contain fluid in which oxygen dissolves before actually getting to
the individual cells of the body.
 Anatomy of a Grasshopper
This illustration of a grasshopper depicts the tiny circular openings called spiracles through which most insects obtain oxygen. From the
spiracles, tubes called tracheae reach deep within the body to supply oxygen to every cell.

LUNGS

In developed organisms (animals), lungs is the main respiratory organ e.g., in terrestrial
vertebrates like mammals. Lungs are closely linked with the circulatory system. Lungs are
found in amphibians, birds, and mammals. The mammalian respiratory system consists of the
nostrils, pharynx, larynx, lungs and diaphragm.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPIRATORY SURFACE

The following characteristics have been identified in exchange of gases in respiratory

surfaces:

i. Epithelia in nature
ii. Have very thin walls which shorten the diffusion distance and increase diffusion rate.
iii. Mostly moist because gases diffuse in solution through them.
iv. Possess delicate cells.
v. Have a large surface area to volume ratio, which ensures exchange of large quantities
of gases.

EVALUATION

1. Explain the mechanism of the gills and tracheal system.

2. Define respiration
3. What is respiratory system?
4. List five organs responsible for respiration in higher organisms.

OBJECTIVE TEST
 1. One of these is not a type of respiration (a) body fluid (b) body surface (c) gills (d)
lung (e) tracheal system.
2. Closed gill system is used by only one of these organisms (a) rabbit (b) goat (c) tree
(d) mollusc (e) spider.
3. All these are organs of respiration except (a) mouth (b) nostrils (c) pharynx (d) larynx
(e) lungs.

ASSIGNMENT

1. Read your Modern Biology text book, and state briefly the gas exchange organs of the
organisms below: amoeba, hydra, earthworm, insects, fish (tilapia), tadpoles, and
flowering plants.
2. Draw and label the respiratory system of man
3. With the aid of an annotated diagram, discuss gaseous exchange in plants.

SUB-TOPIC 2: MECHANISMS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

In plants and animals, respiration is through basic gas exchange facilitated by organs such as
stomata, gills, lungs, and skin.

However, in lower animals diffusion occurs through the membranes. In higher animals the
internal organs are kept away from the environment. In vertebrate animals, exchange of gases
takes place by inhalation and exhalation. This is referred to the breathing in and breathing
out.

Alveoli
A scanning electron micrograph reveals the tiny sacs known as alveoli within a section of
human lung tissue. Human beings have a thin layer of about 700 million alveoli within their
lungs. This layer is crucial in the process called respiration, exchanging oxygen and carbon
dioxide with the surrounding blood capillaries.
RESPIRATION IN HIGHER ANIMALS

This type of respiration takes place through the lungs. All mammals have a [air of lungs.
lungs adaptations that allow animals to invade the terrestrial environment. Some fishes, and
amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, all have their lungs located internally. Mammals
breathing system comprises the air passages (nostrils, pharynx, larynx, and trachea), lungs
and diaphragm. Oxygen enters the nasal passage through the nostrils into the nasal cavity
where it is moistened and kept warm. The nasal cavity has lining cells, which secretes mucus
that traps most of the dust and microorganisms present in the air before it diffuses into the
lungs.

Nasal cavity leads into the pharynx, the to the trachea (wind pipe), which divides into two
bronchi before it enters into the lungs; the cartilages supports the wall of the trachea and
bronchus to prevent them from collapsing when the air pressure in them is reduced. Within
each lung, the bronchus divides repeatedly and becomes progressively narrower forming
numerous tiny tubules called bronchioles, which end in pockets of the air sacs called alveoli.
Alveoli are surrounded by a dense network of capillaries, which enhances gas exchange.

Breathing in Humans
As the diaphragm contracts and moves downward, the pectoralis minor and intercostal
muscles pull the rib cage outward. The chest cavity expands, and air rushes into the lungs
through the trachea to fill the resulting vacuum. When the diaphragm relaxes to its normal,
upwardly curving position, the lungs contract, and air is forced out.

The alveoli give the lungs a very large surface area for gas exchange. The lungs are located in
the thorax or thoracic cavity, which comprises the breast bone or sternum in front, and the
back bone (vertebrae) at the back. At the sides are twelve (12) pairs of ribs and intercostals
muscles, which are attached to the spine and the sternum, thereby, forming a bony cage. The
diaphragm is a sheet of muscle at the floor of the thorax.
 Human Lungs
In humans the lungs occupy a large portion of the chest cavity from the collarbone down to
the diaphragm. The right lung is divided into three sections, or lobes. The left lung, with a
cleft to accommodate the heart, has only two lobes. The two branches of the trachea, called
bronchi, subdivide within the lobes into smaller and smaller air vessels known as bronchioles.
Bronchioles terminate in alveoli, tiny air sacs surrounded by capillaries. When the alveoli
inflate with inhaled air, oxygen diffuses into the blood in the capillaries to be pumped by the
heart to the tissues of the body. At the same time carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood into
the lungs, where it is exhaled.

MECHANISM OF BREATHING IN MAMMALS

INHALATION:

a. The intercostals muscles contract, while the ribs move upward and outwards.
b. The diaphragm contracts and flattens out.
c. The thoracic cavity volume increases, while its air pressure decreases.
d. Air is then forced from outside into the lungs through the air passage.

EXHALATION:

a. The intercostals muscles relax, while the ribs cage is lowered.

b. The diaphragm relaxes and returns to its original dome-shaped position.
c. The thoracic cavity volume decreases, while the lungs shrink.
d. The lung air pressure increases, and a lot of air is expelled from the lungs through the
air passage.

EVALUATION

1. What is the meaning of respiration?

2. Mention five organs of respiration.
3. Explain the mechanism of breathing in higher animals.
4. Describe the respiratory system of mammals.
RESPIRATION IN LOWER ANIMALS

INSECT: The mechanism of breathing in insects is as follows:

1. An insect breathes through a trachea system. An insect has an impermeable cuticle

but, at intervals along the sides of its body, are about ten tiny openings called
spiracles, through which air enters and leaves the trachea.
2. These lead into air-filled tubes called tracheae which end in very hair-like, tiny
structures in tissues called tracheoles. Hence, no body cell is far from a tracheole
which contains certain fluids.
3. As the body wall of an insect contracts and expands, oxygen in the air diffuses
through the spiracle into the trachea and tracheole. It then diffuses into the body cells
where it is used for aerobic respiration.
4. Carbon (iv) oxide and water (water vapour) produced, diffuse out of the body through
the spiracles.
5. The spiracles have valves and they are opened only when the carbon (iv) oxide
concentration in the tissues is above a specific level.
6. The spiracles are closed for most of the time when an insect is inactive to reduce
water loss.

MECHANISM OF BREATHING IN FISH

1. Gaseous exchange or breathing in fishes occurs across the gill surfaces. All the gills
possess a very high surface area-to-volume ratio.
2. The fish opens its mouth, and water passes over the gill surface inside the opercula
which are then closed.
3. As water flows over the gills, the dissolved oxygen in the water diffuses into the thin
walled blood capillaries of the gills. At the same time, carbon (iv) oxide in the blood
diffuses into the water.
4. The alternate opening and closing of the mouth and operculum allow a constant flow
of water over the gills.
5. Oxygen is transported by the blood into every living cell where it is used for aerobic
respiration. Hence, the gills are used for gas exchange (breathing) and not just for
respiration.

GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS

As you learnt earlier, plants do not breathe like mammals, but like animals, they exchange
gases because they do not have thorax and lungs like mammals, we cannot see their breathing
movements which are the visible signs of gas exchange. Completely submerged aquatic
plants (e.g. algae) or those floating on water surface (e.g. lettuce) exchange gases by diffusion
all over their body surface or through the stomata in their leaves, lenticels in their stem, and
through the roots (i.e.from the air spaces in the soil particles around the roots).
 Anatomy of a Leaf
The leaf provides food for the rest of the plant through the process of photosynthesis. The
outermost layer of the leaf is the epidermis, which is protected by the waxy coating of the
cuticle. Guard cells implanted in the epidermis form pores, known as stomata, through which
water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide pass. Embedded in the inner tissues of the leaf are
chloroplasts, where photosynthesis occurs. The plant veins consist of two specialized tissues.
Xylem conducts water from the plant to the leaf, while phloem carries food from the leaf to
the plant.

They also occur in the stems of young herbaceous plants. A stoma (stomata-plural) is a tiny
pore or opening enclosed by two bean-shaped guard cells. Unlike other epidermal cells, guard
cells have chloroplasts. Each guard cell has a thick, relatively inelastic wall around the pore
and a thin, elastic outer wall. The mechanism of the opening and closing of stomata is
believed to be associated with light intensity and the osmotic pressure within the guard cells.
When the osmotic pressure in the guard cells is high, they become turgid as a result of which
the pore or stoma opens. When the pressure is low, the guard cells become flaccid and the
stoma is closed. In general, the movement of gases and water vapour into and out of leaves is
controlled by the opening and closing of the stomata.

EFFECT OF LIGHT ON GAS EXCHANGE IN TE LEAF

Respiration occurs at all times in living things. During sunlight, the rate of photosynthesis is
usually greater than that of respiration in green plants. Oxygen given out during
photosynthesis in the day is captured by animals and man for respiration. Also, the carbon
(iv) oxide produced by respiring cells is used in photosynthesis, while a lot of carbon (iv)
oxide diffuses into the leaf mesophyll cells from outside. The diffusion from the inside of the
leaf to the outside is short. Hence, gaseous molecules diffuse rapidly in and out of the leaf
through the stomata.

However, at night, photosynthesis stops just as the sun stops shining, but respiration
continues because animals must live. Then, some oxygen diffuses into the leaf from outside
through the stomata and lenticels. The oxygen is used up in the respiring cells, while the
carbon (iv) oxide diffuses out of the leaf and lenticels.

It is worthy to note that the vein of leaves contain vascular tissue. Water and mineral salts and
some dissolved gases are distributed to the leaf parts through the xylem. Also, the
manufactured food in the leaves is conducted through the phloem in the veins to all parts of
the leaves and other plant parts.

EVALUATION

1. What you do you understand by the following terms:

i- Respiration.
ii- Respiratory system.
iii- Breathing.
iv- Gas exchange.
v- List four characteristics of a gas exchange organ.
2. Write the mechanism of breathing in following animal: insect, and fish.
3. Explain how the stomata in green plants work in the day and night.

OBJECTIVE TEST

1. The cells responsible for the control of the opening and closing of the stomata are; (a)
somata cells (b) vascular cells (c) guard cells (d) chloroplast (e) cambium cells.
2. The muscles that control the ribs especially during respiration (a) nuclear muscles (b)
coastal muscles (c) rib muscles (d) intercostals muscles (e) diaphragm.
3. The organ of respiration in insects is called (a) spiracles (b) antenna (c) tracheole (d)
anus.

WEEKEND ACTIVITY

Write the mechanism of buccal breathing in toad using your text book.

WEEK 7: MID-TERM BREAK

WEEK 8

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY

TOPIC: EXCRETORY SYSTEM I

CONTENT:

(a) Excretory systems

(i) Contractile vacuole

(ii) Flame cells

(iii) Malpighian tubules

 (iv) Kidney

(v) Stomata and Lenticels.

EXCRETORY SYSTEMS

Definition: Excretory systems refer to all the cells and organs of any living organism which
enables it to eliminate harmful substances away from the body.

Excretion is therefore the removal of toxic wastes of metabolism from the body of living
organisms.

NEEDS FOR EXCRETION

Waste products produced in the body by excretion must not be allowed to remain in the
because of the following reasons:

i. Waste products when not removed can interfere with normal metabolic activities of
the body.
ii. Excretion helps to maintain salt and water balance i.e. homeostasis in the body.
iii. Some products are poisonous and must never be allowed to accumulate within the
body.
iv. The excretory products are harmful to the body and so must be removed.
v. All animals are heterotrophic and may eat some materials as food which is not needed
by their bodies. These substances and unwanted products of the chemical activities of
the body is excretion.
vi. Proteins are used for growth and repair but any excess cannot be stored. The initial
waste products of the biochemical processes involving protein is ammonia gas. This
compound is very poisonous and must be excreted quickly.

CONTRACTILE VACUOLES

Contractile vacuole is an organelle or a device found in Amoeba and other unicellular

organisms or protozoans. It is a simple device, a small sac lined with a membrane lying freely
in the cytoplasm. The cell membrane surrounding the amoeba is a semi permeable to water
and because the osmotic pressure inside the animal is greater than outside the animal, water
enters the cell by osmosis. To counter this, water is secreted into the contractile vacuole as
fast as it enters the body. As this happens, the contractile vacuole expands and bursts, thus
discharging its contents to the exterior through a small pore in the cell membrane after which
the whole process is repeated. The energy required by the contractile vacuole is produced by
the mitochondria found near the vacuole. The contents of the contractile vacuole are; water,
carbon (iv) oxide and nitrogenous wastes.
 Paramecium
The paramecium is a single-celled organism that propels itself by minute, hairlike projections
called cilia. Cilia also create currents that sweep food particles toward the paramecium’s
gullet for ingestion. The paramecium gets rid of excess water with the help of a contractile
vacuole, which pumps water out of the cell.

FLAME CELLS IN FLATWORM

These are two longitudinal excretory canals, which open onto the dorsal surface of the flat
worm by a number of minute pores. The main canals give off numerous branches, which
ramify among the parenchyma cells. The final branches end in flame cells. These are cells,
which have intracellular cavities and ducts, with numerous cytoplasmic branches penetrating
between the parenchyma cells. Projecting into the cavity of the cell is a bundle of long cilia
which arise from basal granules in the cytoplasm. These cilia are characterised by their
flickering movement which give use to the name ‘flame cells’.

MALPIGHIAN TUBULES IN INSECTS

Generally, insects are very successful group of animals because of their ability to conserve
water, wings to fly, metamorphosis, and small body structure. On the other hand, they have
an extremely efficient excretory system. The malpighian tubules are the excretory organs.
They are found between the midgut and the rectum. One end of each tubule opens into the
gut, while the other free end floats in the haemoloel of insects. They are long and extremely
slender and penetrate among the visera over. The greater part of the horux and abdomen. In
the cockroach for example, they are in six groups with about twelve tubules in each group.
 Generalized Anatomy of an Insect
All adult insects have three main body parts—the head, which holds an insect’s primary
sense organs; the thorax, which is the attachment site for the legs and wings; and the
abdomen, which contains the organs for digestion and reproduction. All of the insect’s soft
inner body parts are protected by an external skeleton, or exoskeleton, made of semirigid
plates and tubes.

EVALUATION

1. Write down the excretory products of insects, and paramecium.

2. Explain the excretory mechanism in Amoeba.

KIDNEYS IN VERTEBRATES

All vertebrates have a pair of kidneys, which form a part of the excretory system. In
mammals, the kidneys are bean-shaped, dark red in colour and surrounded by fat. The right
kidney is slightly lower in the body than the left. If a kidney is cut longitudinally into two, it
will be seen to consist of two main regions: an outer dark coloured cortex and an inner lighter
coloured medulla. When viewed under a microscope, a kidney consists of blood vessels,
kidney tubules or nephrons and connective tissues. Each nephron begins in the cortex as a
tiny cup-shaped structure known as Bowman’s capsule, which surrounds capillaries called the
glomerulus. The Bowman’s capsule leads into a coiled tube called the proximal tubule. This
goes down to form a U-shaped structure, the Henle’s loop. Finally, it coils again to form the
distal tubul, which twists and empties into a collecting duct. Renal artery, which branches
from the products and oxygenated blood to the kidney so that nitrogenous wastes products
(urea) can be removed.
 Kidney
Approximately one million nephrons (right) compose each bean-shaped kidney (left). The
filtration unit of the nephron, called the glomerulus, regulates the concentration within the
body of important substances such as potassium, calcium, and hydrogen, and removes
substances not produced by the body such as drugs and food additives. The filtrate, urine,
leaves the nephron through the long renal tubule. Chemical signals triggered by the body’s
need for water and salt cause the walls of the tubule to become more or less permeable to
these substances, which are reabsorbed accordingly from the urine.

The blood that leaves the kidney is deoxygenated and is carried away by renal vein to the
inferior (posterior) vena cava. The urine formed passes from each kidney into a ureter. The
left and right ureters lead to a muscular sac called the bladder in which urine is stored
temporarily. The bladder opens to a short tube, urethra, which leads to the exterior.

OTHER EXCRETORY ORGANS IN MAMMALS

1. The skin excretes water, salts and urea. Skin excretes wastes by means of sweat
glands, which consists of coiled tubes, opening exteriorly as pores. Sweat is
composed of 95% water and 3% dissolved salts (e.g. sodium chloride).
2. Lungs excrete carbon (iv) oxide and water. Carbon (iv) oxide can be harmful if it
accumulates too much as it forms carbonic acid is capable of upsetting the delicate
acid base balance of the body fluids.
3. Liver, in addition to manufacturing chemicals, the liver helps clear toxic substances,
such as drugs and alcohol, from the bloodstream. It does this by absorbing the harmful
substances, chemically altering them, and then excreting them in the bile
EVALUATION

1. Sketch an annotated diagram of the Kidney in mammals.

2. Write short note on the excretory mechanism of the mammals

Structure of the Skin

Humans and other vertebrates are covered with a multilayered tissue called skin. The skin
consists of an outer, protective layer (epidermis) and an inner, living layer (dermis). The top
layer of the epidermis is composed of dead cells containing keratin, the horny scleroprotein
that also makes up hair and nails.

STOMATA AND LENTICELS

In general, plants are much less active than animals and produce waste products at a much
slower rate. Hence, they have no need for specialised excretory organs. The main excretory
products, which are water, oxygen and carbon (iv) oxide, are got rid of by diffusion through
the stomata and lenticels.

EXCRETION IN STOMATA: Stomata are pores in the epidermis bounded by specialised

epidermal cells known as guard cells. In conjunction with the guard cells, other adjacent and
distinctive epidermal cells may exist in opening and closing of the pore. These are known as
accessory cells. Stomata are usually found at the aerial parts of the stems and leaves and
flower parts. Underground rhizomes and some aquatic plants may possess them. They may be
irregularly scattered or arranged in parallel rows. The guard cells are bean shaped and fit
together with the pore between them. The size of the pore ulters according to how turgid the
guard cells are. This in turns depends on the osmotic pressure within the guard cells. When
the pressure is low, the guard cells are flabby and the stoma is closed. When it is high, the
guard cells are turgid and the stoma opens.

EXCRETION IN LENTICELS
They are structurally differentiated parts of the periderm, which stand out because of the very
loose cell arrangement and lack of suberization. They vary greatly in size according to
species but can be seen as protrusions of loose substance through cracks in the periderm. In a
stem undergoing secondary thickening, the first lenticels usually arise beneath the stoma in
the epidermis. The cells below the stomata lose their chlorophyll and divide repeatedly to
form a losse mass. Gradually, the region of division penetrates deeper into the cortex, and the
place of the division of the cells becomes regularly parallel to the surface so that a lenticels
phellogen is formed. This proceeds to cut off more and more loose cells towards the exterior
and eventually the epidermis is ruptured.

Prominent plants excretory products are water, carbon (iv) oxide and oxygen. They are
excreted through the stomata and lenticels. Green plants like tomato and potato have glands
that secretes water, a process called guttation. This is seen at the apex and margin. Other
waste products produced by plants are tannins, poisonous nitrogenous alkaloids and
anthocyanins, which give colour to the petals of many flowers. In order not to interfere with
plants activities, these waste products are converted to harmless insoluble compounds and
stored within the plant body, e.g., some plant cells contain calcium oxide, glucose and
alkaloid compounds.

EVALUATION

1. Explain the mechanisms of waste removal through the stomata and lenticels.
2. What is guttation?

OBJECTIVE TEST
1. The excretory organs in flatworms are called (a) nephridia (b) malpighian tubule (c)
flame cells (d) kidney (e) lenticels.
2. Which of the following substances is contained in the renal artery? (a) Less water (b)
Less urea (c) more glucose (d) more carbon (iv) oxide (e) oxygen.
3. Which of the following groups of animals has the greatest ability to conserve water?
(a) insects (b) flatworms (c) earthworms (d) unicellular organisms (e) water lettuce.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. Discuss the functions of the liver as an excretory organ

2. Sketch a well labelled diagram of the nephron of an insect.

WEEKEND ACTIVITY

With your hand glove on your hands, dissect a grasshopper to see the trachea.

WEEK 9

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY

TOPIC: EXCRETORY SYSTEM II

CONTENT:
(b) Excretory mechanism in:

(i) Earthworm

(ii) insects

(iii) Mammals.

Nephridia is the excretory organ of earthworm. Each segment of the nephridia contains a
pair of tubes. Each nephridium is a long coiled tube derived by the growth of ectoderm, and
opens into the coelomic fluid of the segment anterior to the nephridiophore. The first part is
called the nepridiopore, and it has a minute flattered funnel with the upper lip large than the
lower lip. The upper lip is formed mainly of a large central cell which is thickly ciliated on
the inner surface of the funnel. The lower lip on the other hand consists of a thickened cluster
of small cells which are not ciliated. All the cilia beat into the lumen of the tube. The
nephrostome leads into an intrcellular ducts which bears two rows of lateral cilia. Beyond the
septum, the tube is narrower and ciliated. It goes into several loops and then becomes the
wider brown, ciliated tube which terminates at the nephridiophore. The opening of this pore
is regulated by a sphincter. The nephridia of the earthworm are generally supplied with many
fine capillaries which ramify among the coils.

EXCRETORY MECHANISM IN EARTHWORM

Generalized Anatomy of an Earthworm

The earthworm shows the well-developed segmentation that is characteristic of all animals in
the phylum Annelida. Although the major nervous, circulatory, and digestive organs are
located near the head, more posterior segments contain peripheral structures for all of these
systems. These posterior segments are virtually identical to each other. Earthworms are
hermaphroditic, possessing both male and female internal reproductive organs.
EXCRETORY SYSTEM IN INSECTS

Tissues in insects produce nitrogenous waste in the form of soluble potassium urate, which is
librated into the blood and taken up by the cells lining the malpighian tubules. The tubules
are muscular and their writhing movements facilitate the absorption of urate by stirring up the
blood. In the cells of the tubule, the potassium urate reacts with water and carbon (iv) oxide
(from respiration) to form potassium trioxocarbonate (iv) and uric acid. The former is
reabsorbed into the blood to such an extent that the proximal end of the malpighian tubule
becomes filled with solid crystals of uric acid. Water is further reabsorbed by the folded walls
of the rectal glands so that by the time urine leaves the body, it is very much more
concentrated than the blood.

The remarkable ability of insects to conserve water has contributed towards their success as a
group. This is largely due to the action of their malpighian tubules and rectal glands. Insects
conserve water more effectively than any other group of animals because they do not drink
water. They pass out semisolid waste (uric acid), which contains very little quantity of water.

EXCRETORY MECHANISM IN MAMMALS

We shall focus our attention on the formation of urine. The kidneys of mammals accomplish
this task by purifying the blood. Some toxic substances such as nitrogenous salt, sodium salt,
potassium salt, calcium salt, and urea are removed from the body through this means.

In urine formation, three processes take place:

i. Ultra filtration
ii. Selective re-absorption, and
iii. Tubular secretion.

Now, as the blood circulates round the glomerulus, ultra filtration occurs. Small molecules
such as water, urea, mineral salts, sugar, and plasma solutes pass through the one-cell thick
walls of the capillaries and the Bowman’s capsule into the capsular space. Bigger molecules
like plasma, protein and the blood cells cannot pass through the barrier which thus acts as a
filter. A high pressure in the glomerulus is essential for the filtration process. This is brought
about in the following ways:

i. The blood entering the kidney is already at high pressure because the renal artery
branches off from the dorsal aorta at only a short distance from the heart.
ii. The blood vessel leaving each glomerulus is narrower than the one entering it,
thereby increasing the pressure of the blood in the glomerulus further.

The fluid that filters into the Bowman’s capsule is known as glomerula filtrate. It flows down
the tubule, and as it passes down the proximal part of the tubule and the Henle’s loop,
selective reabsorption take place. In this process, water and useful substances like sugar,
amino acid and salts are reabsorbed into the surrounding blood capillaries. The filtrate then
moves into the distal part of the tubule. Here, large waste molecules like creatinine are
secreted into the tubules. If necessary, ions (hydrogen, potassium and hydrogen carbonate)
are secreted into the tubules to keep the osmotic concentration of the blood constant. The
fluid that eventually remains in the tubules is concentrated and is known as urine.
An average of 1.5litres of urine is produced daily. The amount of urea excreted will depend
on the protein content of the daily diet. The filtered blood leaving the kidney by the renal vein
contains:

i. Less oxygen and glucose, and more carbon (iv) oxide, as a result of cellular
respiration and
ii. Less nitrogenous wastes, salt and water as a result of excretion.

The urine formed trickles down the ureter and collects in the bladder. When the bladder is
full, it contracts discharging the urine out of the body through the urethra.

The mechanism used in urine formation includes the following:

1. Active transports
2. Varying permeability of tubules and
3. Passive diffusion and osmosis.

EVALUATION

1. Write a short note on the excretory mechanism of insects.

2. The excretory organ of the earthworm is ---------------------
3. Mention the three processes involved in the formation of urine in woman.
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. In which of the following groups of organisms does excretion take place only by simple
diffusion through the body surface. (a) Worms, toad and amoeba? (b) Paramecium,
grasshopper and snake(c) Grasshopper, toad and euglena (d) Toad, insect and Euglena (e)
paramecium, amoeba, and euglena.
2. In selective re-absorption, one of these is reabsorbed back into the body (a) plasma (b) urea
(c) mineral salts (d) nitrogenous salt (e) hydrogen carbonate.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. Explain the formation of urine in human.

2. List the mechanism used in urine formation.
3. Mention other excretory organ in human.
4. Draw and label the mammalian kidney.

WEEK 10

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY

TOPIC: NUTRIENT CYCLING IN NATURE

CONTENT:

1. Carbon cycle

2. The oxygen cycle

An ecosystem uses energy and inorganic nutrients to function. Energy is supplied from the
sun (an external source) but inorganic nutrients are supplied and re-cycled within the
ecosystem. The materials/nutrients that make up living things are used over and over again
cycling between the living and non-living environments of the ecosystem.

The major nutrients required to sustain life include carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen and
water. These are re-cycled through the biological, chemical and geological processes that take
place in the environment thus, the nutrient cycles can also be referred to as biogeochemical
cycles.

SUB TOPIC 1: THE CARBON CYCLE

This is defined as the processes which bring about the circulation of carbon found in the

organic molecules of living things.

PROCESS OF CARBON CYCLING:

Carbon is derived from carbon dioxide in air, dead remains of organisms and in fossil fuels
like crude oil and coal.
 Through the process of photosynthesis, green plants extract carbon from the atmosphere and
incorporate it into their body tissues. The plants in turn are fed on by animals and the carbon
compounds get incorporated into the tissues of the animals. When the animal excretes part of
the carbon compounds are released into the environment as faeces and urine.

As plants and animals respire, carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere. The organic
materials in dead plants and animals, faeces, urine, fallen leaves, etc. are decomposed by
saprophytic bacteria and fungi. The process of decomposition breaks down complex carbon
compounds and releases carbon dioxide which is returned to the atmosphere.

The combustion of fuel like wood, coal and crude oil results in the oxidation of carbon to
carbon dioxide which is then released into the atmosphere.

The weathering of rocks results in the release of carbon dioxide which dissolves in water to
form carbonic acid (H2CO3). This reacts with limestone to form carbonates and bicarbonates
and stored in the sea. The sea helps to control the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
by traping more carbon dioxide when the concentration in air increases. The carbon dioxide
is released through the process of diffusion to the atmosphere when the concentration drops.

The actions of volcanoes also release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

The Carbon Cycle.

IMPORTANCE OF CARBON CYCLE IN NATURE

i. Plants use carbon dioxide to manufacture food during the process of photosynthesis.
ii. It provides carbon which is major building block of organic matter.
iii. The carbon compounds in food are the vehicles through which trapped solar energy passes
from one organism to another in food chains.
iv. The carbon cycle helps to purify the atmosphere and maintain the atmospheric level of
carbon dioxide.
v. Carbon in carbonates such as calcium carbonate is used by marine animals to build their
shells. It is also found in limestone, chalk, marble and coral.

NOTE: Diagrams of various cycles are represented in page 127 of your Modern Biology
text book for details.

EVALUATION

1. Describe briefly the process of carbon cycling in nature.

2. Of what importance is the carbon cycle to living things?
3. Make a simple diagram of the carbon cycle.

SUB-TOPIC 2: THE OXYGEN CYCLE

Oxygen constitutes about 21% of gases in the atmosphere. This amount is maintained at a
fairly constant level by the oxygen cycle.

Through the process of photosynthesis, oxygen is released into the atmosphere. Respiration,
decay and combustion are processes which remove oxygen from the atmosphere.

IMPORTANCE OF OXYGEN TO LIVING ORGANISMS

i. It is used for respiration by plants and animals.
ii. It aids combustion.
iii. It aids decomposition.
iv. It is used in hospitals to aid patients who have impaired breathing.
v. It is used in airplanes that fly at high altitude

THE CARBON-OXYGEN BALANCE

There is an approximate balance in the amount of carbon and oxygen in the ecosystem.
Human activities such as deforestation and burning of fuels affect the carbon-oxygen cycles.
These activities combined with decomposition and respiration, lead to an increase in the
amount of carbon dioxide in air and a decrease in the amount of oxygen.
A decrease in the atmospheric oxygen level by 2-8% does not cause any problem but a slight
increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide may cause a green house effect. This results in
retention of the sun’s radiant (heat) energy which could lead to the melting of the polar ice-
caps with a related rise in sea level and flooding. This could also affect important food
growing areas of the world.

Human activities have also led to pollution of water bodies resulting in an increase in the
activity of decomposers. This has resulted in a significant drop in oxygen level thus
threatening the survival of aquatic organisms.

To avert these disastrous consequences, human activities should be geared towards

maintaining a balance in the carbon-oxygen level of the atmosphere.
EVALUATION
1. Describe the oxygen cycle.
2. List three importance of oxygen to living things.
3. What effect will a rise in the amount of carbon-dioxide in the atmosphere have on living
things?

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Draw an Oxygen cycle

WEEK 11: REVISION

WEEK 12: EXAMINATION