13 Digestive System

Feeding Habits of Organisms
 herbivores
 carnivores
 omnivores
 scavengers
 insectivores
 microphagous
 macrophagous
The Digestive System
Digestive System
 breaks down complex molecules
of food into simpler molecules
that can be absorbed by the body
Functions
 to take in food …Ingestion
 to break down food into smaller
molecules …Digestion
a. Mechanical digestion
b. Chemical digestion
 Absorption of molecules …Absorption
 Water retention
 Elimination of undigested …Egestion
materials
Main processes:
Digestive Tract
 A tube which is coiled in most vertebrates
w/c commences at the mouth and empties
either into a cloaca or directly to the
exterior via an anus
 In all vertebrates, the digestive tract has
two openings, the anterior mouth and
posterior anus.
Digestive Tract
 Essential parts:
1. mouth cavity
 teeth
 tongue
 salivary glands
2. pharynx
3. esophagus
4. stomach
Digestive Tract
5. small intestine
• principal region for digestion &
absorption
6. large intestine
• water and salt absorption
• some cellulose is digested by bacteria
• undigested materials are formed into
solid masses (feces) for expulsion
Digestive Tract
7. cloaca (absent in mammals)
• common passageway for excretory
wastes and sex cells
8. anus or vent
 All vertebrates have these accessory glands:

9. liver
10. pancreas
Digestive Tract
 Food is pushed
forward via
unidirectional
contractions of the
smooth muscle in
the walls of the
tract.
…Peristalsis
Digestive Tract
Peristalsis
If peristalsis is unidirectional, then
why does vomiting occur?
Digestive Tract
 Vomition most of the time is a mechanism of
the body to get rid of something w/c should
not be in the stomach.
 NauseaRetchingVomition
 Intense muscles of the abdominal walls

pushes food back to the esophagus and to
the oral cavity
…Retroperistalsis
Digestive Tract
 humans, cats, lizards, snakes and many
other vertebrates experience vomiting
Digestive Tract
 Ruminants undergo rumination or the

process of returning undigested food back to
the mouth for chewing again.
 Birds employ regurgitation to feed their
young
Digestive Tract
 Anatomical differences of digestive systems across
different vertebrates are correlated with:
1. nature of food
2. abundance of food
3. shape of the vertebrate’s body
Mouth and Oral Cavity
 Mouth
 Lips
Mouth
 anterior opening of the digestive tract
Oral cavity
 cavity inside the mouth
 Oral Cavity
Palate
 roof of the oral cavity
 In Amphibians, it is
pierced by the internal
nares.
Palate
 consists of an anterior
hard palate & in
mammals a posterior
fleshy soft palate
which in humans
terminate in uvula
 separates nasal cavity
from oral cavity
 Obstructive Sleep apnea
Vestibule
 part of the oral cavity
lying between the
teeth and lips
Tongue
 for capturing or gathering food
 for swallowing (in tetrapods)

Tongue
 for tasting food and “tasting” the
environment
 All vertebrates except hagfishes
have taste buds.
• birds have generally few taste buds
(chickens=30)
• humans= about 10,000
• dogs= about 1,700
• cats= about 500
Tongue
• herbivores have more taste buds
than humans
• cows= about 25,000
• pigs= about 14, 000
Catfish= more than 100k

Tongue
 Not all animals have the same taste spectrum.
• Cats, lions, tigers, and other carnivores
including sea lions and dolphins
generally can’t taste sweets.
• Omnivores like dogs and humans can taste
sweetness (because sweet=carbohydrates)
• Cats and other carnivores can taste ATP

(which is present in meat).
Tongue
 Another function of tongue is to
give cooling effect in overheated
animals.
 Evaporation of saliva
when panting causes
the cooling effect
Tongue
 Different vertebrates have different
tongue morphologies, shapes and
lengths.
 Insectivorous tetrapods have long
sticky tongues that move in and out
at a great speed.
 Great anteater has a very long
tongue (4 ft).
 Woodpeckers have a tongue that shoots like
an arrow into dark crevices in tree trunks.
Tongue
 The tongues of most other
mammals are protrusible
although tied to the floor of
the oral cavity by a
ligament, the frenulum
linguae.
Tongue
 snakes and other reptiles have forked
tongues.
 Garter snake
and few others
have no tongue.
Oral Glands
 All tetrapods have multicellular oral glands
which secrete watery or viscous fluids
(mucus+amylase+toxins+other substances)
…Saliva
Oral Glands
 Mammals: small mucous glands and large
salivary glands.
1. parotid gland- near the ear region
2. submandibular gland- posterior part of
lower jaw
3. sublingual gland
Teeth
 used by animals to
cut, grind, or crush
food, to hold captured
prey or as a defense
mechanism
Pharynx
 serves as passageway
of food between the
mouth and esophagus
Pharynx
 Important features of tetrapod pharynx:
1. glottis- slit to larynx and is covered by the
epiglottis
2. Eustachian tube- connects nasopharynx to

middle ear
3. opening to the esophagus

Esophagus
 a distensible,
muscular tube
connecting the
pharynx to the
stomach
Esophagus
 The esophagus of some birds
has a crop which is a paired
or unpaired diverticulum
used for initial storage of
food.
Stomach
 a muscular chamber or series of chambers
at the end of the esophagus
 it serves as a temporary storage and
macerating site for ingested solids
 secretes digestive enzymes that partially

liquefy food
Stomach
 cardiac end- the end of the stomach connected to the
esophagus
 fundus- anterior portion which is
domed against the diaphragm
 body- main portion of
the stomach
Stomach
 rugae- folds in the stomach
 pyloric end- the end of the stomach

connected to the intestine and contains
the pyloric sphincter which controls the
flow of chyme (partially digested material)
Stomach
 3 types of cells
1. Parietal cells
- secrete solution containing HCl
2. Chief cells
- secrete pepsinogen
3. Mucous cells
- secrete mucus
Stomach
 Mammalian stomach is sometimes divided
into chambers especially in ruminants such
as cattle.
 In ruminants, stomach consists of 4
chambers:
1. rumen
2. reticulum
3. omasum
4. abomasum
Stomach
 Rumen- food coming from esophagus enters here
- food undergoes bacterial breakdown
 Food passes by degrees into the reticulum and forms
cud or bolus (food+fluids). This cud is regurgitated
into the mouth. After thorough chewing, food is
swallowed again.
 Salivary enzymatic action continues at the omasum.
 In the abomasum, food is worked out by gastric glands.

Intestine
 Begins as the pyloric sphincter and ends at
the cephalic end of cloaca or at an anus (if
there is no cloaca)
 acid chyme from the stomach is mixed w/
alkaline bile (from liver), pancreatic juice,
and digestive secretions of small glands in
the walls of the intestine
• this converts food into a form that can be
absorbed through the wall of the intestine
Intestine
 usually consists of 2 main parts:
1. small intestine
2. large intestine
Intestine
 Modifications in the intestine serve to increase surface
area of the intestinal epithelium for secretion of digestive
fluids and absorption of digested food.
1. intestine may be coiled and elongated
2. saclike diverticula called ceca may be present
3. lining has folds
4. tiny projections called villi may be present
5. spiral valve
Intestine
 Feeding habits of vertebrate determines the
length of the intestine.
• Carnivores have shorter intestines.
• Herbivores have longer intestines.
Intestine
Mammalia
 small intestines
has 3 regions:
1. duodenum
2. jejunum
3. ileum
 ileocecal valve regulates
passage bet. small and
large intestine
Intestine
Mammalia
 lining of the small intestine contains
intestinal glands
 the numerous
villi give it a
velvety
appearance
• blood vessels+ lacteals
(lymphatic vessels)
Intestine
Mammalia
 lymph nodules called Peyer’s patches are
found in the region of the ileum
• the macrophages and other immune
cells are found here
Intestine
Mammalia
 at the junction
between the ileum
and colon is the
cecum
 cecum provides
additional space
and serves as
reservoir for
bacteria
Intestine
Mammalia
 Large intestine in
fishes &
amphibians is
straight & short
 In amniotes, it is
divided into colon
& rectum
Liver
 Produces bile which emulsifies lipids for
easier absorption (bile is stored in
gallbladder)
 Stores glucose in the form of glycogen
 for detoxification
 unlobed and very small in Agnathans

while lobulated in other vertebrate
classes
Gallbladder
Pancreas
 a diverticulum of the gut
 2 main functions:
1. exocrine function that helps in
digestion (carried out by the
acini/acinus)
2. endocrine function that helps regulate

blood sugar (carried out by Islets of
Langerhans)

13 Digestive System

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Feeding Habits of Organisms

 All vertebrates have these accessory glands:

 Intense muscles of the abdominal walls

 Ruminants undergo rumination or the

 for swallowing (in tetrapods)

Catfish= more than 100k

• Cats and other carnivores can taste ATP

2. Eustachian tube- connects nasopharynx to

3. opening to the esophagus

 secretes digestive enzymes that partially

 rugae- folds in the stomach

 pyloric end- the end of the stomach

 In the abomasum, food is worked out by gastric glands.

 unlobed and very small in Agnathans

2. endocrine function that helps regulate

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